Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Poster Communication in Section I — Viticulture: B. Managing Vine Information.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Porto, Portugal, 2011.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Identification of the Causes of Diseases of Grapes: by Elisa and PCR/V. Vlasov, L. Konup, V. Chistyakova, A. Konup//Proc.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

17th ICVG Meeting (Davis, California, USA, 7-14 October 2012).


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Davis, 2012.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Evaluation of grapevine growing environment for viticultural districting and determination of areas for high quality wine production/O. Shaposhnikova, E. Vlasova, Iu.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Bulaieva, V. Vlasov, A. Shtirbu//Conferenta de gruntoznavstva.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Bucuresti, Rumunij, 2013.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— P. 38-42.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Viral, Bacterial and Phytoplasma Diseases of Grapes in South Ukraine/V. Vlasov, L. Konup, V. Chistyakova, A. Konup//Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology A. USA.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Nev York (USA), 2013.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— No. 13.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— P. 231-233.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Managing by the sustainable development of viticulture in Odessa region/V. Vlasov, L. Gingin, V. Popovich [et. al.] //Buletinul Ştiinific al Universităii de Stat “Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu” din Cahul.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— 2015.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— No. 1 (13).


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— P. 13-19.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Grapevine virus diseases testing in the seedlings introduced to Ukraine Proc/V Vlasov, A. Konup, L. Konup, V. Chistyakova//18th ICVG Meeting (Ankara, 7-11 September 2015).


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Ankara (Turkey), 2015.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— P. 151—153.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Natural grape products against alcoholism/V V. Vlasov, N.A. Mulyukina, A.P. Levitskiky, A. I.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Gritsuk//The 2nd East-West Symposium on Biomedical Research of Alcohol-Related Diseases (Crodno, the Republic of Belarus, October 13-14, 2016).


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Crodno, 2016.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— P. 46.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Evaluation of agroecological conditions for wine growing with gis application/V Vlasov, O. Vlasova//OIV — Congress — 2004.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

XXVIII.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Weltkongress für Rebe und Wein 2. Generalversammlung der OIV.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— Hofburg, Vienna (Austria), 2004.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

— P. 19.


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Notes


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Literature


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

References


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine (in Ukrainian)


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

(in Ukrainian)


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Category:Moldova State University alumni


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Category:Cavaliers of the Order of the UOC of St. Vladimir Equal-to-the-Apostles, 2nd Class


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Category:Academicians of the National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Category:Municipal Deputies


Question: When the National Scientific Center “Institute of Viticulture and Winemaking named after V. E. Tairova”?

Vyacheslav Vlasov

Category:Ukrainian agronomists


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Right|mini|Parabolic Radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radar station (radar), radar (English: radar from - radio detection and range measurement) is a system for detecting air, sea and land objects, as well as for determining their range, speed and geometrical parameters.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

It uses a radar method based on the radiation of radio waves and recording their reflections from objects.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The English term appeared in 1941 as a sound abbreviation (English: RADAR), later becoming an independent word [1] [2] [3].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

History


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1887, German physicist Heinrich Hertz began experiments in which he discovered the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by James Maxwell's theory.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Hertz learned how to generate and capture electromagnetic radio waves and found that they are absorbed and reflected differently by different materials.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1897, Russian physicist A. S. Popov during experiments on radio communication between ships discovered the phenomenon of reflection of radio waves from the ship.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The radio transmitter was installed on the upper bridge of the Europa transport, which was anchored, and the radio was installed on the cruiser Africa.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the report of the commission appointed to conduct these experiments, A. S. Popov wrote:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The influence of the ship's situation affects the following: all metal objects (masts, pipes, gear) must interfere with the action of the instruments both at the departure station and at the receiving station, when they get in the way of an electromagnetic wave, they disrupt its correctness, partly similar to what it does on an ordinary wave propagating over the surface of the water, a breakwater, partly due to the interference of waves excited in them with the source waves, that is, they affect unfavorably.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

... The influence of an intermediate vessel was also observed.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

So, during the experiments between “Europe” and “Africa”, the cruiser “Lieutenant Ilyin” hit, and if this happened at long distances, the interaction of the devices stopped until the ships left one straight line.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1905, a German patent was issued at the request of the idea of a radar dated April 30, 1904 [4].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the United States, the discovery of the reflection of radio waves is attributed to 1922.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Knowledge of the basic idea alone was not enough to practically create even the simplest radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In addition to the basic principle of operation, engineers had to invent many extremely important and witty technical devices and devices: magnetrons, klystrons, traveling wave tubes, waveguides, amplifying and generator lamps of complex design.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

At the same time, engineers relied only on their own strength: many of the technical tasks that had to be faced while working on the radar were secret, which made it difficult for scientists to exchange information.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Long-wave radio engineering, which historically began to be mastered, was not applicable at high frequencies.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

One of the first devices designed for radar air objects was demonstrated on February 26, 1935 by Scottish physicist Robert Watson-Watt, who about a year earlier received the first a patent for the invention of such a system.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the second half of the 1930s, the first industrial models of radars appeared in the UK.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

They were bulky and could only be placed on land or on large ships.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1937, a prototype of a compact radar suitable for placement on an aircraft was tested [5].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The first aircraft airborne radars were designed either to detect enemy aircraft and ships in the absence of optical visibility, or to detect an attack from behind (for example).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The struggle to save space, weight and energy did not end there, and simple and miniature radio detonators were created that could be placed in the heads of anti-aircraft shells.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By the outbreak of World War II, the Chain Home radar system had been deployed in Britain.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The history of the creation of radar stations is shown in a British documentary.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the United States, the first military contract with industry was signed in 1939.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The outbreak of World War II required British engineers to take effective measures to combat German air raids, and in the summer of 1940, under the leadership, a resonant magnetron was developed, which became the basis of a new effective centimeter range onboard radar system, which was equipped with American and British aircraft in early 1941 [6].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Austrian architect Rudolf Compfner created a traveling wave tube that amplifies a signal a million times over a wide frequency range.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

For the development of this device, Compfner was awarded the title of Doctor of Physics.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

To protect its cities from bomber raids, Germany created anti-aircraft batteries controlled by radars of the type with a carrier frequency of 560 megahertz.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

General Kammhuber, who created the so-called Kammhuber line, was responsible for the organization of air defense.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

During a British commando on the coast of France in the province of Seine-Maritime (Upper Normandy), the mystery of German radars was revealed.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

To jam the radars, the Allies used transmitters that emit interference in a certain frequency band at an average frequency of 560 megahertz.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

At first, bombers were equipped with such transmitters.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

When German pilots learned to guide fighters to interference signals like beacons, huge American Project Tuba transmitters, designed by at [7].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

From their powerful signals, German fighters “blinded” in Europe, and Allied bombers, having got rid of their pursuers, calmly flew to the house across the English Channel.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

IN THE USSR


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the Soviet Union, the realization of the need for aviation detection tools, free from the shortcomings of sound and optical surveillance, led to the development of research in the field of radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The idea proposed by the young artilleryman Pavel Oshchepkov was approved by the high command: the People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR K. E.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Voroshilov and his deputy M. N. Tukhachevsky.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1932, on the basis of the State Institute of Physics and Technology, the Leningrad Electrophysical Institute (LEFI) was established under the leadership of A. A. Chernyshev, in which research and development work on radar was carried out.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1935, LEFI was disbanded, and on its basis a “closed” institute of NII-9 was organized with defense themes, including radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Its scientific supervisor was M. A. Bonch-Bruevich.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radar work has also begun at the UFTI in Kharkiv.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By the beginning of the war, the efforts of scientists and engineers of LEFI, NII-9 and other organizations had created experimental ground radars [8].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

On January 3, 1934, an experiment was successfully conducted in the USSR to detect an aircraft by radar method.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The aircraft, flying at an altitude of 150 meters, was detected at a range of 600 meters from the radar installation.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The experiment was organized by representatives of the Leningrad Institute of Electrical Engineering and the Central Radio Laboratory.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The experiment was led by military engineer M. M. Lobanov, who, according to academician Yu.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

B.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Kobzarev, was the first to convince the industry to deal with the problem of radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1934, Marshal Tukhachevsky wrote in a letter to the USSR government: “Experiments to detect aircraft using an electromagnetic beam confirmed the correctness of the principle underlying.”


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The first Rapid pilot plant was tested by P. Oshchepkov in the same year [9]: the transmitter was installed in Moscow on the roof of house No. 14 on Krasnokazarmennaya Street, the receiver was installed near the village of Novogireevo; M. N. Tukhachevsky, N. N. Nagorny, M. IN. Shuleikin.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1936, the Soviet centimeter radar “Storm” detected the aircraft from a distance of 10 kilometers (tests of Group B. K. Shembel in Yevpatoria) [9].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The first Soviet radars adopted by the Red Army and mass-produced: RUS-1 (1939) and RUS-2 (1940).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

During the war, the program for the creation of Soviet radars was headed by engineer Admiral Axel Berg, information about American developments was obtained by Soviet intelligence.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In 1946, American experts Raymond and Hacherton wrote: “Soviet scientists successfully developed radar theory a few years before radar was invented in England” [10].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Much attention in the air defense system is paid to solving the problem of timely detection.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Grading


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The scope of application distinguishes:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

military radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

civilian radars.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By purpose:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Detection radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Control and tracking radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

panoramic radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Side scan radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

meteorological radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Target designation radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Counter-battery warfare radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Situation review radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By the nature of the carrier:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

coastal radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

marine radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

on-board radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

mobile radars.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By type of action:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

primary, or passive [11];


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

secondary or active [11];


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

combined.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By method of action:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

over-the-horizon radar;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

over-the-horizon radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

By wave range:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

meter;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

decimeter;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

centimeter;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

millimeter.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Primary radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The primary (passive) radar mainly serves to detect targets, illuminating them with an electromagnetic wave and then receiving reflections (echoes) of this wave from the target.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Since the speed of electromagnetic waves is constant (the speed of light), it becomes possible to determine the distance to the target based on the measurement of various parameters of signal propagation.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The radar station is based on three components: a transmitter, an antenna and a receiver.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The transmitter (transmitting device) is a source of a high-power electromagnetic signal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

It can be a powerful pulse generator.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

For centimeter range pulse radars, usually a magnetron or a pulse generator operating according to the scheme: the master oscillator is a powerful amplifier that most often uses a lamp as a generator traveling wave (TWT), and a triode lamp is often used for meter-range radars.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radars that use magnetrons are incoherent or pseudo-coherent, unlike TWT-based radars.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Depending on the design, the transmitter operates either in a pulsed mode, generating repeated short powerful electromagnetic pulses, or emits a continuous electromagnetic signal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The antenna focuses the transmitter signal and forms a radiation pattern, as well as receives the signal reflected from the target and transmits this signal to the receiver.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Depending on the implementation, the reflected signal can be received either by the same antenna or by another antenna, which can sometimes be located at a considerable distance from the transmitting device.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the event that transmission and reception are combined in the same antenna, these two actions are performed alternately, and so that the powerful signal leaking from the transmitting transmitter to the receiver does not blind the receiver of the weak echo, a special device is placed in front of the receiver that closes the receiver input at the time of emission of the probing signal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The receiver (receiver) amplifies and processes the received signal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In the simplest case, the resulting signal is sent to a ray tube (screen), which shows an image that is synchronized with the movement of the antenna.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Different radars are based on different methods for measuring the parameters of the reflected signal:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Frequency method


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The frequency method for measuring the range is based on the use of frequency modulation of radiated continuous signals.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In this method, a frequency that varies linearly from f1 to f2 is radiated over a period.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The reflected signal will come modulated linearly at the time preceding the current delay time.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Thus, the frequency of the reflected signal received by the radar will depend proportionally on the time.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The delay time is determined by a sharp change in the frequency of the difference signal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Advantages:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

allows you to measure very short ranges;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

a low-power transmitter is used.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Disadvantages:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

it is necessary to use two antennas;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

deterioration of the receiver sensitivity due to leakage through the antenna into the receiving path of the transmitter, which is subject to random changes;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

high requirements for linearity of frequency changes.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Phase method


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The phase (coherent) radar method is based on the isolation and analysis of the phase difference between the sent and reflected signals, which occurs due to the Doppler effect when the signal is reflected from a moving of the facility.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

At the same time, the transmitting device can operate both continuously and in pulsed mode.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The main advantage of this method is that it “allows you to observe only moving objects, and this eliminates interference from fixed objects located between the receiving equipment and the target or behind her” [12].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Since ultrashort waves are used, the unambiguous range measurement range is about units of a meter.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Therefore, in practice, more complex circuits are used, in which two or more frequencies are present.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Advantages:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

low-power radiation, as continuous oscillations are generated;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

accuracy does not depend on the Doppler shift of the reflection frequency;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

a fairly simple device.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Disadvantages:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

lack of range resolution;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

deterioration of the receiver sensitivity due to penetration through the antenna into the receiving path of the transmitter radiation, which is subject to random changes.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Pulse method


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Modern tracking radars are built like impulse radars.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The pulse radar transmits the emitting signal only for a very short time, with a short pulse (usually approximately a microsecond), after which it enters reception mode and listens to the echo reflected away from the target, while the emitted impulse travels through space.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Since the pulse travels far from the radar at a constant speed, there is a direct relationship between the time that has elapsed from the moment the pulse was sent to the moment the echo response was received and the distance to the target.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The next pulse can be sent only after a while, namely after the pulse comes back (this depends on the radar detection range, transmitter power, antenna gain, receiver sensitivity).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

If the pulse is sent earlier, the echo of the previous pulse from a distant target may be confused with the echo of the second pulse from a nearby target.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The time interval between pulses is called the pulse repetition interval (PRI), the inverse to it is an important parameter called the repetition rate impulse (NPI, English: Pulse Repetition Frequency, PRF).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Low-frequency long-range radars usually have a repetition interval of several hundred pulses per second.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The pulse repetition rate is one of the distinctive features by which it is possible to remotely determine the radar model.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Advantages of the pulse method of measuring range:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the ability to build a radar with one antenna;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the simplicity of the indicator device;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the convenience of measuring the range of several targets;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the simplicity of the emitted pulses, which last a very short time, and the received signals.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Disadvantages:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the need to use high pulse power of the transmitter;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the impossibility of measuring short ranges;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

big dead zone.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Eliminate passive interference


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

One of the main problems of pulse radars is to get rid of the signal reflected from fixed objects: the earth's surface, high hills, etc. If, for example, an aircraft is on a high hill, the reflected signal from that hill will completely block the signal from the aircraft.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

For ground-based radars, this problem manifests itself when working with low-flying objects.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

For onboard pulse radars, it is expressed in the fact that reflection from the earth's surface obscures all objects lying below the radar aircraft.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Methods for eliminating interference use, one way or another, the Doppler effect (the frequency of the wave reflected from the approaching object increases, from the departing object decreases).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The simplest radar that can detect a target in interference is moving target selection radar (SDC), a pulse radar that compares reflections from more than two or more repetition intervals momentum.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Any target that moves relative to the radar makes a change in the signal parameter (stage in the serial SDC), while the interference remains unchanged.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The elimination of interference occurs by subtracting reflections from two consecutive intervals.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In practice, interference can be eliminated in special devices — through period compensators or algorithms in software.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

An irreparable drawback of SDC operating with a constant NPI is the impossibility of detecting targets with specific circular velocities (targets that produce phase changes exactly 360 degrees).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The speed at which the target becomes invisible to the radar depends on the operating frequency of the station and the NPI.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

To eliminate the drawback, modern SDC emits several pulses with different NPIs.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

NPIs are selected in such a way that the number of “invisible” speeds is minimal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Pulse Doppler radars, unlike radars with SDC, use a different, more complex method of getting rid of interference.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The received signal containing information about targets and interference is transmitted to the input of the Doppler filter unit.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Each filter passes a signal of a certain frequency.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

At the output of the filters, derivatives of signals are calculated.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The method helps to find targets at given speeds, can be implemented in hardware or software, does not allow (without modifications) to determine the distances to targets.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

To determine the distances to targets, you can divide the pulse repetition interval into segments (called range segments) and send a signal to the input of the Doppler filter unit during this segment range.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

It is possible to calculate the distance only with repeated repetitions of pulses at different frequencies (the target appears at different ranges at different NPI).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

An important property of pulse-Doppler radars is the coherence of the signal, the phase dependence of the sent and received (reflected) signals.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Pulse-Doppler radars, unlike radars with SDC, are more successful in detecting low-flying targets.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

On modern fighters, these radars are used for air interception and fire control (AN/APG-63, 65, 66, 67 and 70 radars).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Modern implementations are mainly software: the signal is digitized and sent to a separate processor for processing.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Often, a digital signal is converted to a form that is convenient for other algorithms using a fast Fourier transform.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The use of software implementation in comparison with the hardware implementation has several advantages:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the ability to select algorithms from among the available ones;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

ability to change algorithm parameters;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

the ability to add/change algorithms (by changing the firmware).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

These advantages, along with the ability to store data in ROM), allow, if necessary, to quickly adapt to the enemy's jamming technique.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Eliminate active interference


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The most effective method of combating active interference is the use of a digital antenna array in the radar, which makes it possible to form dips in the radiation pattern in the directions to the directors interference.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

[14] [15].


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Secondary radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Secondary radar is used in aviation for identification purposes.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The main feature is the use of an active responder on aircraft.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The operating principle of a secondary radar is somewhat different from that of a primary radar.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The device of the Secondary Radar Station is based on components: a transmitter, an antenna, azimuth tag generators, a receiver, a signal processor, an indicator and an aircraft responder with an antenna.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The transmitter is used to generate request pulses in the antenna at a frequency of 1030 MHz.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The antenna is used to emit request pulses and receive a reflected signal.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

According to ICAO standards for secondary radar, the antenna radiates at 1030 MHz and receives at 1090 MHz.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Azimuth mark generators are used to generate azimuth marks (English: Azimuth Change Pulse (ACP) and English: Azimuth Reference Pulse (ARP).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In one revolution of the radar antenna, 4,096 small azimuth marks (for old systems) or 16,384 improved small azimuth marks (English: Improved Azimuth Change pulse, IACP for new systems) are generated, and also one mark of the North.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The north mark comes from the azimuth mark generator when the antenna is in such a position when it is directed to the North, and small azimuth marks are used to calculate the angle of rotation of the antenna.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The receiver is used to receive pulses at a frequency of 1090 MHz.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The signal processor is used to process received signals.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The indicator is used to display processed information.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

An aircraft responder with an antenna serves to transmit a pulsed radio signal containing additional information back to the radar on request.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The principle of operation of the secondary radar is to use the energy of the aircraft responder to determine the position of the aircraft.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The radar irradiates the surrounding space with request pulses P1 and P3, as well as a suppression pulse P2 at a frequency of 1030 MHz.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Aircraft equipped with responders located in the coverage area of the request beam, when receiving request pulses, if the condition P1, P3>P2 is in effect, respond to the requesting radar with a series of encoded pulses at 1090 MHz, which contain additional information about the board number, altitude, and so on.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The response of the aircraft responder depends on the request mode of the radar, and the request mode is determined by the time interval between the request pulses P1 and P3, for example, in request mode A (mode A), the time interval between the request pulses of the station P1 and P3 are 8 microseconds, and upon receipt of such a request, the aircraft responder encodes its board number in the response pulses.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In request mode C (mode C), the time interval between the request pulses of the station is 21 microseconds, and when such a request is received, the aircraft responder encodes its height in the response pulses.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The radar can also send a request in mixed mode, for example, Mode A, Mode C, Mode A, Mode C.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The azimuth of the aircraft is determined by the angle of rotation of the antenna, which, in turn, is determined by counting small azimuth marks.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The range is determined by the delay of the received response.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

If the aircraft is in the coverage area of the side lobes rather than the main beam, or is located behind the antenna, the respondent of the aircraft, upon receipt of a request from the radar, that the pulses P1, P3<P2, that is, the suppression pulse is greater than the request pulses.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

In this case, the respondent is locked up and does not respond to the request.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The signal received from the defendant is processed by the radar receiver, then goes to the signal processor, which processes the signals and issues information to the end user and (or) to the control indicator.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The advantages of the secondary radar:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

higher accuracy


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

additional information about the aircraft (board number, altitude);


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

low radiation power compared to primary radars;


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

long detection range.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radar bands


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

designator


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

IEEE/ITUetymologyFrequenciesWave lengthNotesHFEnglish: high frequency3—30 MHz10—100 Coast Guard mradars, “over-the-horizon” radars HFEnglish: previous< 300 МГц> 1 misUsed in the first radars VHFEnglish : very high frequency50—330 MHz0.9—6 mobLong-range detection, earth explorationUHFEnglish: ultra high frequency300—1000 MHz0.3—1 mobLong-range detection (for example, artillery shelling), research of forests, earth surfaceLenglish: Long1—2 GHz15—30 cmsurveillance and air traffic controlSEnglish: Short2—4 GHz7.5—15 air traffic control, meteorology, marine radarsCEnglish: Compromise4—8 GHz3.75—7.5 cmmeteorology, satellite broadcasting, intermediate range between X and SX8—12 GHz2.5—3.75 weapon control, missile guidance, marine radars, weather, medium resolution mapping; in the US, the 10.525 GHz ± 25 MHz band is used in KuEnglish airport radars: under K12-18 GHz1.67—2.5 cmmapping high-resolution, satellite AltimetryKGerman: kurz - “short” 18-27 GHz1.11-1.67 media use is limited due to strong absorption by water vapor, so the Ku and Ka ranges are used.


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

The K band is used to detect clouds in police traffic radars (24.150 ± 0.100 GHz).


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

KAEnglish: above K27—40 GHz0.75—1.11 cmMapping, short-range air traffic control, special radars that control traffic cameras (34.300 ± 0.100 GHz) mm40-300 GHz1—7.5 mmmillimeter waves are divided into the following two ranges V40—75 GHz4.0—7.5 mm EHF medical devices used for physiotherapy W75—110 GHz2.7—4.0 mmsensors in experimental automatic vehicles, high-precision studies of weather phenomena


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Frequency band designations adopted by the US and NATO Armed Forces since 1982 [16]


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

See also


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Anti-radar missile


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Ground penetrating radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Police radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radio engineering troops


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Northern Warning System


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Cathode ray indicator tube


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Phased array


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

List of radar stations


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Aircraft radars


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Radiophoton radar


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Notes


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Literature


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

References


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Steve Blank, Google Tech Talk:


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

//dxdt.ru


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

(in German)


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Category:Pulse technology


Question: Who came up with the first radar?

Radar station

Category:Radar


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Georgian script is an alphabetical script used by some Kartvelian languages, primarily Georgian, as well as sporadically Megrelian, Svan and others.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

It reads from left to right.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters; there are no uppercase letters in the alphabet, but in headings and in some other cases the whole word can be written without upper and lower outriggers elements, as if between two parallel lines (see illustration) — this spelling serves as an analogue of capital letters in other alphabets and is called “mtavruli” [1].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Symbols of this type of Georgian script have been included in Unicode since version 11.0 [2].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The Georgian alphabet was the basis of the “Caucasian Alphabet”, created by Baron Uslar to record the unwritten languages of the Caucasus [3] [4].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

In 1938-1954, Georgian writing (with the introduction of additional characters) was also used for Abkhazian and Ossetian [5] (in South Ossetia) languages.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Historical essay


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

There are various hypotheses in card studies about the prototype of the Georgian alphabet.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

According to various theories, it is based on Aramaic, Greek or Coptic script.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

German scientist H.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Juncker, an expert in Iranian linguistics [6], put forward a version that mkhedruli, like the Khutsuri, are based, like the Armenian alphabet, on the Aramaic-Pahlavi script, pointing to an independent the continuity of the Khutsuri letter from Arshakid Pahlavi.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

According to Juncker, the letter of mkhedruli can be interpreted as a cursive variety of khutsuri, and considered in its older forms as a letter that preceded it [7] [8].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The most widely used in world historical science is the point of view based on Armenian primary sources of the 5th-7th centuries, according to which the creator of the first Georgian letter is mrgvlovani — is Mesrop Mashtots (who also created the Armenian alphabet in 405 AD) [9] [10].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

However, this statement is not confirmed in non-Armenian sources [11].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The hypothesis about the creation of Georgian writing by Mashtots is supported by large encyclopedias [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] and academic scientists [17] [18] [19].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

According to A. G. Perikhanyan and J.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Grippin, perhaps Mesrop Mashtots was not the direct creator of Georgian writing, but the latter could not have arisen without his participation [20] [21].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The arguments in favor of the version about Mashtots, in addition to the Koryun tradition itself, are as follows:


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Nikolay Marr in his article “On the Unity of Tasks of Armenian-Georgian Philology” noted the great similarity of the ancient Armenian alphabet and Georgian church writing (khutsuri): “Georgian church writing, the only one used in Georgia by scribes until the 10th and 11th centuries, really shows extreme closeness to the Armenian alphabet” [22].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Objecting Javakhishvili's argument that the record about Mashtots's creation of the Georgian alphabet appeared in the later correspondence of Koryun's work, Muradyan cites the third letter of Armenian Catholicos Abraham to Kartli Bishop Kirion (607, after the separation of the Armenian and Georgian churches in 604, when the latter adopted the principles of the Council of Chalcedon), which states that Christianity in Armenia and Georgia came from the same source, “first blessed St. Gregory, and then Mashtots, and knowledge of writings in the steadfastness of faith.”


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Kirion's response is also known [23], where he does not object a word to Abraham's arguments about Mashtots's role for the Georgian Church.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

From this, Muradyan concludes that these figures at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries were well aware of Mashtots's role in the creation of the Georgian alphabet [24].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

A number of researchers state that Koryun is not the only source of ancient information about Mesrop's invention of alphabets, as well as Khorenatsi, supplementing Koryun with details missing from the latter [25 ] [26].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Writing historian V. Istrin singled out the following arguments of Georgian scientists denying Mashtots's participation in the creation of the alphabet:


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Only Koryun, Khorenatsi and Movses Kagankatvatsi write about Mashtots's creation of the Georgian alphabet


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Paleographic analysis of the oldest Georgian inscriptions, which makes the most likely version of the emergence of the Georgian alphabet based on the Aramaic alphabet at the beginning of our era


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Absence of significant similarities between the Armenian and Georgian alphabets


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Analyzing these arguments, V. Istrin believes that the third argument is the least convincing, since Mashtots's method of constructing the Armenian alphabet demonstrates the correspondence of the alphabet to phonetics and decorative arts of Armenia, and if the Georgian alphabet was built, Mashtots would be guided by different phonetic and decorative principles.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Objecting the second argument, Istrin notes that the basis on which the Georgian alphabet was built is also unclear.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The Aramaic hypothesis (Muller, Taylor, Javakhishvili, Tsereteli, etc.) refers to the similarity of a number of letters and a common graphic style, but there is no less similarity between Georgian and Greek letters.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Georgian and Greek letters are vocalized and sound, and Aramaic is consonant sound.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The direction of Georgian writing is from left to right, and Aramaic is the opposite.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Finally, the letter order of the Georgian alphabet is closer to the Greek alphabet [27].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Arguing by the absence of events related to the invention of Georgian writings by Mashtots in Georgian chronicles, Werner Seibt considers the data from this chapter of Koryun's text to be rather suspicious.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Since neither Lazar Parpetsi, who wrote in the 5th century, nor Yeznik, who was a disciple of Mashtots, mention anything about Mashtots's creation of the Georgian letter, Seibt assumes that this chapter is later by inserting Koryun into the text.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Based on the discovery of the oldest Georgian inscriptions in Palestine, Werner Seibt proposed a hypothesis according to which Georgian writing could have been invented there, by Georgian monks, who learned about the translation of the Bible into Armenian, therefore Mashtots played at least the role of an indirect initiator of the creation of the Georgian writing system [28].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Stephen Rapp also admits the possibility of late insertion of a fragment about Mashtots's invention of the Georgian alphabet, but believes that there are many grounds to believe that the invention of three Transcaucasian alphabets (Armenian, Georgian and Albanian) belong to one regional process that Mashtots oversaw [29].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Marr was also of the opinion that mkhedruli was the result of the development of pre-Christian Georgian writing, which underwent changes under the influence of the Khutsuri and continued to be used in civil and military spheres [8]


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

According to the Georgian author of the 11th century Leonti Mroveli, who may have more ancient sources, as well as a similar report by Mkhitar Ayrivanetsi, dating back to Kartlis Tskhovreba [30], Georgian alphabet was created by a semi-legendary king


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Farnavaz I in the 3rd century BC


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Georgian historians overwhelmingly [27] adhere to the point of view that the Georgian alphabet originated before Mesrop Mashtots [32] [33] [34] [35].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Thus, Javakhishvili set the time of the emergence of the Georgian alphabet to the 7th century BC.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Janashia also argued that the alphabet was impossible to emerge later than the 7th century BC. e.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

, stating that at that time Georgians had to switch from ancient hieroglyphic and cuneiform Georgian script to phonetic writing.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Pavle Ingorokva and Pataridze were also of the opinion that Georgian writing should have been created long before the spread of Christianity.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

K. Kekelidze and A. Shanidze linked the creation of the Georgian alphabet with the adoption of Christianity.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

A small group of Georgian researchers claim to create Georgian writing based on Sumerian [36].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

From ancient Georgian hieroglyphic or cuneiform writing, Sergey Muravyov notes that science does not have not only a single example of a hieroglyphic or cuneiform Georgian inscription, but even a hint of the existence of such, and regards such dating as “extravagant science-based mythologems” [30].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Stephen Rapp notes that there is no evidence to support the legend about the creation of the alphabet by Farnavaz.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The earliest surviving monuments of Georgian writing date back to the 5th century [37] [38]


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

As Donald Rayfield notes, major archaeological sites of the 1st century AD. e.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

contain inscriptions only in Greek and Aramaic [10].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Werner Seibt also believes that stories about the pre-Christian origin of Georgian writing should not be taken seriously [28].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Shnirelman notes that Georgian historians are characterized by a painful attitude towards Mesrop Mashtots, whose activities prevent “the creation of a myth about a pure original culture” [39].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

from Oxford University notes that there are no early traditions attributing the invention of the alphabet to a Georgian historical figure, and the legendary attribution of the alphabet to King Farnavaz, who lived for many centuries before the birth of Christ, has no historical basis [40].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

from Harvard University considers the minuscule nuskhuri font to be a modification of the Armenian yerkatagir by Mesrop Mashtots [41]


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The oldest monuments in Georgian


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The oldest Georgian alphabet found in Upper Svaneti on the western wall of the Atsa Church of the Archangels contains 37 letters and dates back to the 11th century.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The oldest Georgian inscriptions are two of the four inscriptions discovered during excavations of an ancient Georgian monastery in Bir al-Kutta, Palestine, dating back to 429—444, although not all scholars agree with this early date.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

The inscription of Bolnisi Sion is the second most ancient (493—494) [42].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

About 10 [43] —12 thousand [44] medieval Georgian manuscripts have been preserved.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Georgian historian Levan Chilashvili, while studying the pagan sanctuaries located in the Kakheti village of Nekresi in the second half of the 1990s, discovered a fragment of a badly damaged tombstone stele (later called Nekresskaya inscription) and other fragments on which inscriptions of a Mazdeist character are inscribed in the “asomtavruli” font, which were dated by him and other Georgian historians later 3rd century AD


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

, before Georgia adopted Christianity [45] [46].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

According to Donald Rayfield, the claim that the Georgian script is of pre-Christian origin seems unlikely and is not confirmed by archaeology [10].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Stephen Rapp also notes that this dating of the Nekresa inscription is questionable [38].


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Georgian alphabet


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Obsolete letters are gray, and letters used in other languages are green.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

LetternameIPAISO 9984RomanizationCompliance


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

CyrillicemKhedruli


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Nuskhuri


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Asomtavruli


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Mtavruli


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

[] A aa aa aa aa [b] B bB BB BB [] G Gg Gg g g [d] D dd dd dd [] G Gg g ee ee ee e, E [v] V vV V V [z] Z zZ ZZ ZZ [], in Svan [] Ē——[ t] T' T't T[ e], in Megrelian,


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

laz and


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Svan [j] Y Y——[] O oo oo oo [p] P pp' p'p p p [] ž žzh zh [s] S sS S with [t] T TT' t't t t [w] W W——[ u] U uu uu in Megrelian and Svan [ə] ———K'k Kk [p] P' P'p P [k'] K'k Kk [] K' Kk [] GH GH GH (G' g ') [q] Q QQ' Megrelian and Svan [] ————[] Š Šsh Shsh [t≧] Č' Č'ch Chh h [t≧s] C' C'ts TSC [d≧z] J JDz DzDzdz [t≧s] C CTS' TS [t≧s] C CTS' TS [t≧s] [x] X xKH xX X [q] H——[ d≧] J J [h] H HH H [h] H HH [h] ] Ō Ō——in Laz [f] F——————


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

See also


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

History of creation of the Armenian alphabet


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Notes


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

References


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

— translator of numbers written in Georgian and other letters.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Khurtsilava, B.


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Georgian alphabet Asomtavruli and its creators: Bakur and Gri Ormizd, Tbilisi, 2009*Khurtsilava, B. The inscriptions of the Georgian Monastery in B'ir el-Qutt and their chronology, “Historical Verticals”, # 35-36, 2016


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter


Question: How many letters does the Georgian alphabet have?

Georgian letter

Category:ISO 15924


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

Sample of precious metals — determination by various analytical methods of the proportion, weight content of the main noble metal (gold, silver, platinum, etc.) in the alloy being tested; is used for subsequent branding, normatively fixing the data obtained as a result of analyzes — the proportion of the noble metal in the manufacture of jewelry, coins, etc.


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

The stamp itself and the content of the base noble metal determined during piercing are also called a breakdown.


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

According to the legislation in force in the Russian Federation, all industrially produced alloys containing more than 30% by weight of the noble metal must be pierced and appropriately branded.


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

To date, a discrete line of their possible contents in alloys (samples) has been established for all noble metals.


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

Sample systems


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

Sampling systems include the following:


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

metric


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

carat


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

spool


Question: How many carats of gold are in a 999 sample?

Precious metal sample

lot


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Metric test


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The basis of the metric sample system is the number of milligrams of the base noble metal in 1 gram (or grams per kilogram) of the alloy being tested.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The sample value can also be considered as the number of weight parts (fractions) of the main noble metal per 1000 weight parts (shares) of the alloy being pierced.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The line of standard discrete fraction values was mainly established by recalculating the fractions of the carat sample system.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the USSR, since 1927, a metric system of samples has been adopted on the territory of the Russian Federation and the CIS countries.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

It is also used in France (with the adoption of the metric system of measures) [1], in Germany (since 1888) [2] and in countries that have signed the Convention on the Control and Marking of Products Made of Precious Metals (English: Convention on the Control and Marking of Articles of Precious Metals): Austria, Cyprus, Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Great Britain, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland [3].


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The following samples have been established for precious metals in Russia [4]:


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

gold — 375, 500, 583, 585, 750, 916, 958, 999


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

silver — 800, 830, 875, 925, 960, 999


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

platinum — 585, 850, 900, 950


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

palladium — 500, 850


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Carat test


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The carat sampling system is used in the United States and Canada.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

It was also used in Western Europe before the introduction of the metric sampling system.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In Ireland, both metric and carat tests are stamped [5].


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the UK, stamps have been using the metric system since 1973, but carat is allowed in the descriptions [6].


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

It is used only for gold (conventional names or metric sample are used for silver, metric sample for platinum and palladium).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The basis of the carat sample system is the number of carats of the main noble metal in 24 carats of the alloy being tested.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The following samples are used for precious metals:


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

9 carats - the mass of the noble metal is 0.375 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

12 carats — the mass of the noble metal is 0.500 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

14 carats - the mass of the noble metal is 0.583 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

18 carats - the mass of the noble metal is 0.750 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

21 carats — the mass of the noble metal is 0.875 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

22 carats — the mass of the noble metal is 0.916 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

23 carats — the mass of the noble metal is 0.958 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

24 carats — the mass of the noble metal is more than 0.999 of the weight of the alloy, that is, the metal in its pure form.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To indicate that the sample is carat, abbreviations K, kt, C, ct can be placed after the number.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the United States and Canada, it is customary to distinguish by spelling the words English: karat (unit of sample) and English: carat (unit of mass).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To convert a carat sample to a metric value of a carat sample, divide by 24 and multiply by 1000.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In Great Britain and Spain, in addition to carat, a fractional unit (English: grain, Spanish: grano) of ¼ carat was previously used, equivalent to 1 spool.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

There was also a 1⁄16 carat unit (English: quart).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Spool test


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The spool test was introduced in Russia from the moment the penetration of precious metals began, namely from May 1, 1798 and was valid until 1927.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The spool sample system is built on the basis of the Russian pound containing 96 spools.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Like the European carat system, the spool test in the designation corresponds to the number of precious metal spools in 96 spools (1 pound) of the alloy being pierced:


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

36 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.375 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

48 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.500 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

56 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.583 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

72 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.750 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

84 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.875 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

88 spools — the mass of the noble metal is 0.916 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

91 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.947 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

92 spools - the mass of the noble metal is 0.958 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

96 spools — the mass of the noble metal is more than 0.999 of the weight of the alloy, that is, the metal in its pure form.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To convert the spool sample to carat, the value of the spool sample should be divided by 4.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To convert the spool sample to the metric value of the spool test, divide by 96 and multiply by 1000.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Lot test


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The lot sample was valid in Germany for silver before switching to the metric sample system (1888).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The lot sample system is built on the basis of a brand that was in circulation in the Middle Ages among the German, Scandinavian and Celtic population of Europe and Britain, containing 16 lots.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The lot sample in the designation corresponds to the number of lots of the precious metal in 16 lots (1 mark) of the alloy being pierced:


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

6 lots — the mass of the noble metal is 0.375 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

8 lots — the mass of the noble metal is 0.500 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

12 lots — the mass of the noble metal is 0.750 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

14 lots — the mass of the noble metal is 0.875 of the weight of the alloy;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

16 lots — the mass of the noble metal is more than 0.999 of the weight of the alloy, that is, the metal in its pure form.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To convert a lot sample to a carat, the lot sample value should be divided by 2 and multiplied by 3.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To convert a lot sample to a metric lot sample, divide by 16 and multiply by 1000.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The old English silver sampling system


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the UK, before the adoption of the metric system of samples for silver, the Troy system was used: the number of troy ounces and pennyweights (1/20 ounce) was indicated in 12 troy ounces of silver.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

For example: sterling — 11 ounces 2¼ pennyweight.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Old Spanish silver sampling system


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

1=12 dineros=288 granos.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Conventional names and sample numbers


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

English: Coinage silver — silver 900.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Sterling (alloy) English: Sterling silver — 925 silver.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

English: Britannia silver — silver 958.4.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Belgium, gold: 1=833, 2=750, 3=585.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Belgium, silver: I=925, II=835.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Hungary, silver: 1=925, 2=900, 3=835, 4=800.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Netherlands, silver: I=925, II=835, III=800.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Poland, gold: 1=960, 2=750, 3=585, 4=500, 5=375, 6=333.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Czech Republic and Slovakia, gold: 0=999, 1=986, 2=900, 3=750, 4=585.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Czech Republic and Slovakia, silver: 0=999, 1=959, 2=925, 3=900, 4=835, 5=800.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Czech Republic and Slovakia, platinum: 0=999, 1=950, 2=900, 3=850, 4=800.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Sample designation


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

After determining the content of the precious metal in the alloy, they are branded, applying the symbols of the sample (the content of the main precious metal), the organization or person who determined the sample, other signs, for example, the manufacturer's stamp.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The sample is applied by the assay chamber.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The sample indicates the code of the assay chamber, as well as the digital designation of the sample.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In jewelry, a jewelry manufacturer is given a personal stamp — a name tag.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

A four-letter code that contains information about the year of manufacture of the product, the assay chamber in which the manufacturer is registered, and the manufacturer's code number.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Testing in the US and Canada


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

To designate a sample in the carat system, stamps containing the letter K after the sample value are used:


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

stamps of the type “14K”, “18K” mean that the product is made of alloys of 585th and 750th samples, respectively;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

stamps of the type “22KGP” “23KGP” mean that the product is gilded using 916 or 958 gold, respectively - “KGP” here comes from the English “karat gold plated” - covered with so much carat gold [7].


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Test in Russia


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Due to historical features, branding in Russia appeared later than in other countries.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The first Moscow stamp, the double-headed eagle, accompanied by a date expressed in Slavic letters, dates back to 1651—1652. The first stamps were not yet an indicator of the test in the exact sense of the word.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The stamp only indicated that the silver was no worse than the sample recognized by law, but the sample itself did not have a precisely defined sample.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

As a rule, high-quality gold was from 83 to 85 and above, which corresponded to the sample of “Lyubsky thalers” or “Efimks” — imported coins that were melted down for the manufacture of things.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the last quarter of the 17th century, the law also allowed a lower quality sample - the “levok”.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

There was a stigma — the word “levok” in the oval.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In Russia, the state branding of products made of precious metals is legalized: silver — in 1613, gold — in 1700.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Other metals were not branded and were not considered precious.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

For all cities in the XVIII-XIX centuries, the stamps consisted of:


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

from the stamp with the coat of arms of the city with or without a year in shields of various shapes;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

from the stamp with the initial letters of the first and last name — the “name” of the assay master;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

from the stamp of the master who made the item, without the designation of the year;


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

from a stamp with two digits denoting the sample, that is, the number of spools of pure silver or gold in the ligature pound.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Craftsmen, workshops, firms and factories were obliged to put their name stamps before presenting the products to the state probe.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

On January 1, 1899, on the basis of a new assay charter for Russia, a uniform stamp was introduced with the image of a woman's head in a kokoshnik in a profile directed to the left.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The initials of the assay district manager, and sometimes the numbers of the spool sample, were affixed next to it.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Since 1908, new assay stamps have been introduced in all assay districts with the image of a woman's head in a kokoshnik in a profile directed to the right, accompanied by a letter of the Greek alphabet - different for every assay district.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The sample in the stamp is a spool.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The image of a woman's head in a kokoshnik changed depending on the method of branding or the period of branding.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The sampling and branding system was changed in the USSR in 1927.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Products made of other precious metals also began to be branded: platinum since 1927, palladium since 1956.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In 1927, the image of a woman's head in a kokoshnik was replaced by an image of the head of a worker with a hammer.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

As part of the transition to a metric system for calculating measures, a new system is being created in which the sample is indicated by the number of thousandths of gold in the alloy (it is still used today).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The stamp also contains the code of the assay office (letter of the Greek alphabet).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

From June 1, 1958, new assay stamps were introduced, which depict a convex hammer and sickle against the background of a five-pointed star.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The code of the assay inspection begins to be affixed with the letter of the Russian alphabet.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Later, the image of the stamp remains unchanged, but its contour becomes cut-out (the replacement was made as the stamps wear out).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Later in the USSR, the stamping system for pierced metal included 3, sometimes 2 stamps: the manufacturer's stamp, the numerical designation of the sample and the assay mark in the form of a five-pointed star in the frame.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the absence of a numerical designation, the shape of the stamp frame determined the parameters (including the sample) of the alloy being pierced.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Since 1994, new assay stamps have been introduced, which are still in force.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

At the same time, the stamps of the “penultimate” sample (with a hammer and sickle) were in circulation along with the stamps of the “new” sample: for the 585th gold sample - until March 2000, for the rest of the samples - until April 2002.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The current stamp depicts a woman's head in a kokoshnik in profile directed to the right.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The code of the assay inspection is affixed with the letter of the Russian alphabet (each of the 18 assay inspections has its own letter).


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

In the Russian Federation, at present, stamps with the image of a woman's head in a kokoshnik are used for branding jewelry.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Testing and branding of jewelry and other household products made of precious metals in Russia is carried out by the Russian State Assay Chamber under the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, established in in accordance with Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 02.02.1998 No. 106 “On the Russian State Assay Chamber”.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

The procedure for testing and branding is regulated by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 643 of June 18, 1999 “On the procedure for testing and branding products made of precious metals”.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Methods for determining the sample


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Assay stone (testing precious metals on a test stone)


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Color shades of metals and alloys obtained under the action of assay reagents


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Chemical analysis using chlorine gold, aqua regia, etc.


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Spectral analysis


Question: How many carats of gold are there in 999?

Precious metal sample

Alloy compositions and applications


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The most common alloy is 585 gold; alloys of this sample can be of different colors depending on the quantitative ratio of the non-ferrous metals contained in them.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

For example, if an alloy of 585 gold (58.5% gold) contains approximately 36% silver and 5.5% copper, the alloy acquires a green tint; at 18.3% silver and 23.4% copper, pink; at 8.3% silver and 33.4% copper is reddish.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Depending on the master alloy, it can have different melting points and hardness, these alloys have good solderability.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

958 gold alloys are fragile and are therefore used in limited quantities.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Alloy 958 is a three-component alloy, in addition to gold, it contains silver and copper, and is used mainly for the manufacture of wedding rings.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The alloy has a pleasant bright yellow color, close to the color of pure gold.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Very soft, as a result of which the polishing on the product does not last long.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The 750 alloy is three-component, contains copper and silver, in some cases rhodium, palladium, nickel and zinc can be used in the form of a ligature.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The color ranges from yellowish green through reddish hues to white.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The alloy lends itself well to soldering and casting, is a suitable base for applying enamels, but when the alloy contains more than 16% copper, the color of the enamel becomes dull.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

It is recommended to use it in the manufacture of products with thin relief punching, filigree and frames for fragile gems, stressed diamonds.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The alloy of gold of the 375th standard usually contains: gold 37.5%, silver 10.0%, copper 48.7%, palladium 3.8%.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

It is used for making wedding rings.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

For the manufacture of diamond jewelry, “white gold” is widely used, which contains:


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

in 585 gold alloy — silver 23.7—28.7%, palladium 13.0—18% or nickel 17%, zinc 8.7%, copper 16%;


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

in the 750 gold alloy — silver 7.0—15.0%, palladium up to 14%, nickel up to 4%, zinc up to 2.4%, or nickel 7.5—16.5%, zinc 2.0—5.0%, copper up to 15%.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The most common alloy is 875 silver.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

It is used for making decorations and table setting items.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Alloy 916 is used for the production of table setting items with enamel coating; alloy 960 is used for the manufacture of filigree products.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Platinum and palladium alloys are used in jewelry in small quantities.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Silver and brass products are electrolytically coated with a thin layer of 999 gold (gilding) or silver to protect against rapid oxidation and to improve decorative properties 999 standard (silvering).


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Platinum alloy is rare in modern jewelry, it has lost ground to white gold.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

For some jewelry, a two-component 950 alloy is used, which, in addition to platinum, includes copper and iridium.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

The addition of iridium significantly increases the hardness of the alloy.


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Palladium is not yet generally recognized as an independent metal for jewelry production, but it has good prospects, as it is cheaper than platinum, has a more intense white color, better workability, and the same resistance to tarnishing in air as platinum [8].


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

See also


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Puncheon


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Coin metals


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Vienna Convention on the Control and Stamping of Precious Metal Products


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Notes


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

References


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

English:


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Category:Precious metals


Question: How many carats of gold are in 999?

Precious metal sample

Category:Coining


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky (August 18 (30), 1863, Funikova Gora, Pokrovsky Uyezd, Vladimir Province, Russian Empire — September 27, 1944, Paris, France) was a Russian photographer, chemist (student Mendeleev), inventor, publisher, teacher and public figure, member of the Imperial Russian Geographical, Imperial Russian Technical and Russian Photographic Societies.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

He made a significant contribution to the development of photography and cinematography.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

A pioneer of color photography in Russia, creator of the Collection of Sights of the Russian Empire.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

Biography


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

He comes from the noble family of Prokudin-Gorsky.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

His father, Mikhail Nikolaevich, after serving in the Caucasus (in the Tiflis Grenadier Regiment), retired in 1862 with the rank of second lieutenant, married.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

Sergei Mikhailovich was born on August 18 (30), 1863 in the family estate of Prokudin-Gorsky Funikov Gor in the Pokrovsky district of the Vladimir province [1] [2].


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

On August 20 (September 1), 1863, he was baptized in the closest church to the estate of the Archangel Michael of the Arkhangelsk Pogost, in the cemetery of which in 2008 the tombstone of his full namesake, Sergei Mikhailovich, was discovered Prokudin-Gorsky (1789—1841).


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

He studied at the Alexander Lyceum for three years (until 1886), but did not complete the full course.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

From October 1886 to November 1888, he attended lectures on the natural section at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

From September 1888 to May 1890, he was a student of the Imperial Military Medical Academy, from which he did not graduate [3].


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

He studied painting at the Imperial Academy of Arts.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

In May 1890, he joined the Demidov Workers' Charity House, as its full member.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

This social institution for girls from poor families was founded in 1830 at the expense of the famous philanthropist Anatoly Demidov and was a member of the Department of Institutions of Empress Maria Fedorovna.


Question: When did Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky take his first color photograph?

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorsky

In 1890 he married Anna Alexandrovna Lavrova (1870-1937), the daughter of Lavrov, a Russian metal scientist and director of the Gatchina Bell, Copper Smelting and Steel Mills Association.