Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

On January 26, 2019, Nadiya Savchenko was nominated as a presidential candidate of Ukraine at the congress of the Nadiya Savchenko Socio-Political Platform party [224].


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Honors


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

The title Hero of Ukraine with the award of the Order of the Gold Star (March 2, 2015) — for invincibility of will, civic courage, sacrificial service to the Ukrainian people [225] [226]


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Order “For Courage” III degree (August 21, 2014 [227]) — for personal courage and heroism shown in protecting the state sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine, loyalty to the military oath, highly professional performance of official duty [228] [229]


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Church Order of St. George the Victorious Great Martyr (Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kiev Patriarchate, March 1, 2015) [230] — for the Fight against Evil [231]


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

US Atlantic Council Freedom Award (2015) [232] [233]


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Nomination for the Andrei Sakharov Prize of the European Parliament “For Freedom of Thought” (2015) [234]


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Svitlo Justice Award (2015) [235]


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Honorary Citizen of Chervonograd (August 27, 2015) [236].


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Freedom Awards (2015) [237].


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Laureate of the Polish Eagle Prize by Jan Karski (2016) — for his hardened spirit in the struggle for human dignity and pride [238].


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Special award “I'm free!” All-Ukrainian Award “Woman of the III Millennium” (2015) [239] [240].


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Bibliography


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

comments


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Notes


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

References


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

//YouTube, 19.06.2014. ‹See Tfd› (in Russian)


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

//Meduza, 10.02.2015


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

//“Ekho Moskvy”, 20.02.2015


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Check date values in: |date= (help)


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

on YouTube Dir.


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Inna Zvantseva


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Category:Ukrainian military


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Category: People's Deputies of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine of the VIII convocation


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Category: Participants of the Iraq War


Question: Where did Nadezhda Viktorovna Savchenko study?

Nadezhda Savchenko

Category:Participants in the armed conflict in eastern Ukraine


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Nadezhda Savchenko

Category: Ukrainian pilots


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Nadezhda Savchenko

Category:Ukrainian women politicians


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Category: Prisoners of war of Ukraine


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Category:Honorary Citizens of Chervonograd


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Category:Captains (Ukraine)


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Category:Russian criminals


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton [K 1] (English: Isaac Newton /ˈnju₦tən/, according to the Julian calendar in force in England until 1752; or Gregorian calendar) was English,, and one of creators of classical physics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He is the author of the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”, in which he outlined the law of gravity and the three laws of mechanics that became the basis of classical mechanics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He developed differential and integral calculus, color theory, laid the foundations of modern physical optics, and created many other mathematical and physical theories.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Biography


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Early years


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe (English: Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire) on the eve of the Civil War.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's father, a small but prosperous farmer Isaac Newton (1606-1642), did not live to see the birth of his son.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The boy was born prematurely, was painful, so they did not dare to baptize him for a long time [1].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

And yet he survived, was baptized (January 1 [K 2]), and named Isaac in memory of his father.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton considered the fact of birth at Christmas a special sign of fate [2].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Despite his poor health in infancy, he lived 84 years.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton sincerely believed that his family dates back to the Scottish nobles of the 15th century, but historians have discovered that in 1524 his ancestors were poor peasants [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

By the end of the 16th century, the family became rich and became Yeoman (landowners).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's father inherited a large sum of £500 and several hundred acres of fertile land occupied by fields and forests [4].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's mother, Anna Eiscow (English: Hannah Ayscough) [K 3] (1623—1679), remarried in January 1646.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

With her new husband, a 63-year-old widower, she had three children, and she paid little attention to Isaac.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The boy's patron was his maternal uncle, William Aiscow.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

As a child, Newton, according to contemporaries, was silent, closed and isolated, liked to read and make technical toys: sundials and water clocks, a mill, etc. All his life he felt alone [5].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

His stepfather died in 1653, part of his inheritance passed to Newton's mother and was immediately registered by her to Isaac.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The mother returned home, but focused on three younger children and an extensive household; Isaac was still on his own.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1655, 12-year-old Newton was sent to a nearby school in Grantham, where he lived in the home of pharmacist Clark.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Soon the boy showed outstanding abilities, but in 1659 his mother Anna returned him to the estate and tried to entrust part of the management of the farm to her 16-year-old son.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The attempt was not successful — Isaac preferred reading books, writing poetry and especially constructing various mechanisms to all other activities.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At this time, Anna was approached by Stokes, Newton's schoolteacher, and began to persuade her to continue her education as an unusually gifted son; this request was joined by Uncle William and Isaac's Grantham acquaintance (relative of Pharmacist Clark) Humphrey Babington, a member of Trinity College Cambridge.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Through joint efforts, they finally achieved their goal.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1661, Newton successfully graduated from high school and went to continue his education at the University of Cambridge.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Trinity College (1661—1664)


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In June 1661, 18-year-old Newton arrived in Cambridge.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

According to the charter, he was given an exam for knowledge of Latin, after which he was informed that he was admitted to Trinity College (Holy Trinity College) at the University of Cambridge.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

More than 30 years of Newton's life are associated with this school.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The college, like the rest of the university, was going through a difficult time.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Just now (1660), the monarchy was restored in England, King Charles II often delayed payments due to the university, dismissed a significant part of the teaching staff appointed during the revolution [3 ].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

A total of 400 people lived in Trinity College, including students, servants, and 20 beggars, to whom the college was obliged to give alms by charter.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The educational process was in a deplorable state [6].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton was enrolled in the category of “sizer” students (English: sizar), who were not charged tuition fees (probably on Babington's recommendation).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

According to the norms of that time, the sizer was obliged to pay for his tuition through various jobs at the University, or by providing services to richer students.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

There is very little documentary evidence and memories about this period of his life.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

During these years, Newton's character finally developed — the desire to get to the point, intolerance to deception, slander and oppression, indifference to public fame.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He still had no friends [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In April 1664, Newton passed exams and moved to a higher category of undergraduate students (scholars), which gave him the right to a scholarship and continue his college studies.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Despite Galileo's discoveries, science and philosophy in Cambridge were still taught according to Aristotle.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, Newton's surviving notebooks already mention Galileo, Copernicus, Cartesianism, Kepler and Gassendi's atomistic theory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Judging by these notebooks, he continued to make (mainly scientific instruments), enthusiastically engaged in optics, astronomy, mathematics, phonetics, music theory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

According to the memoirs of his roommate, Newton selflessly indulged in teaching, forgetting food and sleep; probably, despite all the difficulties, it was the way of life he wanted [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The year 1664 was rich in other events in Newton's life.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton experienced a creative upsurge, began independent scientific activity and compiled a large-scale list (of 45 points) of unresolved problems in nature and human life (Questionnaire, Latin: Questions quaedam philosophicae).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In the future, such lists appear more than once in his workbooks.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In March of the same year, the newly founded (1663) Department of Mathematics of the College began lectures by a new teacher, 34-year-old Isaac Barrow, a major mathematician, future friend and teacher Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's interest in mathematics has increased dramatically.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He made the first significant mathematical discovery: binomial decomposition for an arbitrary rational indicator (including negative ones), and through it he came to his main mathematical method — decomposing the function into an infinite series [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton became a bachelor's degree at the very end of the year.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The scientific support and inspirers of Newton's work were to the greatest extent physicists: Galileo, Descartes and Kepler.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton completed their work, uniting them into a universal system of the world.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Less but significant influence was exerted by other mathematicians and physicists: Euclid, Fermat, Huygens, Wallis and his direct teacher Barrow.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's student notebook has a programmatic phrase [3]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

There can be no sovereign in philosophy but truth... We must erect gold monuments to Kepler, Galilee, Descartes and write on each one: “Plato is a friend, Aristotle is a friend, but the main friend is the truth.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The Plague Years (1665—1667)


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On Christmas Eve 1664, red crosses began to appear on London houses, the first mark of the Great Plague Epidemic.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

By summer, the deadly epidemic had expanded significantly.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On August 8, 1665, Trinity College was discontinued and staff was disbanded until the end of the epidemic.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton went home to Woolsthorpe, taking basic books, notebooks and tools with him [7].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

These were disastrous years for England - a devastating plague (only in London died a fifth of the population), a devastating war with Holland, the Great Fire of London.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

But Newton made a significant part of his scientific discoveries in the solitude of the “plague years”.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

From the surviving notes, it can be seen that 23-year-old Newton was already fluent in the basic methods of differential and integral calculus, including the decomposition of functions into series and what later was is called the Newton-Leibniz formula.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

After conducting a series of witty optical experiments, he proved that white is a mixture of colors on the spectrum.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton later recalled these years [8]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At the beginning of 1665, I found the method of approximate series and the rule for converting any degree of a binomial into such a series... in November I received the direct fluxia method [K 4] [differential calculus]; in January next I received color theory for years, and in May I started the reverse method of fluxes [integral calculus]... At this time, I was going through the best time of my youth and was more interested in mathematics and [natural] philosophy than ever before.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

But its most significant discovery during these years was the law of universal gravity.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Later, in 1686, Newton wrote to Halley [9]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In papers written more than 15 years ago (I can't give the exact date, but at least it was before I started my correspondence with Oldenburg), I expressed inverse quadratic proportionality the gravitation of the planets to the Sun depending on distance and calculated the correct ratio of Earth's gravity and conatus recedendi [aspiration] of the Moon to the center of the Earth, although not entirely accurate.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Mini|left|revered descendant of Newton's Apple Tree.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Cambridge Botanic Garden


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The inaccuracy mentioned by Newton was caused by the fact that Newton took the size of the Earth and the magnitude of the acceleration of gravity from Galileo's Mechanics, where they were given with a significant error [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Later, Newton received more accurate Picard's data and was finally convinced of the truth of his theory [10].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It is a well-known legend that Newton discovered the law of gravity by observing the fall of an apple from a tree branch.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

For the first time, Newton's apple was briefly mentioned by Newton's biographer William Steukley (Memories of Newton's Life, 1752) [11]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

After lunch, the weather was warm, we went out into the garden and drank tea in the shade of apple trees.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He [Newton] told me that the idea of gravity came to his mind when he was sitting under a tree in the same way.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was in a contemplative mood when an apple suddenly fell from a branch.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

“Why do apples always fall perpendicular to the ground?” he thought.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The legend became popular thanks to Voltaire [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In fact, as can be seen from Newton's workbooks, his theory of universal gravity developed gradually [12].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Another biographer, Henry Pemberton, gives Newton's reasoning (without mentioning the apple) in more detail: “By comparing the periods of several planets and their distances to the Sun, he found that... this force must decrease in quadratic proportionality with increasing distance” [13].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In other words, Newton discovered that Kepler's third law, which connects the periods of revolution of planets with the distance to the Sun, follows precisely the “inverse square formula” for the law of gravity (in circular orbits approach).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton wrote out the final wording of the law of gravity, which was included in the textbooks, later, after he understood the laws of mechanics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

These discoveries, as well as many of the later ones, were published 20-40 years later than they were made.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton wasn't chasing fame.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1670, he wrote to John Collins: “I don't see anything desirable in fame, even if I could earn it. This would probably increase the number of people I know, but this is exactly what I try to avoid most.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He did not publish his first scientific work (October 1666), which set out the basics of the analysis; it was found only 300 years later [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The Beginning of Scientific Fame (1667—1684)


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton visited Cambridge in March-June 1666.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, in the summer, a new wave of plague forced him to go home again.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Finally, in early 1667, the epidemic subsided, and Newton returned to Cambridge in April.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was elected a Fellow of Trinity College on October 1 and became a master's degree in 1668.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was given a spacious private room to live in, was given a salary (£2 per year) and handed over a group of students with whom he faithfully studied standard classrooms for several hours a week items.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, neither then nor later Newton became famous as a teacher, and his lectures were poorly attended [14].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

After consolidating his position, Newton traveled to London, where shortly before, in 1660, the Royal Society of London was created, an authoritative organization of eminent scientists, one of first Academies of Sciences.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The Royal Society's press organ was the journal “Philosophical Transactions” (English: Philosophical Transactions).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1669, mathematical works using expansions into infinite series began to appear in Europe.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Although these discoveries could not be compared in depth to Newtonian discoveries, Barrow insisted that his student record his priority on this issue.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton wrote a brief but fairly complete summary of this part of his discoveries, which he called “Analysis with equations with an infinite number of terms.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Barrow sent this treatise to London.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton asked Barrow not to disclose the name of the author of the work [15] (but he still let it slip).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The “analysis” has spread among specialists and has gained some fame in England and abroad [16].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In the same year, Barrow accepted the king's invitation to become a court chaplain and left teaching.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On October 29, 1669, Newton, 26, was elected his successor as “Lucas professor” of mathematics and optics at Trinity College.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In this position, Newton received a salary of £100 a year, not counting other bonuses and scholarships from Trinity [17] [K 5].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The new post also gave Newton more time for his own research [17].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Barrow left Newton an extensive alchemical laboratory; during this period Newton became seriously interested in alchemy and conducted a lot of chemical experiments [18].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At the same time, Newton continued his experiments on optics and color theory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton studied spherical and chromatic aberrations.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

To minimize them, he built a mixed reflector telescope: a lens and a concave spherical mirror, which he made and polished himself.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The design of such a telescope was first proposed by James Gregory (1663), but this idea was never implemented.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's first design (1668) was unsuccessful, but the next one, with a more carefully polished mirror, despite its small size, gave a 40-fold increase in excellent quality [12].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Rumors about the new instrument quickly reached London, and Newton was invited to show his invention to the scientific community.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In late 1671 and early 1672, the reflector was demonstrated to the king, and then at the Royal Society.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The device caused universal rave reviews.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Probably, the practical importance of the invention also played a role: astronomical observations served to accurately determine the time, which in turn was necessary for navigation at sea.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton became famous and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in January 1672.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Later, improved reflectors became the main tools of astronomers, with their help discovered the planet Uranus, other galaxies, and redshift.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At first, Newton valued communication with colleagues from the Royal Society, which included, in addition to Barrow, James Gregory, John Wallis, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Christopher Wren and other famous figures English science.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, tedious conflicts soon began, which Newton did not like very much.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In particular, there was a noisy controversy about the nature of light.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It began when Newton published in Philosophical Transactions in February 1672 a detailed description of his classical experiments with prisms and his theory of color.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hooke, who had previously published his own theory, said Newton's results did not convince him; he was supported by Huygens on the grounds that Newton's theory “contradicts generally accepted views.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton responded to their criticism only six months later, but by this time the number of critics had increased significantly.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

An avalanche of incompetent attacks caused Newton irritation and depression.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton asked the secretary of the Oldenburg Society not to send him any more critical letters and vowed for the future: not to get involved in scientific disputes.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In his letters, he complains that he is faced with a choice: either not to publish his discoveries, or to spend all his time and effort reflecting unfriendly amateurish criticism.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He eventually chose the first option and made a statement about his withdrawal from the Royal Society (March 8, 1673).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Oldenburg did not easily persuade him to stay [3], but scientific contacts with the Society were minimized for a long time.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Two important events took place in 1673.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

First, Newton's old friend and patron, Isaac Barrow, returned to Trinity by royal decree, now as the head (“master”) of the college.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Secondly, Leibniz, known at that time as a philosopher and inventor, became interested in Newton's mathematical discoveries.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

After receiving Newton's 1669 work in endless rows and studying it in depth, he further independently began to develop his version of the analysis.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1676, Newton and Leibniz exchanged letters in which Newton explained a number of his methods, answered Leibniz's questions, and hinted at the existence of even more general methods that had not yet been published ( general differential and integral calculus was meant).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Royal Society Secretary Henry Oldenburg insistently asked Newton to publish his mathematical discoveries in analysis for the glory of England, but Newton replied that he had been doing another for five years topic and does not want to be distracted [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton did not respond to Leibniz's next letter.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The first brief publication on the Newtonian version of the analysis appeared only in 1693, when the Leibniz version was already widespread throughout Europe.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The end of the 1670s was sad for Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In May 1677, 47-year-old Barrow died unexpectedly.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In the winter of the same year, a strong fire broke out in Newton's house, and part of Newton's handwritten archive burned down.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In September 1677, the secretary of the Royal Oldenburg Society, who favored Newton, died, and Hooke became the new secretary, who was hostile to Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1679, mother Anna fell seriously ill; Newton, leaving all her business, came to her, took an active part in caring for the patient, but his mother's condition deteriorated rapidly, and she died.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Mother and Barrow were among the few people who brightened Newton's loneliness [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (1684—1686)


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The history of this work, one of the most famous in the history of science, began in 1682, when the passage of Halley's Comet caused a rise in interest in celestial mechanics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Edmond Halley tried to persuade Newton to publish his “general theory of movement”, which has long been rumored in the scientific community.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton, not wanting to get involved in new scientific disputes and bickering, refused.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In August 1684, Halley came to Cambridge and told Newton that he and Ren and Hooke were discussing how to derive the ellipticity of the orbits of planets from the formula of the law of gravity, but did not know how to approach solution.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton said that he already had such evidence, and in November sent Halley the finished manuscript.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He immediately appreciated the significance of the result and method, immediately visited Newton again, and this time managed to persuade him to publish his discoveries [9].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On December 10, 1684, a historical record appeared in the minutes of the Royal Society [3]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Mr. Halley... recently saw Mr. Newton in Cambridge, and he showed him an interesting treatise De motu [On Movement].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

According to Mr. Halley's wish, Newton promised to send the treatise to the Society.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Work on the book took place in 1684—1686.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

According to the memoirs of Humphrey Newton, a relative of the scientist and his assistant during these years, Newton first wrote “The Beginnings” in between alchemical experiments, which he focused on, then gradually got carried away and enthusiastically devoted himself to working on the main book of his life [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The publication was supposed to be carried out at the expense of the Royal Society, but in early 1686, the Society published an undemanded treatise on the history of fish, thereby depleting its budget.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Halley then announced that he was taking over the publishing costs.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The Society gratefully accepted this generous offer and, as partial compensation, provided Halley with 50 copies of the treatise on the history of fish free of charge [19].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's work — perhaps by analogy with Descartes' Principles of Philosophy (1644) or, according to some historians of science, with a challenge to the Cartesians [K 6] — was called “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (Latin: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), that is, in modern language, “Mathematical Foundations of Physics” [K 7].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On April 28, 1686, the first volume of Mathematical Principles was presented to the Royal Society.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

All three volumes, after some author's correction, were published in 1687.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The print run (about 300 copies) sold out in 4 years — very quickly for that time.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Both in terms of physical and mathematical levels, Newton's work is qualitatively superior to the works of all his predecessors [20].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It lacks Aristotelian or Cartesian metaphysics, with its vague reasoning and vaguely formulated, often far-fetched “root causes” of natural phenomena.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton, for example, does not proclaim that in nature there is a law of gravity, he strictly proves this fact, based on the observed picture of the movement of planets and their moons.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's method is to create a model of a phenomenon “without inventing hypotheses”, and then, if there is enough data, search for its causes.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This approach, initiated by Galileo, marked the end of old physics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

A qualitative description of nature has given way to a quantitative one — a significant part of the book is occupied by calculations, drawings and tables.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In his book, Newton clearly defined the basic concepts of mechanics, and introduced several new ones, including such important physical quantities as mass, external force, and quantity of motion.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Three laws of mechanics are formulated.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

A strict conclusion is made from the law of gravity of all three Kepler laws.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It should be noted that hyperbolic and parabolic orbits of celestial bodies unknown to Kepler were also described. Newton does not directly discuss the truth of the heliocentric system of Copernicus, but implies; he even estimates the deviation of the Sun from the center of mass of the solar system [21].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In other words, the Sun in Newton's system, unlike Kepler's, does not rest, but obeys the general laws of motion.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The general system also includes comets, the type of orbits of which caused great controversy at that time.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The weak point of Newton's theory of gravity, according to many scientists of the time, was the lack of explanation for the nature of this force.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton presented only the mathematical apparatus, leaving open questions about the cause of gravity and its material carrier.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

For the scientific community, brought up on Descartes' philosophy, this was an unusual and defiant approach [20], and only the triumphant success of celestial mechanics in the XVIII century forced physicists to temporarily reconcile with Newtonian theory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The physical foundations of gravity became clear only more than two centuries later, with the advent of General Relativity.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton built the mathematical apparatus and the general structure of the book as close as possible to the standard of scientific rigor of that time - Euclid's “Principles”.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He deliberately did not use mathematical analysis almost anywhere — the use of new, unusual methods would jeopardize confidence in the results presented.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This caution, however, has devalued Newtonian's method of presentation for future generations of readers.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's book was the first work on new physics and at the same time one of the last serious works using old methods of mathematical research.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

All Newton's followers have already used the powerful methods of mathematical analysis he created.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The largest direct successors of Newton's case were D'Alembert, Euler, Laplace, Clairaut and Lagrange.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

During the author's lifetime, the book went through three editions, and at each reprint, the author made significant additions and clarifications to the book [22].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Administrative activity (1687—1703)


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

1687 was marked not only by the publication of the great book, but also by Newton's conflict with King James II.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In February, the king, consistently pursuing his policy of restoring Catholicism in England, ordered the University of Cambridge to give a master's degree to Catholic monk Alban Francis.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The university leadership hesitated, not wanting to break the law or annoy the king; soon a delegation of scientists, including Newton, was summoned to reprise Lord, known for his rudeness and cruelty, Chief Justice George Jeffries.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton opposed any compromise that infringed on university autonomy and convinced the delegation to take a principled position.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

As a result, the vice-chancellor of the university was removed from office, but the king's wish was never fulfilled [23].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In one of the letters of these years, Newton outlined his political principles [23]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Every honest person, according to divine and human laws, is obliged to obey the lawful orders of the king.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

But if His Majesty is advised to demand something that cannot be done by law, then no one should be hurt if he neglects that requirement.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1689, after the overthrow of King James II, Newton was elected to Parliament for the first time from the University of Cambridge and sat there for a little more than a year.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was a member of Parliament again from 1701 to 1702.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

There is a popular anecdote that he took the floor to speak in the House of Commons only once, asking him to close the window to avoid a draft.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In fact, Newton carried out his parliamentary duties with the same integrity with which he treated all his affairs [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Around 1691, Newton became seriously ill (most likely poisoned during chemical experiments [24], although there are other versions — fatigue, shock after a fire that caused the loss of important results, and age-related ailments [25]).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Relatives feared for his sanity; several surviving letters from this period do indicate mental disorder.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It was not until the end of 1693 that Newton's health was fully restored [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1679, Newton met Charles Montague (1661—1715), an 18-year-old aristocrat, a lover of science and alchemy, at Trinity.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton probably made a strong impression on Montague, because in 1696, when he became Lord Halifax, President of the Royal Society and Chancellor of the Exchequer (that is, Secretary of the Treasury of England), Montague suggested that the king appoint Newton as custodian of the Mint.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The king gave his consent, and Newton took office in 1696, leaving Cambridge and moving to London.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

To begin with, Newton thoroughly studied the technology of coin production, put document flow in order, and redesigned accounting over the past 30 years.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At the same time, Newton vigorously and professionally contributed to Montague's monetary reform, restoring confidence in the English monetary system thoroughly launched by his predecessors [26].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In England these years, almost exclusively incomplete, and in considerable quantities, counterfeit coins were in circulation.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Trimming the edges of silver coins was widespread, while the coins of the new minted disappeared as soon as they came into circulation, as the masses went into overflow, exported abroad and hid in chests [27].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In this situation, Montague came to the conclusion that it was possible to change the situation only by minting all the coins circulating in England and banning the circulation of the cut coin, which required a sharp increase the performance of the Royal Mint.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This required a competent administrator, and Newton became such a person, who took the position of guardian of the Mint in March 1696.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Thanks to Newton's vigorous actions during 1696, a network of branches of the Mint was created in the cities of England, in particular in Chester, where Newton appointed his friend Halley as director of the branch, which made it possible to increase the issue of the silver coin by 8 times [27].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton introduced the use of an inscription edge into the technology of minting coins, after which criminal grinding of the metal became almost impossible.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The old, incomplete silver coin was completely withdrawn from circulation and minted in 2 years, the issue of new coins increased to keep up with the need for them, and their quality improved.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Previously, during such reforms, the population had to change old money by weight, after which the volume of cash decreased both for individuals (private and legal entities) and throughout the country, but interest and loan obligations remained the same, which caused the economy to stagnate.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton, on the other hand, offered to exchange money at face value, which prevented these problems, and the inevitable shortage of funds after such a shortage of funds was filled by taking loans from other countries (most of all from the Netherlands) , inflation fell sharply [28] [29], but external public debt rose by the middle of the century to unprecedented proportions in the history of England.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

But during this time, there was noticeable economic growth, which increased tax payments to the treasury (equal in size to the French ones, despite the fact that France was inhabited by 2.5 times more people), due to this, the national debt was gradually paid [30].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1699, the minting of coins was completed and, apparently, as a reward for his merits, this year Newton was appointed manager (“master”) of the Mint [3] [27].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, an honest and competent person at the head of the Mint did not suit everyone.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

From the very first days, complaints and denunciations fell on Newton, and verification commissions constantly appeared.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

As it turned out, many denunciations came from counterfeiters irritated by Newtonian reforms [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton, as a rule, was indifferent to slander, but never forgave if it affected his honor and reputation.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He personally participated in dozens of investigations, and more than 100 counterfeiters were tracked down and convicted; in the absence of aggravating circumstances, they were most often sent to North American colonies, but several leaders were executed.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The number of counterfeit coins in England has decreased significantly [31].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Montague in his memoirs praised Newton's outstanding abilities of the administrator, which ensured the success of the reform [27].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Thus, the reforms carried out by the scientist not only prevented the economic crisis, but also led to a significant increase in the country's well-being decades later.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In April 1698, the Mint was visited three times during the Grand Embassy by the Russian Tsar Peter I [27]; unfortunately, the details of his visit and communication with Newton have not been preserved.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It is known, however, that in 1700, a monetary reform similar to the English one was carried out in Russia.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

And in 1713, Newton sent the first six printed copies of the 2nd edition of Beginning to Tsar Peter to Russia [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Two events of 1699 became a symbol of Newton's scientific triumph: the teaching of Newton's peace system began in Cambridge (from 1704 - and in Oxford), and the Paris Academy of Sciences, the stronghold of his opponents, Carthusian, elected him as a foreign member.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton was still a member and professor at Trinity College during this time, but in December 1701 he officially resigned from all his posts in Cambridge.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Lord John Somers, President of the Royal Society, passed away in 1703, who attended only twice in his five years as president.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In November, Newton was elected his successor and managed the Society for the rest of his life, for more than twenty years.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Unlike his predecessors, he personally attended all the meetings and did everything to ensure that the British Royal Society took pride of place in the scientific world.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The number of members of the Society grew (among them, in addition to Halley, Denis Papin, Abraham de Moivre, Roger Cots, Brook Taylor), interesting experiments were conducted and discussed, the quality of magazine articles have improved significantly, financial problems have been mitigated.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The society acquired paid secretaries and its own residence (on Fleet Street), and Newton paid the costs of moving out of pocket [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

During these years, Newton was often invited as a consultant to various government commissions, and Princess Carolina, the future Queen Consort of Great Britain, spent hours talking to him in the palace on philosophical and religious topics [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Recent years


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1704, the monograph “Optics” was published (first in English), which determined the development of this science until the beginning of the XIX century.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It contained the appendix “On the quadrature of curves” — the first and fairly complete presentation of Newtonian version of mathematical analysis.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In fact, this is Newton's last work on natural sciences, although he lived for more than 20 years.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The catalog of the library he left contained books mainly on history and theology, and Newton devoted the rest of his life to these activities [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton remained the manager of the Mint, as this post, unlike the position of caretaker, did not require much activity from him.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Twice a week he went to the Mint, and once a week to a meeting of the Royal Society.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton never traveled outside England.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He is now Sir Isaac Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

For the first time in English history, the title of knight was awarded for scientific merit; the next time it happened more than a century later (1819, in relation to Humphrey Davy) [27].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, some biographers believe that the Queen was guided not by scientific, but by political motives [32].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton acquired his own coat of arms and a not very reliable pedigree.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1707, Newton published a collection of lectures on algebra, called “Universal Arithmetic”.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The numerical methods presented in it marked the birth of a new promising discipline — numerical analysis.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1708, an open priority dispute began with Leibniz (see below), in which even reigns were involved.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This quarrel between the two geniuses cost science dearly — the English mathematical school soon reduced activity for a century [33], and the European one ignored many of Newton's outstanding ideas, rediscovering them much later [26].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Even Leibniz's death (1716) did not extinguish the conflict.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The first edition of Newton's Beginnings was sold out long ago.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's many years of work on the preparation of the 2nd edition, updated and supplemented, was crowned with success in 1710, when the first volume of the new edition was published (the last and third in 1713).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The initial print run (700 copies) was clearly insufficient, in 1714 and 1723 there was a reprint.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

When finalizing the second volume, Newton, as an exception, had to return to physics to explain the discrepancy between theory and experimental data, and he immediately made a major discovery - hydrodynamic compression jets [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Now the theory was in good agreement with the experiment.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton added to the end of the book “Teaching” with destructive criticism of the “vortex theory” with which his Carthusian opponents tried to explain the movement of the planets.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

To the natural question “how is it really?” the book follows the famous and honest answer: “I still could not derive the reason... the properties of gravity from phenomena, but I do not invent hypotheses” [34].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In April 1714, Newton summarized his experience in financial regulation and submitted to the Treasury his article “Observations on the Value of Gold and Silver”.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The article contained specific proposals for adjusting the value of precious metals.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

These proposals were partially accepted, and this had a positive effect on the English economy [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Shortly before his death, Newton was one of the victims of a financial scam by a large trading South Seas Company, which enjoyed government support.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He bought a large amount of the company's securities, and also insisted on their acquisition by the Royal Society.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On September 24, 1720, the company's bank declared itself bankrupt.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Catherine's niece recalled in her notes that Newton lost more than 20,000 pounds, after which he said that he could calculate the movement of celestial bodies, but not the degree of madness of the crowd.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, many biographers believe that Catherine did not mean a real loss, but a failure to receive the expected profit [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

After the bankruptcy of the company, Newton offered the Royal Society to compensate for the losses out of pocket, but his offer was rejected [35].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton devoted the last years of his life to writing the Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, which he studied for about 40 years, as well as the preparation of the third edition of The Beginnings, which was published in 1726.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Unlike the second, the changes in the third edition were small, mainly the results of new astronomical observations, including a fairly comprehensive reference book on comets observed since the XIV century.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Among others, the calculated orbit of Halley's Comet was presented, the reappearance of which at the specified time (1758) clearly confirmed the theoretical calculations of Newton's (by that time deceased) and Halley.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The circulation of the book for a scientific publication of those years could be considered huge: 1250 copies.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1725, Newton's health began to deteriorate markedly, and he moved to Kensington near London, where he died at night, in his sleep, on March 20 (31), 1727.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He did not leave a written will, but he handed over a significant part of his large fortune to his next of kin shortly before his death [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was buried at Westminster Abbey [36].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Fernando Savater, according to Voltaire's letters, describes Newton's funeral as follows [37]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

All of London participated in them.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

First, the body was put on public display in a lush hearse, on the sides of which huge lamps burned, then was transferred to Westminster Abbey, where Newton was buried among kings and eminent statesmen.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The funeral procession was led by the Lord Chancellor, followed by all royal ministers.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Personal qualities


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Personality traits


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It is difficult to compile a psychological portrait of Newton, since even people sympathizing with him often attribute various qualities to Newton [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

We also have to take into account the cult of Newton in England, which forced the authors of memoirs to give the great scientist all imaginable virtues, ignoring the real contradictions in his nature.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In addition, by the end of his life, Newton's character had such features as good-naturedness, indulgence and sociability, which were not previously characteristic of him [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Outwardly, Newton was short, strong build, with wavy hair.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was almost not sick, until old age he retained thick hair (completely gray since the age of 40 [9]) and all but one of his teeth.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

I never (according to other sources, almost never) used glasses [38], although I was a little short-sighted.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He almost never laughed or annoyed, there is no mention of his jokes or other manifestations of sense of humor.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was careful and thrifty in cash payments, but not stingy.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

I've never been married.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was usually in a state of deep inner concentration, which is why he often showed absent-mindedness: for example, one day, after inviting guests, he went to the pantry to buy wine, but then some scientific idea, he rushed to the office and never returned to the guests.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was indifferent to sports, music, art, theater, travel [3], although he was good at drawing [39].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

His assistant recalled: “He did not allow himself any rest or respite... he thought every hour that was not devoted to [science] was lost... I think he was very sad about the need to spend time eating and sleeping .” [9] With all that was said, Newton was able to combine the everyday practicality and sanity that were clearly manifested in his successful management of the Mint and the Royal Society.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Raised in Puritan traditions, Newton established a number of strict principles and self-restrictions for himself [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

And he was not inclined to forgive others for what he would not forgive himself; this is the root of many of his conflicts (see below).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He was warm to relatives and many colleagues, but did not have close friends [39], did not look for the company of other people, and stayed aloof [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At the same time, Newton was not heartless and indifferent to someone else's fate.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

When her children were left destitute after the death of his half-sister Anna, Newton granted benefits to minor children, and later took Anna's daughter, Catherine, into his upbringing.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He constantly helped other relatives.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

“Being economical and prudent, he was at the same time very free with money and was always ready to help a friend in need without being obsessive. He is especially noble towards young people” [40].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Many famous English scientists — Stirling, McLaren, astronomer James Pound and others — recalled with deep gratitude Newton's help at the beginning of their scientific career [41].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Conflicts


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton & Hooke


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1675, Newton sent his treatise to the Society with new studies and discussions on the nature of light.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Robert Hooke said at the meeting that everything that is valuable in the treatise is already available in Hooke's previously published book Micrography.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In private conversations, he accused Newton of plagiarism [3]: “I showed that Mr. Newton used my hypotheses about impulses and waves” (from Hooke's diary).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hooke challenged the priority of all Newton's discoveries in the field of optics, except those with which he did not agree [42].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Oldenburg immediately notified Newton of these accusations, and he regarded them as insinuations.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This time, the conflict was extinguished, and scientists exchanged conciliatory letters (1676).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, from that moment until Hooke's death (1703) Newton did not publish any works on optics, although he had accumulated a huge amount of material, systematized by him in the classic monograph Optics (1704) .


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Another priority dispute was related to the discovery of the law of gravity.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Back in 1666, Hooke came to the conclusion that the motion of the planets is the superposition of falling on the Sun due to the force of attraction to the Sun, and inertial motion tangentially to the trajectory of the planet.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In his opinion, this superposition of motion determines the elliptical shape of the trajectory of the planet around the Sun [43].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, he could not prove this mathematically and sent a letter to Newton in 1679, offering cooperation in solving this problem.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This letter also suggested a decrease in the force of attraction to the Sun in inversely proportional to the square of the distance [44].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In response, Newton noted that he had previously dealt with the problem of planetary movement, but left these classes.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Indeed, documents found later show that Newton dealt with the problem of planetary motion as early as 1665—69, when he, on the basis of Kepler's III Law, established that “the aspiration of planets moving away from the Sun will be inversely proportional to the squares of their distances from the Sun” [45].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, the idea of the orbit of the planet as solely a result of the equality of the forces of attraction to the Sun and centrifugal force had not yet been fully developed in those years [45] [46].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Subsequently, correspondence between Hooke and Newton was interrupted.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hooke returned to attempts to plot the trajectory of the planet under the influence of a force decreasing according to the law of inverse squares.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, these attempts were also unsuccessful.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Meanwhile, Newton returned to studying the motion of planets and solved this problem.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

When Newton was preparing his Beginnings for publication, Hooke demanded that Newton in the preface specify Hooke's priority regarding the law of gravity.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton objected that Bulliald, Christopher Wren and Newton himself came to the same formula independently and before Hooke [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

A conflict broke out that poisoned the lives of both scientists a lot.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Modern authors pay tribute to both Newton and Hooke.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hooke's priority is to formulate the problem of constructing the trajectory of the planet due to the superposition of its fall on the Sun according to the law of inverse squares and motion by inertia.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It is also possible that it was Hooke's letter that directly prompted Newton to complete this task.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, Hooke himself did not solve the problem, and also did not guess about the universality of gravity [47] [48].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

According to S. AND. Vavilova [9],


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

If we combine all Hooke's assumptions and thoughts about the movement of planets and gravitation that he has expressed for almost 20 years, we will meet almost all the main conclusions of Newton's Principles, just expressed in uncertain and little evidentiary form.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Without solving the problem, Hooke found her answer.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At the same time, we are not facing a thought by chance, but undoubtedly the fruit of many years of work.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hooke had the brilliant guess of an experimental physicist, who saw in the labyrinth of facts the true relationships and laws of nature.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

We see this rare intuition of an experimenter in the history of science in Faraday's history, but Hooke and Faraday were not mathematicians.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton and Maxwell completed their case.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The aimless struggle with Newton for priority cast a shadow on Hooke's glorious name, but it's time for history, almost three centuries later, to pay tribute to everyone.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hooke could not walk the straight, impeccable path of Newton's Mathematical Principles, but with his roundabout paths, traces of which we can no longer find, he came there.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's relationship with Hooke remained tense in the future.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

For example, when Newton presented his new sextant design to the Society, Hooke immediately stated that he had invented such a device more than 30 years ago (although he had never built sextants) [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Nevertheless, Newton was aware of the scientific value of Hooke's discoveries and in his Optics several times mentioned his deceased opponent [49].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In addition to Newton, Hooke had priority disputes with many other English and continental scientists, including Robert Boyle, whom he accused of appropriating the improvement of the air pump, and also with Royal Society Secretary Oldenburg, saying that with the help of Oldenburg, Huygens stole the idea of a spiral spring watch from Hooke [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The myth that Newton allegedly ordered the destruction of Hooke's only portrait is discussed below.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton and Flamstead


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

John Flamstead, an outstanding English astronomer, met Newton in Cambridge (1670) when Flamstead was still a student and Newton was a master's degree.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, already in 1673, almost simultaneously with Newton, Flemstead also became famous - he published excellent astronomical tables, for which the king awarded him a personal audience and Astronomer Royal.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Moreover, the king ordered the construction of an observatory in Greenwich near London and handed it over to Flamstead.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, the king considered the money for equipping the observatory to be unnecessary expenses, and almost all of Flamsteed's income was spent on the construction of tools and the household needs of the observatory [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At first, Newton and Flemstead's relationship was kind-hearted.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton was preparing the second edition of Beginnings and was in dire need of accurate observations of the moon to build and (hopefully) confirm his theory of motion; in the first edition, the theory of the motion of the moon and comets was unsatisfactory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This was also important for the affirmation of Newtonian theory of gravity, which was sharply criticized by the Cartesians on the continent.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Flamstead willingly gave him the requested data, and in 1694 Newton proudly informed Flamstead that a comparison of the calculated and experimental data showed a practical coincidence.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In some letters, Flemstead urged Newton, if using observations, to stipulate his, Flamstead, priority; this primarily applied to Halley, whom Flamstead did not like and suspected of scientific dishonesty, but could also mean distrust of Newton himself.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In Flemstead's letters, resentment begins to show [50]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

I agree: wire is more expensive than the gold it is made of.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, I collected this gold, cleaned and washed it, and I dare not think that you value my help so little just because you received it so easily.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The open conflict began with a letter from Flemstead, in which he apologized that he had found a number of systematic errors in terms of the data provided to Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This jeopardized Newtonian theory of the moon and forced a redesign of calculations, and confidence in the rest of the data was also shaken.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton, who hated dishonesty, was extremely annoyed and even suspected that the mistakes were deliberately made by Flemstead [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1704, Newton visited Flamstead, who by that time had received new, extremely accurate observation data, and asked him to pass on these data; in return, Newton promised to help Flemstead publish his the main work is the Big Star Catalog.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Flemstead, however, was stalling for time for two reasons: the catalog was not yet fully ready, and he no longer trusted Newton and feared that his invaluable observations would be stolen.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Flemstead used the experienced calculators provided to him to complete his work to calculate the positions of stars, while Newton was primarily interested in the Moon, planets, and comets.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Finally, printing began in 1706, but Flemstead, suffering from painful gout and becoming increasingly suspicious, demanded that Newton not open the sealed printed copy until the end of printing; Newton, who urgently needed the data, ignored this ban and wrote out the right values.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The tension grew.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Flamstead caused Newton a scandal for trying to personally make minor proofreading of errors.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Printing of the book was extremely slow [51] [52].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Due to financial difficulties, Flamstead did not pay the membership fee and was expelled from the Royal Society; a new blow was dealt by the Queen, who, apparently, at Newton's request, handed over control to the Society functions over the observatory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton presented Flemsteed with an ultimatum [3]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

You presented an imperfect catalog that lacks a lot, you did not give the positions of the stars that were desirable, and I heard that printing has now stopped due to not providing them.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Thus, you are expected to either send the end of your catalog to Dr. Arbetnot, or at least send him the observation data he needs to complete so that printing can continue.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton also threatened that further delays would be considered disobeying Her Majesty's order.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In March 1710, Flemstead, after heated complaints about injustice and intrigues of enemies, handed over the final pages of his catalog, and in early 1712, the first volume, entitled Heavenly Story, came out.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It had all the data Newton needed, and a year later, a revised edition of Beginnings, with a much more accurate theory of the moon, was also quick to appear.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The vindictive Newton did not include Flemsteed's gratitude in the publication and crossed out all references to him that were present in the first edition.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In response, Flamstead burned all 300 unsold copies of the catalog in his fireplace and began to prepare a second edition of it, to his own liking.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He died in 1719, but through the efforts of his wife and friends, this wonderful publication, the pride of English astronomy, was published in 1725 [53].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Flamstead's successor at the royal observatory was Halley, who also immediately classified all the results of observations in order to prevent data theft by rivals.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It did not come to a conflict with Halley, but at meetings of the Society Newton repeatedly scolded Halley for not wanting to share the data Newton needed [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton et Leibniz


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

From the surviving documents, historians of science have found that Newton created differential and integral calculus back in 1665—66, but did not publish it until 1704 [3].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Leibniz developed his version of the analysis independently (since 1675), although the initial impetus probably came from rumors that Newton already has such a calculus, as well as thanks to scientific conversations in England and correspondence with Newton.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Unlike Newton, Leibniz immediately published his version, and later, together with Jacob and Johann Bernoulli, widely promoted this landmark discovery throughout Europe.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Most scientists on the continent had no doubt that Leibniz had discovered the analysis.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hearing the persuasion of friends who appealed to his patriotism, Newton, in the 2nd book of his Beginnings (1687), said [54]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In letters I exchanged with Mr. Leibniz, a very skilled mathematician about ten years ago, I told him that I had a method for determining highs and lows, conducting tangents and solutions to similar issues that are equally applicable to both rational and irrational members, and I hid the method by rearranging the letters of the following sentence: “when given equation containing any number of current quantities, find fluxes [K 4] and vice versa.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

My famous husband told me that he also attacked such a method and told me his method, which turned out to be barely different from mine, and then only in terms and formulas.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1693, when Newton finally published the first summary of his version of the analysis, he exchanged friendly letters with Leibniz.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton reported [55]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Our Wallis has attached to his Algebra, which has just appeared, some of the letters I wrote to you at the time.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

At the same time, he demanded that I openly state the method that I had hidden from you at the time by rearranging the letters; I did it as briefly as I could.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

I hope I didn't write anything that would be unpleasant for you, but if this happens, please let me know, because friends are more expensive to me than mathematical discoveries.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

After the first detailed publication of Newtonian analysis (mathematical appendix to Optics, 1704) appeared in Leibniz's journal Acta eruditorum, an anonymous review appeared with offensive hints in Newton's address.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The review clearly indicated that Leibniz was the author of the new calculus.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Leibniz himself strongly denied that the review was compiled by him, but historians were able to find a draft written in his handwriting [56].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton ignored Leibniz's article, but his students responded indignantly, after which a pan-European priority war broke out, “the most shameful squabble in the history of mathematics” [33].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

On January 31, 1713, the Royal Society received a letter from Leibniz containing a conciliatory wording: he agreed that Newton came to the analysis on his own, “on general principles similar to ours.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Angry Newton demanded the creation of an international commission to clarify priority.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The Commission did not take long: a month and a half later, after studying Newton's correspondence with Oldenburg and other documents, it unanimously recognized Newton's priority, and in wording, this time offensive to Leibniz.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The decision of the commission was printed in the works of the Company with the attachment of all supporting documents [56].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinov claim in the Shortest History of Time that the commission included only scientists loyal to Newton, and most of the articles in defense of Newton were written by his own and then published on behalf of friends [52].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In response, since the summer of 1713, Europe was flooded with anonymous brochures that defended Leibniz's priority and claimed that “Newton is appropriating an honor belonging to another.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The brochures also accused Newton of stealing the results of Hooke and Flemstead [56].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's friends, for their part, accused Leibniz himself of plagiarism; according to them, during his stay in London (1676) Leibniz at the Royal Society, he familiarized himself with unpublished works and letters Newton, after which Leibniz published and passed off the ideas set out there as his own [57].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The war did not weaken until December 1716, when Abbot Antonio Schinella Conti told Newton: “Leibniz is dead — the dispute is over” [58].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Scientific activity


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's works are associated with a new era in physics and mathematics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He completed the creation of theoretical physics begun by Galileo, based, on the one hand, on experimental data, and on the other hand, on a quantitative and mathematical description of nature.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Powerful analytical methods are emerging in mathematics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In physics, the main method of studying nature is the construction of adequate mathematical models of natural processes and intensive study of these models with the systematic involvement of all power of a new mathematical apparatus.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The following centuries have proved that this approach is extremely fruitful.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Philosophy and scientific method


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton strongly rejected the popular approach of Descartes and his Carthusian followers at the end of the 17th century, which ordered, when building scientific theory, first with “mental insight” to find “the root causes” ” the phenomenon under study.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In practice, this approach often led to far-fetched hypotheses about “substances” and “hidden properties” that could not be tested experimentally.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton believed that in “natural philosophy” (that is, physics), only such assumptions (“principles”, now prefer the name “laws of nature”) are permissible, which directly follow from reliable experiments, summarize their results; hypotheses he called assumptions that were not sufficiently substantiated by experiments.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

“Everything... that is not derived from phenomena should be called a hypothesis; hypotheses metaphysical, physical, mechanical, hidden properties have no place in experimental philosophy” [20].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Examples of principles are the law of gravity and the 3 laws of mechanics in Principles; the word “principles” (Principia Mathematica, traditionally translated as “mathematical principles”) is also found in the title of its main books.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In a letter to Pardiz, Newton formulated the “golden rule of science” [3]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The best and safest method of philosophizing, in my opinion, should first be a diligent study of the properties of things and the establishment of these properties through experiments, and then gradually progress towards hypotheses that explain these properties.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Hypotheses can only be useful in explaining the properties of things, but there is no need to impose on them the responsibility to determine these properties beyond the limits revealed by the experiment... because you can invent a multitude of hypotheses that explain any new difficulties.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This approach not only put speculative fantasies outside science (for example, the reasoning of the Cartesians about the properties of “subtle matters”, which seemed to explain electromagnetic phenomena), but was more flexible and fruitful, because it allowed mathematical modeling of phenomena for which the root causes have not yet been discovered.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This happened with gravity and the theory of light — their nature became clear much later, which did not prevent the successful centuries-old application of Newtonian models.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The famous phrase “I do not invent hypotheses” (Latin: Hypotheses non fingo), of course, does not mean that Newton underestimated the importance of finding the “root causes”, if they are clearly confirmed by experience.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The general principles obtained from the experiment and the consequences of them must also undergo experimental testing, which can lead to an adjustment or even a change in principles [59].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

“The whole difficulty of physics... is to recognize the forces of nature from the phenomena of motion, and then explain the rest of the phenomena by these forces.”


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton, like Galileo, believed that mechanical motion is at the heart of all processes of nature [34]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It would be desirable to derive from the beginnings of mechanics and other phenomena of nature... for many things lead me to assume that all these phenomena are due to some forces with which the particles of bodies, due to reasons as long as unknown, either strive towards each other and interlock into the right figures, or mutually repel and move away from each other.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Since these forces are unknown, so far the attempts of philosophers to explain the phenomena of nature have remained fruitless.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton formulated his scientific method in the book “Optics” [3]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Both in mathematics and in testing nature, when studying difficult questions, the analytical method must precede the synthetic method.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This analysis consists in the fact that experiments and observations by induction draw general conclusions and do not allow any objections to them that do not come from experiments or other reliable truths.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

For hypotheses are not considered in experimental philosophy.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Although the results obtained by induction from experiments and observations cannot yet serve as evidence of universal conclusions, it is still the best way to draw conclusions that allow the nature of things.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In the 3rd book of Beginnings (starting from the 2nd edition) Newton placed a number of methodological rules against the Cartesians; the first of them is the version of Occam's Razor [60]:


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Rule I.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It should not accept in nature reasons other than those that are true and sufficient to explain phenomena... nature does nothing in vain, but it would be in vain for many to do what can be done smaller.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Nature is simple and does not luxuriate with unnecessary causes of things...


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Rule IV.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In experimental physics, sentences derived from ongoing phenomena by guidance [induction], despite the possibility of assumptions contrary to them, should be revered as correct or exactly, or approximately, until phenomena are discovered that further clarify them or are subject to exceptions.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's mechanistic views turned out to be wrong — not all natural phenomena stem from mechanical movement.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

However, his scientific method has established itself in science.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Modern physics successfully explores and applies phenomena whose nature has not yet been clarified (for example, elementary particles).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Since Newton, natural science has been developing, firmly convinced that the world is known, because nature is arranged according to simple mathematical principles [61].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This confidence has become the philosophical basis for the tremendous progress of science and technology.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Math


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton made his first mathematical discoveries back in his student years: the classification of algebraic curves of the 3rd order (Fermat studied 2nd order curves) and binomial decomposition of arbitrary (not necessarily an integer) degree from which Newtonian theory of infinite series begins, a new and powerful analysis tool.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton considered decomposition into a series to be the main and general method of analyzing functions, and in this matter he reached the heights of skill.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

He used series to calculate tables, solve equations (including differential ones), and study the behavior of functions.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton was able to obtain a decomposition for all the functions standard at that time [16].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton developed differential and integral calculus simultaneously with G. Leibniz (a little earlier) and independent of him.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Before Newton, actions with the infinitesimal were not linked into a single theory and were in the nature of scattered witty techniques (cf. The method of indivisible).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The creation of a systematic mathematical analysis reduces the solution of relevant problems, to a large extent, to a technical level.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

A set of concepts, operations and symbols appeared, which became the starting point for the further development of mathematics.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The next, 18th century, was a century of rapid and extremely successful development of analytical methods.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Perhaps Newton came up with the idea of analysis through difference methods, which he studied a lot and deeply [62].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

True, Newton almost did not use infinitely small ones in his Principles, adhering to ancient (geometric) methods of proof, but in other works he used them freely [63].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The starting point for differential and integral calculus was the works of Cavalieri and especially Fermat, who already knew (for algebraic curves) to draw tangents, find extremes, points inflection and curvature of the curve, calculate the area of its segment.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Among other predecessors, Newton himself named Wallis, Barrow and Scottish scientist James Gregory.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

The concept of function did not yet exist, he interpreted all curves kinematically as the trajectories of a moving point [63].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Already as a student, Newton realized that differentiation and integration are mutually inverse operations [16].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This basic theorem of analysis was already more or less clearly looming in the works of Torricelli, Gregory and Barrow, but only Newton realized that on this basis it is possible to obtain not only individual discoveries, but a powerful system calculus, similar to algebra, with clear rules and huge capabilities.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton did not care about publishing his version of the analysis for almost 30 years, although in letters (in particular, to Leibniz) he willingly shares much of his achievements.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Meanwhile, the Leibniz variant has been widely and openly spread throughout Europe since 1676.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Only in 1693 did the first presentation of Newton's version appear - in the form of an appendix to Wallis's Treatise on Algebra [26].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

We have to admit that Newton's terminology and symbolism are rather awkward compared to Leibniz's: fluxia (derivative), fluent (primitive), moment of magnitude (differential), etc. Only the Newtonian designation “o” for the infinitesimal dt has survived in mathematics (however, Gregory used this letter in the same sense earlier), and even a dot above the letter as a symbol of the derivative time [63].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton published a fairly complete presentation of the principles of analysis only in his work “On the quadrature of curves” (1704), attached to his monograph “Optics”.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Almost all of the material presented was ready in the 1670s and 1680s, but only now Gregory and Halley persuaded Newton to publish a work that, 40 years late, became Newton's first printed work on analysis.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Here Newton has derivatives of higher orders, the values of integrals of various rational and irrational functions are found, and examples of solving differential equations of the 1st order are given.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1707, the book Universal Arithmetic was published.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It provides a variety of numerical methods.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton has always paid great attention to the approximate solution of equations.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Newton's famous method made it possible to find the roots of equations with previously unthinkable speed and accuracy (published in Wallis's Algebra, 1685).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Joseph Rafson (1690) gave Newton's iterative method a modern look.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1711, Analysis with Equations with Infinite Terms was finally published, 40 years later.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In this work, Newton equally easily explores both algebraic and “mechanical” curves (cycloid, quadratrix).


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

Private derivatives appear.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In the same year, the Difference Method was published, where Newton proposed an interpolation formula for passing through (n +1) these points with equally spaced or unequally spaced abscissa of the n-th order polynomial.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

This is a difference analogue of Taylor's formula.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

In 1736, the final work “The Method of Fluxes and Infinite Series” was posthumously published, significantly advanced compared to “Analysis with the Help of Equations”.


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It provides numerous examples of finding extremes, tangents and normals, calculating radii and centers of curvature in Cartesian and polar coordinates, finding inflection points, etc. In the same work, quadratures and straightening of various curves are made [63].


Question: Where is Isaac Newton buried?

Isaac Newton

It should be noted that Newton not only developed the analysis quite fully, but also made an attempt to strictly justify its principles.