Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

... Railways will prevent cows from grazing, chickens will stop laying eggs, smoke-poisoned air will kill birds flying by... houses near the road will burn... in the event of an explosion, the locomotive will be torn pieces all passengers... [8]


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In Germany, these concerns were supported by the Bavarian Chief Medical Commission, which warned of the danger of passengers developing brain disease due to rapid movement.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Simultaneously with the training of engineering personnel, F. Gerstner built the Tsarskoye Selo Railway in 1837, connecting the capital with Tsarskoye Selo.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

This test site made it possible to fulfill the following task: the construction of the Warsaw-Vienna railway by 1848, then the St. Petersburg-Moscow double-track railway by 1851, and then by 1862 St. Petersburg-Warsaw roads.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In 1851, Nicholas I divided the technical personnel serving the railway tracks into companies, and from August 6, railway troops appeared.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

According to the decree of the emperor, 14 separate military workers, two conductor and telegraphic companies totaling 4,340 people were formed, which marked the beginning of the formation of the first military - railway units.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

They were instructed to maintain the railway track in good condition, ensure the uninterrupted operation of protection stations for bridges and railway crossings.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

From a year to the present day, the day of railway troops has been celebrated [9].


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The most important contribution of the emperor engineer was to establish a standard for the width of the rail track approximately to the top wider than the standard adopted in the West: 1524 against 1435 mm.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

This was done so that “the enemy did not enter Russia on a steam locomotive”.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Nicholas's proposal played an extremely important role during World War II on the Eastern Front, when the Wehrmacht constantly lacked broad-gauge locomotives.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

For example, for this reason, during the decisive battle for Moscow in November 1941, the daily delivery for the troops of the Center group was 23 echelons instead of the required 70


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Railway boom


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the second half of the 1880s of the XIX century, the world's railway network achieved the highest level of growth in history.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In ten years, from 1880 to 1890, the railway network grew by 245,000 km.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

, reaching 617.3 thousand km.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Rail investment in the global network over this five-year period amounted to about £2 billion, reaching a total of £7 billion.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In terms of pace and absolute growth of railways, the United States was ahead, where the gigantic scale of railway construction stimulated intensive growth in industrial production of capital goods [11].


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Railways in the 20th century


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Development of progressive types of traction


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Electric traction


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The emergence of electric traction


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

May 31, 1879 is considered to be the birthday of electric traction, when the first 300 m electric railway built by Werner Siemens was demonstrated at the industrial exhibition in Berlin.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The electric locomotive, resembling a modern electric car, was driven by an electric motor with a capacity of 9.6 kW (13 hp).


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

An electric current of 160 V was transmitted to the engine via a separate contact rail, the return wire was the rails along which the train moved - three miniature trailers at a speed of 7 km/h, the benches could accommodate 18 passengers.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the same 1879, an internal electric railway line with a length of about 2 km was launched at the Duchenne-Fourier textile factory in St. Braille is in France.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In 1880, in Russia, F. A. Pirotsky managed to electric shock a large heavy car that could accommodate 40 passengers.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

On May 16, 1881, passenger traffic was opened on the first city electric railway Berlin-Lichterfeld.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The rails of this road were laid on the overpass in transverse fastening and laid out in double the size of the nominal norm.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Initial phase


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

A little later, the Elberfeld-Bremen electric railway connected a number of industrial points in Germany.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Initially, electric traction was used in urban tram lines and industrial enterprises, especially in mines and coal mines.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

But very soon it turned out that it was beneficial on pass and tunnel sections of railways, as well as in suburban traffic.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In 1895, the Baltimore Tunnel and tunnel approaches to New York were electrified in the United States.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Electric locomotives with a capacity of 185 kW (50 km/h) have been built for these lines.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The interwar period


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

After the First World War, many countries embarked on the path of electrification of railways.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Electric traction began to be introduced on main lines with high traffic density.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In Germany, the Hamburg-Alton, Leipzig-Halle-Magdeburg lines, the mountain road in Silesia, and alpine roads in Austria are electrifying.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Italy electrified the northern roads.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

France and Switzerland have begun electrification.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Africa has an electrified railway to the Congo.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Russia had railway electrification projects even before the First World War.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The electrification of the line has already begun.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

St. Petersburg is Oranienbaum, but the war prevented it from being completed.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

It was only in 1926 that the movement of electric trains between Baku and the Sabunchu oil field was opened.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

On August 16, 1932, the first Khashuri-Zestafoni main electrified section, passing through the Suram Pass in the Caucasus, was put into operation.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the same year, the first domestic electric locomotive of the SS series was built in the USSR.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

By 1935, 1907 km of tracks had been electrified in the USSR and 84 electric locomotives were in operation.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Modernity


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Currently, the total length of electric railways around the world has reached 200,000 km, which is approximately 20% of their total length.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

These are, as a rule, the most cargo-intensive lines, mountain sections with steep ascents and numerous curved sections of the road, suburban junctions of large cities with heavy traffic of electric trains.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Technical development


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The technology of electric railways has changed radically during their existence, only the principle of operation has been preserved.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The locomotive axles are driven by electric traction motors that use the energy of power plants.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

This energy is supplied from power plants to the railway via high-voltage power lines, and to electric rolling stock through a contact network.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The return circuit is the rails and the ground.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Three different electric traction systems are used — direct current, low-frequency alternating current and alternating current of standard power frequency 50 Hz.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the first half of this century, before the Second World War, the first two systems were used, the third was recognized in the 50-60s, when the intensive development of converter equipment and drive control systems.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the DC system, a current of 3000 V is supplied to the current collectors of electric rolling stock (in some countries 1500 V and below).


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Such current is provided by traction substations, where the high-voltage alternating current of general industrial power systems is reduced to the required value and rectified by powerful semiconductor rectifiers , electromechanical or mercury rectifiers were previously used.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The advantage of the DC system at that time was the possibility of using DC collector motors with excellent traction and performance properties.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

And among its drawbacks is the relatively low voltage value in the contact network, limited by the permissible voltage value of the motors.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

For this reason, significant currents are transmitted through the contact wires, causing energy losses and making it difficult to collect current in the contact between the wire and the current collector.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The intensification of rail transportation, the increase in the weight of trains have led to difficulties in supplying electric locomotives in some sections of direct current due to the need to increase the transverse cross-section of the wires of the contact network (suspension of the second reinforcing contact wire) and ensuring the efficiency of current collection.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Nevertheless, the DC system has become widespread in many countries, and more than half of all power lines operate on this system.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The task of the traction power supply system is to ensure the efficient operation of electric rolling stock with minimal energy losses and at the lowest possible cost for the construction and maintenance of traction substations, overhead networks, power lines, etc.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The desire to raise the voltage in the contact network and exclude the process of rectifying the current from the electrical supply system explains the use and development in a number of European countries (Germany, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, Austria) of an alternating current system with a voltage of 15,000 V, having a reduced frequency of 16.6 Hz.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In this system, electric locomotives use single-phase collector motors that have worse performance than DC motors.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

These motors cannot operate at the general industrial frequency of 50 Hz, so you have to use a lower frequency.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

To generate an electric current of this frequency, it was necessary to build special “railway” power plants that are not connected to general industrial power systems.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The power transmission lines in this system are single-phase, and only the voltage is reduced by transformers at substations.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Unlike DC substations, in this case, AC-DC converters are not needed, which were used as unreliable in operation, bulky and uneconomical mercury rectifiers.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

But the simplicity of the design of DC electric locomotives was crucial, which determined its wider use.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

This led to the spread of the DC system on the railways of the USSR in the first years of electrification.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

To work on such lines, the industry supplied six-axle electric locomotives of the Cs series (for railways with a mountain profile) and VL19 (for flat roads).


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In suburban traffic, motor-car trains of the Se series were used, consisting of one motor and two trailer cars.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the first post-war years, intensive electrification of railways was resumed in many countries.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the USSR, the production of DC electric locomotives of the VL22 series resumed.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

For suburban traffic, new motor-car trains Cp were developed, capable of operating at voltages of 1500 and 3000 V.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the 1950s, a more powerful eight-axle DC electric locomotive VL8 was created, and then VL10 and VL11.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

At the same time, work began in the USSR and France on the creation of a new more economical AC electric traction system with an industrial frequency of 50 Hz with a voltage in the traction network of 25,000 V. In this system, traction substations, as well as in a DC system, are powered by general industrial high-voltage three-phase networks.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

But they don't have rectifiers on them.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The three-phase AC voltage of power transmission lines is converted by transformers into a single-phase voltage of the contact network of 25,000 V, and the current is rectified directly on the electric rolling stock.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Lightweight, compact and safe for personnel semiconductor rectifiers, which replaced mercury rectifiers, provided the priority of this system.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

All over the world, the electrification of railways is developing using an alternating current system of industrial


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

For new lines electrified on alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz, a voltage of 25 kV, six-axle electric locomotives VL60 with mercury rectifiers and collector motors were created, and then eight-axle with semiconductor rectifiers VL80 and VL80s.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

VL60 electric locomotives were also converted to semiconductor converters and received the designation of the VL60k series.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Experiments with other types of traction


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

One of the results of the evolution of the railway is a train that hangs under the influence of magnetic force.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The tests of this system are promising.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

On the other hand, experiments were aimed at creating a gravity train driven by gravity, like amusement park trains that, when launched once, move forward by its own inertia.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the USSR, attempts were made to develop a locomotive with a nuclear power plant.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Its positive aspects (unlimited autonomy, high thrust-to-weight ratio) were covered by serious shortcomings (environmental hazard, the need to reconstruct the railway infrastructure) , and development in this area has been discontinued.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The railways are currently


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

International cooperation


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The first experience of international cooperation in the field of railways dates back to 1893, when the Central Office was established under the Bern Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Rail international rail links.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Almost one hundred years later, also in Bern, the Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF) was signed on 9 May 1980, under which there is an Intergovernmental Organization for international rail transport (OTIF).


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The organization is headquartered in Bern, Switzerland.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

High speed traffic


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

ER-200 and ES-250 “Sokol” in the depot sludge park.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Prospects for railway development


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Transport of the Far East International Exhibition, Khabarovsk, October 2008.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The program of the Government of the Russian Federation for the development of railway transport in Siberia and the Far East.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

The use of railways for military purposes


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In wartime, railways became of paramount importance primarily as transport arteries and, secondly, as another place for fighting the enemy.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In wartime conditions, sanitary and bath and laundry trains, mobile degassing and decontamination points, and chemical protection trains are widely used on railways.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Along the front line, easy-to-build narrow-gauge field railways or normal gauge rocky roads were built to ensure the transportation of troops and to supply troops.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Since the First World War, armored trains invented during the Boer War have been used as a combat vehicle.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

During World War II, German troops began to use the Hook track destroyer during their retreat to completely destroy the rail-sleeper grid.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Soviet troops had a similar design in service.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

In the 70s of the XX century, a combat railway missile system was developed that was armed with intercontinental ballistic missiles with separable nuclear warheads RT-23UTTH Molodets (according to NATO classification — SS-24 “Ssalrel”).


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Thanks to the efforts of the US government and the START-1 and START-2 treaties, the above complexes have become history, but according to the “military program” (February 2011), the military department is conducting development of a new type of weapon with a range of up to 300 km, which is placed in a container with a readiness of 5 minutes.


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

See also


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Notes


Question: Was VL19 used during World War II?

The history of railway transport

Category:Rail transport


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

This article is about the disease.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The causative agent of the disease is the article human immunodeficiency virus.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV infection is a slowly progressing disease [1] caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [2] [3].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The virus infects cells of the immune system that have CD4 receptors on their surface: T-helpers, monocytes, macrophages, Langerhans cells [4], dendritic cells, microglia cells [5].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

As a result, the immune system is depressed, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) develops, the patient's body loses the ability to protect itself from infections and tumors, and secondary opportunistic diseases that are not typical for people with normal immune status [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Without medical intervention, opportunistic diseases cause death on average 9-11 years after infection (depending on the virus subtype) [8].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The average life expectancy at the AIDS stage is about nine months [12] [13].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

When performing antiretroviral therapy, the patient's life expectancy is 70—80 years [14] [15] [16].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The rate of development of HIV infection depends on many factors, including the status of the immune system [17] [18], age (elderly people have an increased risk of rapid development of the disease compared to more young people), virus strain, co-infections with other viruses, good nutrition, therapy [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

An insufficient level of medical care and the presence of concomitant infectious diseases, for example, tuberculosis, cause a predisposition to the fleeting development of the disease [13] [20] [21].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Etiology and pathogenesis


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Human immunodeficiency virus


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV infection is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus, which belongs to the family of retroviruses [22], the genus of lentiviruses.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The HIV genome is represented by ribonucleic acid and undergoes reverse transcription in the infected cell.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV affects human blood cells that have CD4 receptors on their surface: T-lymphocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells [23] [24] [25].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Virus-infected T-lymphocytes die due to virus destruction, apoptosis, or destruction by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

After the number of CD4+ T-lymphocytes falls below 200 in one microliter of blood, the cellular immunity system ceases to protect the body [26].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The virus envelope consists of a two-layer lipid membrane into which a number of proteins are embedded, for example, transmembrane glycoprotein gp41 and surface glycoprotein gp120 [27] :293-294, 296.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Inside the “core” of the virus, consisting of the matrix protein p17 and the capsid protein p24, there are two single-stranded molecules of genomic RNA and a number of enzymes: reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Genetic factors of HIV immunity


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Heredity plays an important role in the development of HIV infection, people homozygous on the CCR5-Δ32 allele have genetically determined resistance to some HIV serotypes [28] A mutation in the CCR2 gene leads to AIDS development delay [29] [30].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV is characterized by significant genetic diversity, and strains with different rates of development of the disease are described.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

[31] [32] [33]


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Individuals with mutations in the CCR5 coreceptors of M-tropic strains of the virus are not susceptible to M-tropic HIV-1 strains, but become infected with T-tropic strains [34] [35].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HLA-BW4 homozygosity is a protective factor against disease progression.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In heterozygotes at HLA class I loci, immunodeficiency develops more slowly than homozygotes [36].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Studies have shown that carriers of HLA-B14, B27, B51, B57 and C8 progress more slowly, while carriers of HLA-A23, B37 and B49 develop immunodeficiency rapidly [37] [38].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

All HIV-infected people with HLA-B35 developed AIDS no earlier than 8 years after infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Sex partners who are incompatible with HLA class I have a lower risk of contracting HIV through heterosexual contact [39].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Changes in the immune system


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the acute phase of HIV infection, in the viremia stage, there is a sharp decrease in CD4+ T-lymphocytes due to the direct lysing effect of the virus and an increase in the number of copies of viral RNA in the blood.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

After that, the process stabilizes with a slight increase in the number of CD4 cells, which, however, does not reach normal values [40].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The positive dynamics is due to an increase in the number of cytotoxic CD8+ T-lymphocytes.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

These lymphocytes are able to destroy HIV-infected cells directly by cytolysis without restriction on the human leukocyte antigen class I (English: Human leukocyte Antigen-HLA) [41] [42].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In addition, they secrete suppressive factors (chemokines), such as RANTES, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta [43], MDC, which prevent the virus from multiplying by blocking coreceptors [44] [45] [46] [47].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV-specific CD8+ lymphocytes play a major role in controlling the acute phase of HIV infection [23], but in the chronic course of infection it does not correlate with viremia [48], as proliferation and activation CD8+ lymphocytes depend on antigen-specific CD4 T-helpers, while HIV also infects CD8+ lymphocytes, which can lead to a decrease in their number [49].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is the terminal stage of HIV infection and develops in most patients with a drop in the number of CD4+ T-lymphocytes, blood below 200 cells/ml (CD4+ T-lymphocyte norm 1200 cells/ml) [50].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

CD4+ cell depression is explained by the following theories [51]:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

CD4+ T-lymphocyte death as a result of direct cytopathic action of HIV [52]


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV primarily affects activated CD4 lymphocytes, and since HIV-specific lymphocytes are among the first cells activated during HIV infection, they are among the first to suffer [53].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The virus changes the CD4+ cell membrane of T-lymphocytes, which leads them to merge with each other to form giant syncytia, which is regulated by LFA-1 [54] [55]


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Antibody damage to CD4 cells as a result of antibody-dependent cytotoxic action (English: ADCC-Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity) [56] [57].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Activation of natural killer cells [58] [59].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Autoimmune damage [60] [61]


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Binding of the gp120 virus protein to the CD4 receptor (masking the CD4 receptor) and, as a result, the impossibility of identifying the antigen, the inability of CD4 to interact with HLA class II [62].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Programmed cell death [63] [64].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Absence of an immune response (anergy) [65].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

B-lymphocytes in HIV infection undergo polyclonal activation and release a large number of immunoglobulins, TNFα, interleukin-6 [66] and lectin DC-SIGN, which contributes to the penetration of HIV into T- lymphocytes [67].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In addition, there is a significant decrease in interleukin-2 produced by type 1 CD4 helpers and is critical in the activation of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CD8+, CTL) [68] [69] and suppression by macrophage secretion virus of interleukin-12, a key cytokine in the formation and activation of type 1 T-helpers and NK lymphocytes (English: Natural killer cells) [70].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

One of the main factors in the pathogenesis of HIV is the hyperactivation of the immune system in response to infection [71] [72].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

One of the features of pathogenesis is the death of CD4+ T helpers, the concentration of which is slowly but steadily decreasing.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Particularly significant negative consequences are the death of HIV-infected CD4+ T-lymphocytes of central memory and dendritic cells.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The main cause of T cell death in HIV infection is programmed cell death (apoptosis).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Even at the AIDS stage, the CD4+ infection rate of peripheral blood cells is 1:1000, which means that the virus itself is not able to kill the number of cells that die in HIV -infections.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It is also impossible to explain such a massive death of T cells and the cytotoxic effect of other cells.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

At the same time, the main place where HIV replication occurs at all stages of HIV infection is secondary lymphoid tissue [73].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The most intensive replication of HIV occurs in lymphoid tissue associated with the intestine (en:gut-associated lymphoid tissue).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Infected memory T cells in this tissue are found 10-100, and sometimes almost 1000 times more often than in peripheral blood.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

This is primarily due to the high content of CD4+CCR5+ T cells in this tissue, which are good targets for HIV infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

For comparison, in the peripheral blood of such cells only 11.7%, tissue of lymph nodes 7.9%, while in lymphoid tissue associated with the intestine it is 69.4% [74].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Severe depletion of CD4+ cells due to HIV replication in intestinal lymphoid tissue occurs several weeks after infection and persists at all stages of HIV infection [75].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV infection disrupts the permeability of the mucosa to substances of microbial origin, such as lipopolysaccharides of gram-negative bacteria.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

These substances, when entering the bloodstream, cause chronic nonspecific hyperactivation of innate and adaptive immunity [76].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Thus, HIV infection is mainly a disease of the intestinal mucosa, and the gastrointestinal tract is the main place for HIV replication [77].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A fundamentally important role in reducing the number of naive lymphocytes is the change in the structure of the lymphoid tissue of the lymph nodes caused by chronic immune activation.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

After emigration from the thymus, naive T-lymphocytes form a stock of long-lived cells that circulate between tissues and secondary lymphoid organs.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Some of them die due to apoptosis, and some divide from time to time, replenishing the supply of dead cells.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

At all periods of life, the number of cells that appear as a result of division exceeds exports from the thymus [78].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

To prevent apoptosis of these cells at each stage of their development, they need specific survival signals.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Such a signal is realized when, during contact of the T-cell receptor (TCR) with the complex, its own antigen, MHC I, the naive lymphocyte receives stimulation with interleukin-7.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The entry of naive T cells into lymphoid tissue and interaction with microenvironment cells that synthesize IL-7 (for example, lymph node stromal cells, dendritic cells [79]) is a critical factor for preserving the naive T cell population.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The highly organized structure of secondary lymphoid tissue is extremely important for the survival of T cells and ensuring an immune response through the interaction of T-lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Chronic immune activation and replication of HIV in lymphoid tissue leads to the destruction of this structure and excessive accumulation of collagen, and ultimately to fibrosis of the lymph nodes.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Excess collagen production is a side effect of trying to counteract regulatory T cells (Treg) against the negative effects of immune activation.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Fibroblasts stimulated by cytokines (such as TGF-β1) of regulatory T cells produce collagen, the accumulation of which destroys the structure of lymphoid tissue and deprives naive T cells of access to the source IL-7.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

This leads to the depletion of their supply, as well as to the limitation of its recovery when suppressing HIV replication to HAART [80].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Disorders in the functioning of the immune system increase over time to the complete inability to perform its main function - protecting the body from pathogens.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Against the background of hyperactivation, leukemia often occurs, which together leads to the fact that facultative parasites that coexist in a healthy body under the control of the immune system come out from control, becoming fatal to the body [81].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The main reservoir of HIV in the body is macrophages and monocytes.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

There is no explosive reproduction in these cells, the release of virions is carried out through the Golgi complex.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It should also be noted that the innate immune system is not able to effectively recognize the virus during acute HIV infection and stimulate a timely adequate specific T-cell response [82 ].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The immune system can not recognize HIV well, as up to 45% of the human genome consists of endogenous retroviruses and retrotransposons.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Antibodies that occur as a result of the reaction to the gp-120 protein only contribute to an increase in the “infection”, but not to suppress it.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Thus, the human immune system only contributes to the multiplication of the virus by its response, so the creation of an HIV vaccine similar to the vaccine against the smallpox virus is impossible [83].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It should be noted that this view is not supported by many HIV researchers.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In addition, it contradicts the fact that the fundamental possibility of creating an HIV vaccine has been proven.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In 2009, a trial of the RV144 vaccine in Thailand showed effectiveness in preventing infections [84] [85].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

epidemiology


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

As of 2011, 60 million people worldwide have become infected with HIV since then, of which 25 million have died and 35 million are living with HIV [86].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

On a global scale, the epidemic situation is stabilizing, and the number of new HIV infections fell from 3.5 million in 1997 to 2.7 million in 2007 [87].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

As of the end of 2013, 645,000 people in Russia lived with HIV infection, and 153,000 HIV-infected Russian citizens died from various causes between 1986 and 2013 [88].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In December 2016, at a meeting of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vadim Pokrovsky, head of the Federal Scientific and Methodological Center for the Control and Prevention of HIV Infection, said that carriers of approximately 1.5 million Russians, and 240,000 people died of AIDS [89].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

“In Russia, due to the mixing of the previously dominant strain A1 in the Russian Federation and the new AG agent imported from Central Asia, a new virus A63 has appeared, which is much more dangerous than parents,” he said during the meeting of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences Head of the Laboratory of Immunochemistry


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

D. AND. Ivanovsky Eduard Karamov [90].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In 2016, 5.3% more new HIV infections were registered in Russia than in 2015 — 103.4 thousand [91].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

According to Michel Sedibé, Deputy Secretary General of the United Nations, Executive Director of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), Russia ranked third in the world after South Africa and Nigeria [92].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical classification


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The classification of HIV infection and AIDS has been repeatedly clarified and changed.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the first WHO classification of 1988, 4 stages were distinguished.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

This classification has become the basis for others who clarify and detail the stages of the disease [93]:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Stage I - initial (acute) HIV infection;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Stage II - persistent generalized lymphadenopathy;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Stage III — AIDS-associated complex (Pre-AIDS);


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Stage IV — expanded AIDS.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

CDC Classification


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In 1993 [94], the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (English: CDC) developed a classification [95] that evaluates both clinical and laboratory parameters (the number of CD4+-T lymphocytes in 1 μl of blood).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

According to the CDC classification, a patient is diagnosed with HIV infection or terminal stage AIDS, persons who fall under the criteria of categories A3, B3, C1, C2 and C3 are subject to registration as AIDS patients.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The number (%) of CD4+ T-lymphocytes in 1 μL Clinical categoryIA — asymptomatic acute (primary) or PGLP (persistent generalized lymphadenopathy) B — manifest C — AIDS-indicator diseases1.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

> 500 (> 29%) A1B1S12.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

200—499 (> 14—28%) A2B2S23.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

< 200 (< 14%) A3V3S3


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Symptoms of clinical categories according to the CDC classification:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A: acute retroviral syndrome: generalized lymphadenopathy (GLAP), asymptomatic course;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

C: syndromes of the AIDS-associated complex: oral candidiasis, cervical dysplasia, organic lesions, herpes zoster, idiopathic thrombocytopenia, listeriosis, leukoplakia, peripheral neuropathy;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

C: AIDS proper: candidiasis of the lungs or esophagus, cervical cancer, coccidioidosis, cryptosporidiosis, cytomegalovirus infection, herpetic esophagitis, HIV encephalopathy, histoplasmosis, isosporosis, sarcoma Kaposi, lymphoma, mycobacteriosis, pneumocystosis, bacterial pneumonia, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, salmonellosis.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

WHO clinical stages


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The World Health Organization (WHO) developed a clinical classification of HIV/AIDS in 1990, which was last significantly expanded and updated in 2006 and published for countries Europe, December 1, 2006 in the WHO Protocols on the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/AIDS [96].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

WHO clinical stages for adults and adolescents over 15 years of age [97]:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Acute HIV infection: asymptomatic, acute retroviral syndrome


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical stage 1: asymptomatic, persistent generalized lymphadenopathy (PGL)


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical stage 2: seborrheic dermatitis, angular cheilitis, recurrent oral ulcers (two or more episodes in 6 months), shingles (common lichen), recurrent respiratory infections — sinusitis, otitis media, pharyngitis, bronchitis, tracheitis (two or more episodes in 6 months), fungal nail infections, papular itchy dermatitis


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical stage 3: oral hairy leukoplakia, unexplained chronic diarrhea lasting more than 1 month, recurrent oral candidiasis (two or more episodes in 6 months), severe bacterial infection (pneumonia, empyema, purulent myositis, bone or joint infections, meningitis, bacteremia), acute ulcerative necrotizing stomatitis, gingivitis or periodontitis


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical stage 4*: pulmonary tuberculosis, extrapulmonary tuberculosis (excluding lymphadenopathy), unexplained weight loss (more than 10% within 6 months), HIV-debilitating syndrome [98], pneumocystis pneumonia, severe or radiographically confirmed pneumonia (two or more episodes in 6 months), cytomegalovirus retinitis (with or without colitis), herpes simplex virus (English: HSV) (chronic or persistent for more than 1 month), encephalopathy, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, Kaposi's sarcoma and other HIV-related malignancies, toxoplasmosis, disseminated fungal infection (candidiasis, histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis), cryptosporidiosis, cryptococcal meningitis, nontuberculous mycobacteria infection, disseminated mycobacterimia (English: MOTT) )


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

* If supported by sufficient evidence, may include: anus carcinoma and lymphoma (T-cell Hodgkin lymphoma)


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical classification in the Russian Federation


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In Russia and the CIS countries, the classification proposed by V. AND. Pokrovsky in 1989 [99] [94]:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

I — incubation stage


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

II — stage of primary manifestations:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A is an acute febrile phase


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

B — asymptomatic phase


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

B — persistent generalized lymphadenopathy


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

III - stage of secondary manifestations:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A - weight loss of less than 10%, superficial fungal, bacterial, viral lesions of the skin and mucous membranes, herpes zoster, repeated pharyngitis, sinusitis;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

B — progressive weight loss of more than 10%, unexplained diarrhea or fever for more than 1 month, repeated and/or persistent bacterial and protozoal lesions of internal organs (without dissemination) or deep lesions of the skin and mucous membranes: repeated or disseminated shingles, localized Kaposi's sarcoma;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

B — generalized bacterial, fungal, viral, protozoal and parasitic diseases, pneumocystis pneumonia, esophageal candidiasis, atypical mycobacteriosis, extrapulmonary tuberculosis, cachexia, disseminated Kaposi's sarcoma, CNS lesions of various etiologies


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

IV — terminal stage


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Appendix to the Instruction for Completing the Annual Form of State Federal Statistical Observation No. 61 “Information on Contingents of Patients with HIV Infection”, [100] approved by Order The Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia dated March 17, 2006 No. 166 proposes the following classification of stages of HIV infection [101]:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The incubation stage;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The stage of primary manifestations.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Variants of the course: asymptomatic, acute infection without secondary diseases, acute infection with secondary diseases;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Subclinical stage.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The stage of secondary diseases.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Flow options:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

weight loss less than 10%, fungal, viral, bacterial lesions of the skin and mucous membranes, repeated pharyngitis, sinusitis, shingles.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Phases: progression in the absence of antiretroviral therapy, against the background of antiretroviral therapy; remission (spontaneous, after antiretroviral therapy, against antiretroviral therapy);


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

weight loss of more than 10%, unexplained diarrhea or fever for more than a month, repeated persistent viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoal lesions of internal organs, localized Kaposi's sarcoma, repeated or disseminated shingles.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

cachexia, generalized viral, bacterial, mycobacterial, fungal, protozoal, parasitic diseases, including: candidiasis of the esophagus, bronchi, trachea, lungs; pneumocystis pneumonia; malignant tumors; lesions of the central nervous system.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The terminal stage.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Stages of the infectious process


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The total duration of HIV infection in patients who do not receive HAART is on average 10 years.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Throughout this time, there is a constant decrease in the number of lymphocytes in the patient's blood, which ultimately causes death from secondary (opportunistic) diseases [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Window period


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The period of seroconversion — from infection to the appearance of detectable antibodies to HIV — ranges from two to 12 weeks (in immunocompromised people from twelve weeks to 6 months [103]) [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Acute phase


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The acute phase lasts up to 1 month from the moment of infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical manifestations of this stage: low-grade fever, urticaria, stomatitis, inflammation of the lymph nodes, which become enlarged, soft and painful (symptoms go under the mask infectious mononucleosis).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The maximum concentration of the virus and antibodies appears only at the very end of the prodromal period.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

After HIV-1 infection and an incubation period, which can last from several days to several weeks [104], in most cases, acute flu-like syndrome develops, a manifestation of acute viremia, some patients describe it as the “worst flu” in their lives [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

For the first time, flu-like syndrome was described [105] as a mononucleosis-like syndrome with fever, patchy-papular rash, ulcers on the oral mucosa, lymphadenopathy, arthralgia, pharyngitis, malaise, weight loss, aseptic meningitis and myalgia [106].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It is noted that the more severe the symptoms of the acute phase and the longer they persist, the faster AIDS develops [107] [108].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Fever (80%) and malaise (68%) were recognized as the most sensitive clinical criteria for the acute phase of HIV infection, while weight loss (86%) and oral ulcers (85%) were recognized as the most specific [19] [ 109] [110].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

During the acute phase, the virus actively replicates and the viral load can reach 100 million copies of viral RNA per μl, and the number of CD4+ lymphocytes drops, sometimes to a level at which they can develop opportunistic infections [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

This number of CD4+ cells then rises, but usually does not reach the original level (normal 1200 per μl).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The number of CD8+ lymphocytes is increasing, and the CD4/CD8 ratio may become less than 1 [111].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It has been shown that the higher the viral load, the more contagious the patient is, especially during the acute phase of HIV infection [112] [113].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The acute phase of HIV infection usually lasts 7-10 days, rarely more than 14 days.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Diagnosis of this stage of HIV infection is difficult due to the non-specificity of the symptoms and can be confirmed when viral RNA is detected in the absence of antibodies to HIV.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

One of the best methods for diagnosing this phase is the detection of HIV-1 RNA in plasma (HIV RNA >10,000 copies/ml [114]) with sensitivity and specificity reaching 100% [109].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The sensitivity of the determination of the p24 protein is 79%, and the specificity is 99.5—99.96%.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The diagnosis of the acute phase of HIV infection must be confirmed after a few weeks by the detection of antibodies to HIV.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In some cases, the initiation of combination therapy at this stage may be beneficial for the health of the infected person [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Clinical symptoms of acute HIV infection [115]: Fever (96%), lymphadenopathy (74%), pharyngitis (70%), rash (70%) [116], myalgia (54%), diarrhea (32%), headache (32%), nausea and vomiting (27%), hepatosplenomegaly (14%), weight loss (13%), thrush (12%), neurological symptoms (12%) [117].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Latent period


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

After the end of the acute phase, a “balance” is established between the rate of reproduction of the virus and the immune response, and then for many months and years (up to 8-10 years), the infection is asymptomatic or form of persistent generalized lymphadenopathy (stage 1 according to WHO classification).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

During this period, the virus multiplies actively and CD4 cells are constantly destroyed.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

At the end of the asymptomatic phase, various symptoms and diseases may appear, which, however, are not AIDS criteria (WHO stage 2).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

With a CD4+ lymphocyte count of more than 200 cells per μl, diseases characteristic of the AIDS stage rarely develop [118].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The latent period lasts 5-10 years, the characteristic symptoms of this stage are lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The use of HAART makes it possible to extend this stage for decades [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV-infected patients in the latent stage of HIV infection can infect others, even if they use HAART, although treatment significantly reduces the likelihood of infection [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

preAIDS


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The duration of the stage is 1-2 years, the suppression of cellular immunity begins.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Typical diseases are: recurrent herpes (long-term non-healing ulcerations of the oral mucosa, genitals, stomatitis), leukoplakia of the tongue (growth of the papillary layer), mucosal candidiasis mouth and genitals.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

AIDS


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

AIDS is the terminal (dying) stage of HIV infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the absence of treatment, it lasts up to three years, on average 1-2 years.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

At the AIDS stage, opportunistic infections and tumors are generalized, and in the case of dangerous secondary diseases, life expectancy in the absence of HAART is less than 1 year [19].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Typical diseases for this stage are: tuberculosis, salmonellosis and its transition to a generalized form, encephalitis, meningitis, Legionella pneumophila infection, influenza, herpes, cryptosporidiosis, toxoplasmosis, meningoencephalitis, candidiasis, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, malignant tumors (Kaposi's sarcoma, lymphomas), pneumocystis pneumonia.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Factors that reduce the transition of HIV infection to AIDS: adulthood and old age, co-infection with other viral diseases, poor nutrition, stress, genetic characteristics [19] [119].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Factors that delay the development of AIDS: the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy, treatment of concomitant diseases, following the recommendations of the attending physician, proper nutrition, healthy lifestyle (smoking cessation), genetic characteristics [19] [119].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Key groups


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Groups at increased risk of HIV infection include certain categories of people whose personal life or professional activities are likely to have direct blood contact, or even intact mucous membrane, or damaged skin with body fluids of an infected person (blood, lymph, sperm, vaginal secretion, pre-seminal fluid, breast milk, discharge from wounds, cerebrospinal fluid, contents of the trachea, pleural cavity, etc.) is more likely than the population average.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Therefore, a particularly dangerous form of sexual intercourse for the receiving partner is unprotected anal sex, since this form causes the largest number of minor and large injuries.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

On the other hand, infection is also possible in the case of an intact mucous membrane, since the mucosa contains a significant number of dendritic cells (including Langerhans cells) that can play the role of “carriers” of viral particles to the lymph nodes.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

From the point of view of epidemiology, people who inject drugs, use common dishes to prepare drugs, as well as their sexual partners are at greatest risk [120].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Persons (regardless of sexual orientation) who practice unprotected anal sex [121], while the average probability of infection of a passive partner after one sexual intercourse is 1%, an active partner is 0.06 %.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

(Statistics are given for the total population, not among HIV-infected people).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In particular, approximately 25% of cases of unprotected anal sex among seropositive gays are so-called “barebackers”, accounting for about 14% of all gays in the studied sample, deliberately avoiding the use of condoms despite their awareness of the possibility of contracting HIV [122] [123] [124] [125].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A small proportion of barebackers are “bug chasers” — people who deliberately seek to become infected with HIV and choose HIV-positive or potentially positive as sex partners individuals called “gift-givers” [126] [127].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

For people who practice unprotected vaginal sex [120], (statistics are given for the total population, and not among HIV-infected people), the likelihood of contracting a passive partner after one sexual intercourse leaves about 0.01—0.32%, active — 0.01—0.1%, and can vary widely, depending on specific conditions [128], in particular, this route of infection is predominant in Africa [120 ].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

According to UNAIDS, in 2007, 42% of new HIV infections in Eastern Europe were due to heterosexual contact [129].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

People who practice unprotected oral sex (fellatio, eating pussy and anilingus) have a lower risk of contracting HIV than vaginal and anal sex [130] [131], the likelihood of contracting passive partner after one sexual contact — 0.03%, on average (statistics are given for the total population, and not among HIV-infected people), and can vary widely, depending on the specific conditions [123] [88].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

According to epidemiological data, people who have received a transfusion of untested donor blood [120], doctors [120], patients with sexually transmitted diseases [120], prostitutes and their clients [120], migrants [132].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Prevention


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Specific immunoprophylaxis for HIV infection has not been developed, but it has been shown that it is possible to create a vaccine that protects against HIV/AIDS.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It has been shown that monoclonal antibodies can protect the body against HIV, and some HIV-infected people whose bodies produce such antibodies do not have symptoms of HIV/AIDS many years after infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Vaccine candidates and monoclonal antibodies are in the early stages of clinical trials.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Even more drugs are at the stage of preclinical studies.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

133] [134] In 2018, researchers proposed a comprehensive vaccine to protect against a third of known HIV strains, based on an artificial protein similar to the Env virion protein.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the second half of 2019, it is planned to begin pilot clinical trials of this vaccine in humans [135].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Informing


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Educational preventive measures include:


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

inclusion of the lesson in the life safety course of grades 9-11;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

the Simple Rules Against AIDS project;


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

conducting various events for young people aimed at forming a responsible attitude to their actions in life (for example, the volunteer movement “Civil Initiative” with the support of Moscow City Duma, the Department of Family and Youth Policy, as well as the Moscow City Center for AIDS Prevention and Control).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Public events include the implementation of the Harm Reduction program, which involves working with injecting drug users (IDUs), namely: the exchange of needles and syringes in among injecting drug users (with the aim of removing HIV-contaminated needles and syringes from circulation); training drug users in the less dangerous use of injecting drugs ( trainings “Safe injection”, “Disinfection”, “Non-injection use”) for injecting drug users (IDUs) with persistent drug addiction who cannot or do not want to stop injecting use; conducting outreach work on the closed drug scene in order to cover hard-to-reach IDUs [136]; providing IDUs with condoms, disinfectants (alcohol wipes), hygiene products, vitamins and dressings (low-threshold service); medical, psychological and legal counseling for IDUs; motivational counseling of IDUs to change behavior and their involvement in rehabilitation and sobriety programs; information and educational work among IDUs, including the dissemination of information on substitution therapy (supervised by doctors use of methadone or buprenorphine (ednock) instead of HIV-risked street use of injecting drugs) and antiretroviral therapy (supportive AIDS treatment); social support and Redirection of IDUs to the relevant public services (for example, assistance in treatment, employment, support for IDUs released from places of detention), etc.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The Harm Reduction approach is considered by specialists as a “bridge” between used IDUs and programs for the treatment and rehabilitation of IDUs.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the system of preventive measures, the Harm Reduction strategy belongs to the direction of “Secondary prevention”.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In Russia, Harm Reduction is practically not used, the exchange of syringes and the distribution of condoms are carried out spontaneously by non-profit organizations and often cause resistance from the authorities [138].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Medical preventive measures include: [139]


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Examination of blood donors, people at risk.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

HIV antibody testing of all pregnant women.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Monitoring births in infected women and not breastfeeding their babies.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Promoting safe sex (i.e. using condoms).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A negative antibody test does not guarantee the absence of HIV infection, since antibodies cannot be detected within a few weeks and months after infection (the so-called. “window period”).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Prevention of infection in medical institutions


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Blood is the most dangerous for the spread of HIV.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It is necessary to carefully avoid accidental damage to the skin with sharp instruments.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

All manipulations with patients, as well as work with biological materials from the patient, are carried out by medical workers in rubber gloves and masks.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In addition, it is necessary to follow all precautions provided when working with patients with viral hepatitis B. If there is still contact of the mucous membrane or damaged skin of the medical a worker with a body fluid potentially containing HIV should immediately (preferably within the first three hours) begin post-exposure prophylaxis with antiretroviral drugs, which will allow reduce the likelihood of infection several times.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

It is mandatory to wash your hands thoroughly after removing gloves and individual clothing before leaving the room where you are working with potentially infected material.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Hospitalization of AIDS patients and HIV-infected people should be carried out in such a way as to prevent the spread of infection, as well as taking into account the requirements for the maintenance of patients with altered behavior in damage to the central nervous system.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

When treating patients with HIV infection, it is necessary to use single-use tools and syringes only.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

If household items, bedding, and the environment are contaminated with the patient's secretions, it is necessary to treat with disinfectants (0.2% sodium hypochlorite solution, ethyl alcohol).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

If basic precautionary rules are observed, communication with patients is completely safe.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Condoms


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The CDC recommends that spouses and sexual partners should be aware of their partner's HIV infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The immunodeficiency virus is usually transmitted through unprotected anal or vaginal sex, and a condom is the best means of protection against all forms of sexual activity.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Viral load can range from an undetectable level of 40-75 copies to millions in 1 ml of blood, and the higher the concentration of viral RNA in the blood, the more likely it is to transmit HIV to others .


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The presence of sexually transmitted infections or hepatitis increases the likelihood of HIV transmission by a factor of 3 to 5.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Even with a reduction in copies of HIV RNA to 3,500 or below in 1 ml of blood, transmission remains likely.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Condoms should be used for any form of sexual intercourse [119].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Diagnostics


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Currently, there are the following methods for diagnosing HIV: [141] [142] indirect tests detect specific antibodies to HIV that are present in almost 100% of HIV-infected people; direct tests determine HIV itself, HIV antigens or HIV nucleic acids (viral load).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The viral load (the number of HIV genomic RNA molecules in ml of blood) is directly associated with the rate of decrease in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes, this characteristic is an important prognostic indicator in the early stages of the disease [143].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

At least two different tests must be used to determine antibodies to HIV: a pre-test (screening test) and a confirmation test.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Most modern screening tests are based on enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) or similar methods; they are highly sensitive (up to 99%) and specificity (up to 99.5%).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The antigens used in the test correspond to antibodies that could have been produced in the patient's body to HIV of a certain type (HIV-1, HIV-2, HIV-1-N, HIV-1-O, HIV-1-M).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Immunoblotting is most often used to confirm the results of screening tests.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Immunoblotting is performed only when a positive screening test result is obtained [144].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A negative antibody test does not guarantee the absence of HIV infection, since antibodies cannot be detected within a few weeks and months after infection (the so-called. “window period”).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Rapid tests


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

A negative result of an antibody test, including rapid tests, does not guarantee the absence of HIV infection, since antibodies cannot be within a few weeks and months after infection discovered (so called “window period”).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Rapid analysis methods are based on the methods of agglutination reaction, ELISA on polymer membranes (test strips), immunological filtration analysis and immunochromatography.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Rapid tests give results within 15-30 minutes (meaning the processing time of the analysis, and not the period of necessary waiting before taking the test after an alleged infection) and are convenient when the result must be obtained quickly, for example, with urgent surgery [145] [146].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The CD4+ lymphocyte count is a critical parameter in monitoring HIV infection and allows [147] to assess the state of the immune system and the tendency to develop AIDS, along with clinical information determine the start of antiretroviral therapy (HAART), determine the time frame for the prevention of opportunistic infections, evaluate the effectiveness of treatment


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

CD4+ lymphocytes are counted either using automatic analyzers by flow cytometry, or manually by microscopy (optical or fluorescence).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The course of HIV infection is characterized by a prolonged absence of significant symptoms of the disease [148].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The diagnosis of HIV infection is made on the basis of laboratory data: when antibodies to HIV are detected in the blood.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Antibodies to HIV during the acute phase, as a rule, are not detected.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

After 3 months


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

after infection, antibodies to HIV are detected in 96-97% of patients, after 6 months.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

- in the remaining 2-3%, and at a later date - only in 0.5—1%, according to other sources, after 3 months.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

after infection, antibodies to HIV are detected in 90-95% of patients, after 6 months.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

— 5—9%, in 0.5—1% — at a later date.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the AIDS stage, a significant decrease in the antibody content in the blood is recorded.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The first weeks and months after infection are the “seronegative window period” when antibodies to HIV are not detected.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Therefore, a negative HIV test during this period does not mean that a person is not infected with HIV and cannot infect others [144].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

To diagnose damage to the oral mucosa in HIV-infected patients, a working classification was adopted, approved in London in September 1992.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

All defeats are divided into 3 groups, the greatest interest is caused and the most common are lesions belonging to group 1 [149] [150].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Group 1 — lesions clearly related to HIV infection.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

This group includes the following nosological forms: candidiasis (erythematous, pseudomembranous, hyperplastic, atrophic); hairy leukoplakia; marginal gingivitis; ulcerative necrotic gingivitis; destructive periodontitis; Kaposi's sarcoma; non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Group 2 — lesions that are less clearly related to HIV infection: bacterial infections; diseases of the salivary glands; viral infections; thrombocytopenic purpura.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Group 3 - lesions that may occur with HIV infection, but are not associated with it.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In Russia, when a diagnosis of HIV infection is made, pre-test and post-test counseling of the patient is carried out, and the main facts about the disease are explained.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The patient is invited to register with the territorial center for the prevention and control of AIDS for free dispensary observation by an infectious disease doctor.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Approximately once every six months, it is recommended to take tests (for immune status and viral load) to monitor your health status.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the event of a significant deterioration in these indicators, antiretroviral drugs are recommended (therapy is free, available in almost all regions) [144] [151].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Newborn diagnostics


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In the absence of therapy, the risk of infection of a newborn from an HIV-positive mother ranges from 15% to 25% in developed countries, from 25% to 35% in developing countries [152].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The use of prophylaxis with two drugs reduces the risk of infection of a child to 3—8% [153], and in prophylaxis with HAART below 2% [154], up to 1.2% [155].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In Russia, the incidence of perinatal HIV transmission using antiretroviral prophylaxis decreased from 19.4% in 2001 to 10.9% in 2002—2005 [156].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In children born to an HIV-positive mother, passively acquired antibodies that have penetrated the placenta from the mother are detected in the blood before 12-15 months of life, so the antibody test will be positive.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Currently, an early diagnosis, in children under 18 months of age, can be established by the detection of HIV nucleic acids using polymerase chain reaction (PCR).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In these cases, only two negative PCR results can exclude HIV infection in a newborn: one should be obtained at the age of 1 to 4 months, the other over the age of 4 months [157] [ 158].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Treatments


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

To date, no treatment for HIV infection has been developed that could eliminate the human immunodeficiency virus from the body.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Modern highly active antiretroviral therapy slows down the progression of HIV infection and its transition to the AIDS stage, allowing an HIV-infected person to live a full life.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

When using treatment and provided that the effectiveness of drugs is maintained, a person's life expectancy is not limited by HIV, but only by natural aging processes.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

However, after prolonged use of the same therapy regimen, after a few years, the virus can mutate, becoming resistant to the drugs used, and for further control over the progression of HIV infection, new treatment regimens with other drugs are used.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

That is why any current HIV treatment regimen becomes ineffective sooner or later.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Also, in many cases, the patient cannot take individual drugs due to individual intolerance.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Proper use of therapy delays the development of AIDS for an indefinite time (up to 10-20 years), the emergence of new classes of drugs is mainly aimed at reducing the side effects of taking therapy, since the life expectancy of HIV-positive people on therapy is almost equal to the life expectancy of HIV - negative people.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

During the later development of HAART (2000—2005), the survival rate of HIV-infected patients, with the exception of patients with hepatitis C, reaches 38.9 years (37.8 for men and 40.1 for women).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Great importance is attached to maintaining HIV-positive health by non-drug means (proper nutrition, healthy sleep, avoiding severe stress and prolonged exposure to the sun, healthy lifestyle), as well as regular (2—4 times a year) monitoring of the health status of HIV specialists.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

According to the Associated Press, a Mississippi girl in the United States was completely cured of HIV [159], but Russian scientists questioned the results of treatment for American colleagues.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Vadim Pokrovsky, head of the Federal Scientific and Methodological Center for AIDS Control and Prevention, said that to obtain reliable data on a child's HIV infection 30 hours after birth today it is impossible [160].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Professor N. A. Belyakov, head of the St. Petersburg Center for the Prevention and Control of AIDS and Infectious Diseases, noted that information about the cure for HIV should be taken with caution: that there is simply no such thing in nature, a functional cure, especially for viruses. Since in children, the course of the disease largely depends on what is the initial system of the baby's strength after birth, that is, a lot depends on the mother, on how he is fed. And here this phrase about “functional cure” does not determine anything in the near or distant future of this child” [161].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

In July 2014, American scientists announced that they had re-discovered the virus in the blood of a girl from Mississippi.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Currently, the only person who has recovered from HIV is American Timothy Ray Brown, nicknamed the “Berlin patient”.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

[163] [164] However, many researchers believe that the treatment that eliminated the virus from Bran's body cannot be considered a panacea for HIV.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

People living with HIV


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The term “People living with HIV” (PLHIV, or “People living with HIV/AIDS” — PLWHA) is recommended by WHO to refer to a person or group of people who are HIV-positive, as it reflects the fact that people can live with HIV for decades, leading an active and productive life.


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The expression “AIDS victims” is extremely incorrect (this implies helplessness and lack of control), including the incorrect description of children with HIV as “innocent victims of AIDS” that someone from PLHIV is “to blame” for their HIV status or “deserved” it).


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The expression “AIDS patient” is permissible only in a medical context, since PLHIV does not spend their lives in a hospital bed [166] [167].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

The rights of HIV-infected people are no different from the rights of other categories of citizens: they also have the right to medical care, freedom of work, education, personal and family secrets and so on [168].


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Notes


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Literature


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

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Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

CS1 maint: extra text (link)


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

References


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Category:Sexually Transmitted Diseases


Question: How many people can survive with HIV?

HIV infection

Category:HIV infection


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

Koltsa Uranus is a system of rings surrounding Uranus.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

It occupies an intermediate position between the more developed system of Saturn's rings and the simple systems of the rings of Jupiter and Neptune.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The first nine rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10, 1977 by James Elliot, Edward Dunham, and Douglas Mink.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

After that, four more were discovered: two by Voyager 2 in 1986, and two more by the Hubble telescope in 2003-2005.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

200 years earlier, William Herschel reported on observations of rings near Uranus, but modern astronomers doubt the possibility of such a discovery, since these rings are very weak and dim and could not be discovered with the help of astronomical equipment of the time.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

As of 2008, 13 rings are known.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

In order of increasing distance from the planet, they are arranged as follows: 1986U2r/, 6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, λ, ε, ν and μ.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The minimum radius has a ring 1986U2r/( 38,000 km), the maximum radius is μ ring (approximately 98,000 km).


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

Weak dust ring clusters and open arcs may be located between the main rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The rings are extremely dark, and the Bond albedo for their constituent particles does not exceed 2%.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

They probably consist of water ice with organic inclusions.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

Most of Uranus' rings are opaque.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

Their width is no more than a few kilometers.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The ring system contains little dust in general, it consists mainly of large objects with a diameter of 20 centimeters to 20 meters.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

However, some rings are optically thin: the wide dim 1986U2r/, μ and ν consist of fine dust particles, while the narrow dim λ contains large bodies.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The relatively small amount of dust in the ring system is explained by the aerodynamic drag of the extended exosphere, the crown of Uranus.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

It is believed that the rings of Uranus are relatively young, their age does not exceed 600 million years.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The ring system of Uranus is probably formed from collisions of satellites that previously orbiting the planet.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

As a result of the collisions, satellites broke into smaller particles, which now form rings in strictly limited zones of maximum gravitational stability.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

The mechanism that keeps narrow rings within their boundaries is still unclear.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus rings

Initially, it was believed that each narrow ring had a pair of “shepherd companions” that maintain its shape, but in 1986 Voyager 2 discovered only one pair of such satellites (Cordelia and Ophelia ) around the brightest ring — ε.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Observation history


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In the works of the discoverer of Uranus, William Herschel, the first mention of rings is found in a record dated February 22, 1789.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In the notes to the observations, he noted that he assumes the presence of rings in Uranus [1].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Herschel suggested that they were red (which was confirmed in 2006 for the penultimate ring by observations of the Keck Observatory).


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Herschel's notes appeared in the Journal of the Royal Society in 1797.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, for almost two centuries, from 1797 to 1979, rings were not mentioned at all in the scientific literature, which gives reason to suspect a scientist's mistake [2].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Nevertheless, fairly accurate descriptions of what Herschel saw do not give reason to simply discount his observations [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The presence of a ring system in Uranus was confirmed only on March 10, 1977 by American scientists James Elliot, Edward Dunham (English: Edward W. Dunham) and using the air observatory Kuiper.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The discovery was made by accident — a group of scientists planned to observe the atmosphere of Uranus when it covered the star SAO 158687.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, by analyzing the observational data, they found a decrease in the brightness of the star even before it was covered by Uranus, and this happened several times in a row.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

As a result, 9 rings of Uranus were discovered [4].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

When the Voyager 2 spacecraft arrived in the vicinity of Uranus, two more rings were discovered using onboard optics, and the total number of known rings increased to 11.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In December 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope recorded two more previously unknown rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

They are twice as far away from the planet as previously opened rings, and are therefore often referred to as the outer ring system of Uranus.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In addition to the rings, Hubble helped discover two previously unknown small satellites, one of which (Mab) has the same orbit as the outer ring itself.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The last two rings bring the number of known Uranus rings to 13 [5].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In April 2006, images of the new rings taken by the Keck Observatory in Hawaii made it possible to distinguish their color.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

One of them was red and the other (the outermost) was blue [3] [6].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is assumed that the blue color of the outer ring is due to the fact that it contains, in addition to dust, a number of small particles of water ice from the surface of the Mab [3] [7].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The inner rings of the planet appear gray [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

When the Earth crosses the plane of Uranus's rings, they are visible from the edge.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This happened, for example, in 2007-2008.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Key information


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The Uranus ring system includes 13 distinct rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

By distance from the planet, they are arranged in the following order: 1986U2r/, 6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, λ, ε, ν, μ [8].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

They can be divided into 3 groups: 9 narrow main rings (6, 5, 4, α, β, η, γ, δ, ε) [9], two dust rings (1986U2r/, λ) [10] and two outer rings (μ, ν) [8] [11].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Uranus rings consist mainly of particulates and a small amount of dust [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Dust particles are known to be present in rings 1986U2r/, η, δ, λ, ν and μ [8] [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In addition to the known rings, most likely, there are almost indistinguishable dust bands and very weak and thin rings between them [13].