Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

g. Peter issued a decree ordering to write names in petitions and other documents completely instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), do not fall on your knees in front of the tsar, in winter in the cold do not take off the hat in front of the house in which the king is located.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

He explained the need for these innovations as follows: “Less meanness, more diligence in service and loyalty to me and the state — this honor is characteristic of the king...” [27]


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724), he prohibited forced marriage and marriage.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between engagement and wedding, “so that the bride and groom could recognize each other.”


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

If during this time, the decree said, “the bride's groom does not want to take, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist, “to be freedom.”


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1702, the bride herself (and not only her relatives) was granted the formal right to terminate the engagement and upset the consensual marriage, and neither party had the right “to pay a penalty with her brow to beat.”


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Legislative regulations of 1696—1704 on public celebrations introduced mandatory participation in celebrations and celebrations for all Russians, including “women” [28].


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas developed among the nobility, which radically differed from the values and worldview of most representatives the rest of the classes.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Education reform


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Peter was clearly aware of the need for education and discussed this issue, including in 1698-1699 with Patriarch Adrian (this, among other things, was due to the fact that church schools were a serious part of education of that time) [29].


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

The Tsar took a number of decisive measures to reform this direction.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

A school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural plants.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

The goals of mass education were to be digital schools created by decree from year [30] in provincial cities, designed to “teach children of all ranks literacy, cifiri and geometry.”


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

In 1721, garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created to train priests.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

In the Senate, the emperor signed a ruling “on the Academy” and two days later he approved the draft regulations on the Academy of Sciences, the university and the gymnasium under it [29].


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

According to Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory training of nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance from the nobles and was canceled.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools stopped after his death, most digital schools under his successors were converted into class schools for training of the clergy), but, nevertheless, during his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia [31].


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

See also


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Notes


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Literature


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Lebedev V. AND. — Moscow; L., 1937—379 p.


Question: Were the reforms of Peter the Great successful?

Peter I's reforms

Category:Reforms of Peter I


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding is the deliberate electrical connection of a point in the network, electrical installation or equipment to a grounding device [1].


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In electrical engineering, grounding is used to achieve protection against the dangerous effects of electric current by reducing the contact voltage to a value that is safe for humans and animals.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding is also used to use earth as a current conductor (for example, in wired telecommunications).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

It is made using an earthing switch that provides direct contact with the ground and a grounding conductor.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Terminology


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Deadly grounded neutral is the neutral of a transformer or generator connected directly to the grounding device.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Deaf grounded can also be the output of a single-phase alternating current source or a pole of a DC source in two-wire networks, as well as a midpoint in three-wire DC networks.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Isolated neutral is the neutral of a transformer or generator that is not</b> connected to a grounding device or connected to it through a high resistance of signaling, measuring devices, protection and other similar devices.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A grounding device is a combination of an earthing switch and grounding conductors.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

An earthing switch is a conductive part or a set of interconnected conductive parts that are in electrical contact with the ground directly or through an intermediate conductive medium.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

An artificial earthing switch is an earthing switch specially designed for grounding purposes.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A natural earthing switch is a third-party conductive part that is in electrical contact with the ground directly or through an intermediate conductive medium used for grounding purposes.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A grounding conductor is a conductor that connects the grounded part (point) to the earthing switch.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective (PE) conductor is a conductor designed for electrical safety purposes.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective grounding conductor is a protective conductor designed for protective earthing.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The equipotential bonding protective conductor is a protective conductor designed for protective equipotential bonding.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Zero protective conductor is a protective conductor in electrical installations up to 1 kV, designed to connect open conductive parts to the dead-grounded neutral of the power supply.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Zero working (neutral) conductor (N) is a conductor in electrical installations up to 1 kV designed to power electrical receivers and connected to the solidly grounded neutral of a generator or transformer in three-phase current networks, with a solid-grounded terminal of a single-phase current source, with a dead-grounded source point in DC networks.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Combined zero protective and zero working (PEN) conductors are conductors in electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV, combining the functions of zero protective and zero working conductors.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The main grounding bus is a bus that is part of the grounding device of an electrical installation up to 1 kV and is designed to connect several conductors for the purpose of grounding and equalizing potentials.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The conductive part is the part that can conduct an electric current.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The current-carrying part is the conductive part of the electrical installation that is in the process of its operation under operating voltage, including the zero working conductor (but not the PEN conductor).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Open conductive part is a touch-accessible conductive part of an electrical installation that is not normally energized, but which may become energized if the main insulation is damaged .


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The external conductive part is a conductive part that is not part of the electrical installation.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Zero potential zone (relative ground) is a part of the earth that is outside the zone of influence of any earthing switch, the electrical potential of which is assumed to be zero.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective earthing is a grounding performed for electrical safety purposes.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Working (functional) grounding is the grounding of a point or points of live parts of an electrical installation, performed to ensure the operation of the electrical installation (not for electrical safety purposes).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective zeroing in electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV is a deliberate connection of open conductive parts to the solidly grounded neutral of a generator or transformer in three-phase current networks, with a dead-grounded terminal of a single-phase current source, with a grounded source point in DC networks, performed for electrical safety purposes.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Potential equalization is the electrical connection of conductive parts to achieve equality of their potentials.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

EMS is a potential equalization system.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective potential equalization is an equalization of potentials performed for electrical safety purposes.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Potential equalization — reducing the potential difference (step voltage) on the ground or floor surface using protective conductors laid in the ground, in the floor or on their surface and connected to a grounding device, or by using special earth coatings.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The spreading zone (local ground) is the ground zone between the earthing switch and the zero potential zone.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A ground fault is an accidental electrical contact between live parts that are live and ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Direct touch is the electrical contact of people or animals with live parts that are energized.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Indirect contact is the electrical contact of people or animals with exposed conductive parts that are energized when the insulation is damaged.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Direct contact protection — protection to prevent contact with live parts that are under voltage.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Indirect touch protection — protection against electric shock when touching exposed conductive parts that are energized when insulation is damaged.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective automatic power off — automatic opening of the circuit of one or more phase conductors (and, if required, the zero working conductor), performed in order to electrical safety.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Isolation transformer is a transformer, the primary winding of which is separated from the secondary windings by means of protective electrical separation of circuits.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A safe isolation transformer is an isolation transformer designed to supply circuits with ultra-low voltage.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective shield is a conductive screen designed to separate an electrical circuit and/or conductors from live parts of other circuits.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective electrical separation of circuits is the separation of one electrical circuit from other circuits in electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV using:


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

double insulation;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

main insulation and protective screen;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

reinforced insulation.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The main insulation is the insulation of live parts, which also provides protection against direct contact.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Additional insulation — independent insulation in electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV, performed in addition to the main insulation for protection against indirect contact.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Double insulation — insulation in electrical installations with a voltage of up to 1 kV, consisting of main and additional insulations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Reinforced insulation — insulation in electrical installations with a voltage of up to 1 kV, providing a degree of protection against electric shock equivalent to double insulation.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Non-conductive (insulating) rooms, zones, platforms — rooms, zones, platforms in which (on) protection against indirect contact is provided by high resistance of the floor and walls and in which there are no grounded conductive parts.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Earth fault factor in a three-phase electrical network is the ratio of the potential difference between the intact phase and the ground at the ground fault point of the other or two other phases to the difference the potentials between phase and ground at this point before closing.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The voltage on the grounding device is the voltage that occurs when the current flows from the earthing switch to the ground between the current input point into the earthing switch and the zero potential zone.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Touch voltage is the voltage between two conductive parts or between the conductive part and the ground when a person or animal touches them at the same time.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The expected touch tension is the tension between the conductive parts that are simultaneously accessible to touch when a person or animal does not touch them.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Step stress is the voltage between two points on the ground, at a distance of 1 m from each other, which is assumed to be equal to the length of the person's step.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Ultra-low (low) voltage (SNN) is a voltage that does not exceed 50 V AC and 120 V DC.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The resistance of the grounding device is the ratio of the voltage across the grounding device to the current flowing from the earthing switch to the ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Equivalent earth resistivity with an inhomogeneous structure is the electrical resistivity of the earth with a homogeneous structure in which the resistance of the grounding device has the same value, as in a land with a heterogeneous structure.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The term “land” used in the article should be understood as land in the spreading zone.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The term “resistivity” used in the article for land with an inhomogeneous structure should be understood as equivalent resistivity.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The term “insulation damage” should be understood as the only damage to insulation.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The term “automatic power off” should be understood as a protective automatic power off.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The term “equipotential bonding” used in the article should be understood as protective equipotential bonding.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Symbols


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective earthing conductors in all electrical installations, as well as zero protective conductors in electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV with solidly grounded neutral, including buses, must have an alphabetic the designation “PE” (English: Protective Earthing) and color designation by alternating longitudinal or transverse stripes of the same width (for tires from 15 to 100 mm) in yellow and green.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Zero working (neutral) conductors are indicated by the letter “N” and blue.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Combined zero protective and zero working conductors must have the letter “PEN” and color designation: blue along the entire length and yellow-green stripes at the ends.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Computer text uses the character (Unicode number U+23DA, HTML code)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding device


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In Russia, the requirements for grounding and its installation are regulated by the Rules for the Installation of Electrical Installations (PUE).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding in electrical engineering is divided into natural and artificial.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Natural grounding


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

It is customary to refer to natural grounding those structures whose structure provides for a permanent stay in the ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

However, since their resistance is not regulated by anything and there are no requirements for their resistance value, natural grounding structures cannot be used as grounding electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Natural earthing switches include, for example, the reinforced concrete foundation of a building.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Artificial grounding


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Artificial grounding is the deliberate electrical connection of a point in the electrical network, electrical installation or equipment to a grounding device.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The grounding device (charger) consists of an earthing switch (a conductive part or a set of interconnected conductive parts that are in electrical contact with the ground directly or through intermediate conductive medium) and a grounding conductor connecting the grounded part (point) to the earthing switch.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The earthing switch can be a simple metal rod (most often steel, less often copper) or a complex complex of special-shaped elements.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The quality of the grounding is determined by the value of the ground resistance/resistance to current spreading (the lower the better), which can be reduced by increasing the area of the grounding electrodes and reducing electrical resistivity of the soil: increasing the number of grounding electrodes and/or their depth; increasing the concentration of salts in the soil, heating it, etc.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The electrical resistance of the grounding device is different for different conditions and is determined/normalized by the requirements of the PUE and the relevant standards.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Types of artificial grounding systems


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Electrical installations with regard to electrical safety measures are divided into:


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

electrical installations with voltages above 1 kV in networks with solidly grounded or effectively grounded neutral;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

electrical installations with voltages above 1 kV in networks with neutral insulated or grounded through an arc-extinguishing reactor or resistor;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV in networks with solidly grounded neutral;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV in networks with isolated neutral.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Depending on the technical features of the electrical installation and the power supply networks, its operation may require different grounding systems.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

As a rule, before designing an electrical installation, the sales organization issues a list of technical specifications that specify the grounding system used.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The classification of types of grounding systems is given as the main characteristic of the supply electrical network.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

GOST R 50571.2-94 “Electrical installations of buildings. Part 3. Main characteristics” regulates the following grounding systems: TN-C, TN-S, TN-C-S, TT, IT.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

For electrical installations with voltages up to 1 kV, the following designations are adopted:


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN system is a system in which the neutral of the power supply is deaf grounded, and the open conductive parts of the electrical installation are connected to the solidly grounded neutral of the source by means of zero protective conductors;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN-C system is a TN system in which the zero protective and zero working conductors are combined in one conductor along its entire length;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN-S system is a TN system in which the zero protective and zero working conductors are separated along its entire length;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN-C-S system is a TN system in which the functions of the zero protective and neutral working conductors are combined in one conductor in some part of it, starting from the power supply;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IT system is a system in which the neutral of the power supply is isolated from the ground or grounded through devices or devices that have high resistance, and the open conductive parts of the electrical installation grounded;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TT system is a system in which the neutral of the power supply is deaf grounded, and the open conductive parts of the electrical installation are grounded using a grounding device electrically independent of solidly grounded neutral of the source.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The first letter is the neutral state of the power supply relative to the ground


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

T — grounded neutral (Latin: terra);


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

I—Isolated Neutral (English: isolation).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The second letter is the state of open conductive parts relative to the ground


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

T - open conductive parts are grounded, regardless of the ratio to ground of the neutral of the power supply or any point of the supply network;


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

N — open conductive parts are connected to the solidly grounded neutral of the power supply.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Subsequent (after N) letters are the combination in one conductor or separation of the functions of the zero working and zero protective conductors


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

S — zero working (N) and zero protective (PE) conductors are separated (English: separated);


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

C — the functions of the zero protective and zero working conductors are combined in one conductor (PEN conductor) (English: combined);


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

N — zero working (neutral) conductor; (English: neutral)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

PE — protective conductor (ground conductor, neutral protective conductor, equipotential bonding system protective conductor) (English: Protective Earth)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

PEN is a combined zero protective and zero working conductors (English: Protective Earth and Neutral).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Deadly grounded neutral systems (TN systems)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Systems with deadly grounded neutral are commonly called TN systems, since this abbreviation comes from French: Terre-Neutral, which means “earth-neutral”.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Separating zeros in TN-S and TN-C-S


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN-C system


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The TN-C system (French: Terre-Neutre-Combiné) was proposed by the German concern AEG in 1913.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The working zero and the PE conductor (English: Protection Earth) in this system are combined into one wire.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The biggest drawback was the possibility of the appearance of line voltage on the housings of electrical installations in the event of an emergency zero break.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Despite this, this system is still found in buildings in the countries of the former USSR.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Of modern electrical installations, such a system is found only in street lighting for reasons of economy and reduced risk.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN-S system


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The TN-S (French: Terre-Neutre-Séparé) system was developed to replace the TN-C conditionally hazardous system in the 1930s.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The working and protective zero were separated directly at the substation, and the earthing switch was a rather complex design of metal fittings.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Thus, when the working zero breaks in the middle of the line, the housings of electrical installations did not receive linear voltage.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Later, such a grounding system made it possible to develop differential automata and current leakage automata capable of sensing an insignificant current.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Their work is based on Kirchhoff's rules, according to which the current flowing through the operating zero must be numerically equal to the geometric sum of the currents in the phases.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TN-C-S system


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the TN-C-S system, the transformer substation has a direct connection of the conductive parts to the ground and a tightly grounded neutral.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

To provide communication on the section of the transformer substation — entry into the building, a combined zero working (N) and a protective conductor (PE), which takes the designation PEN, are used.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

When entering the building, it (PEN) is divided into a separate zero (N) and protective conductor (PE).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

It is also possible to observe the TN-C-S system, where the separation of zeros occurs in the middle of the line, however, if the neutral wire breaks to the separation point, the enclosures will be under line voltage, which will be life-threatening when touched.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Advantages: a simpler lightning protection device (it is impossible to have a voltage peak between PE and N), the ability to protect against short-circuit phases on the device body using ordinary “automatic machines”.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Disadvantages: extremely weak protection against “zero burnout”, that is, the destruction of the PEN on the way from the KTP to the separation point.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In this case, a phase voltage appears on the PE bus from the consumer side, which cannot be switched off by any automatic (PE cannot be disconnected).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

If inside the building, the potential equalization system (EMS) serves as protection against this (everything is metal under voltage, and there is no risk of electric shock when touching 2 different objects),.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In accordance with the PUE, it is the main and recommended system, but at the same time, the PUE requires compliance with a number of measures to prevent the destruction of PEN - mechanical protection of the PEN, as well as repeated PEN grounding air line along poles over a certain distance (no more than 200 meters for areas with the number of thunderstorm hours per year up to 40, 100 meters for areas with the number of thunderstorm hours per year more than 40).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the event that these measures cannot be observed, the PUE recommends TT.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TT is also recommended for all outdoor installations (sheds, verandas, etc.)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In urban buildings, the PEN tire is usually a thick metal frame that runs vertically through the entire building.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

It is almost impossible to destroy it, so TN-C-S is used in urban buildings.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In rural areas in Russia, in practice, there are a huge number of overhead lines without mechanical PEN protection and re-grounding.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Therefore, the TT system is more popular in rural areas.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In late Soviet urban development, TN-C-S was usually used with a division point based on the electrical panel (PEN) next to the meter, while PE was carried out only for an electric stove.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In modern Russian buildings, a “five-wire” with a division point in the basement is also used, and independent N and PE are already passing in the risers.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TT system


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TT System Schematic Diagram


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the TT system, the transformer substation has a direct connection of live parts to the ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

All open conductive parts of the electrical installation of the building are directly connected to the ground through an earthing switch electrically independent of the neutral earthing switch of the transformer substation.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Advantages: high resistance to N destruction on the way from the TP to the consumer.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This destruction does not affect PE in any way.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Disadvantages: the requirements of more complex lightning protection (the possibility of a peak between N and PE), as well as the inability for a conventional circuit breaker to track the phase fault on the device body (and further on PE).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This is due to the rather noticeable (30-40 ohms) resistance of the local ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Due to the above, the PUE is recommended only as an “additional” system (provided that the supply line does not meet the TN-C-S requirements for re-grounding and mechanical protection of the PEN), and also in outdoor installations where there is a risk of simultaneous contact with the installation and physical ground (or physically grounded metal elements).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

However, due to the poor quality of most overhead lines in rural Russia, the TT system is extremely popular there.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

TT requires mandatory use of RCDs.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Usually, an introductory RCD is installed with a setpoint of 300-100 mA, which tracks a short circuit between phase and PE, followed by personal RCDs for specific circuits of 30-10 mA to protect people from electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Lightning protection devices, such as ABB OVR, differ in design for TN-C-S and TT systems, the latter have a gas arrester between N and PE and varistors between N and phases.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Isolated neutral systems


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IT system


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Isolated neutral systems


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IT System Schematic Diagram


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the IT system, the neutral of the power supply is isolated from the ground or grounded through devices or devices that have high resistance, and the open conductive parts are grounded.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The leakage current to the housing or to the ground in such a system will be low and will not affect the operating conditions of the connected equipment.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The IT system is used, as a rule, in electrical installations of special-purpose buildings and structures that are subject to increased reliability and safety requirements, for example, electrical installations underground mines and coal mines, at the same time to create safe operating conditions for maintenance personnel (when there is potential at the electrical installation relative to the ground) and exclude dust and gas explosions, so-called mine leakage current protection devices are mandatory; the IT system can also be used in hospitals for emergency power supply and lighting.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Portable gasoline and diesel power plants have an isolated neutral, which makes it possible to safely use electrical appliances connected to them without grounding, which is in the “field” conditions to do is problematic.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Previously, the system with isolated neutral was also widespread in power supply systems for residential buildings, especially wooden unlandscaped ones, the supply lines to which were also supplied via wooden supports.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the USSR, household power grids with a voltage of 127/220 V were only insulated neutral, although industrial networks with a voltage of 220/380 V in the same years already had a grounded neutral.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This was due to the fact that it was problematic to organize reliable grounding of the electrical panel and electrical appliances in a wooden house, in addition, in the presence of grounding, the risk of fire when the phase conductor is closed or current leaks to the earthing switch.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Insulated neutral in combination with the absence of naturally grounded conductive elements (fittings, water supply, sewerage) in a wooden uncomfortable house and a relatively low voltage ( 127 V) additionally reduced the risk of electric shock during single-phase contact to a minimum.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This feature of early household networks led to the fact that many people did not perceive electric current as a source of increased danger and work on replacing light bulbs, repairing sockets and switches were often conducted without disconnecting the network.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The use of devices of electric shock protection class 0 was also quite safe.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In a network with isolated neutral, with a single-phase connection, both conductors are equal and are not divided into phase and neutral.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

For this reason, in old houses, fuses at the entrance to the apartment were placed on both conductors (in systems with grounded neutral, it is unacceptable to install a fuse on a neutral wire).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Networks with isolated neutral have been preserved even with the beginning of the spread of reinforced concrete landscaped houses with conductive walls and grounded pipelines.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This factor dramatically increased the risk of electric shock in everyday life, since uncontrolled leakage of current to the ground inevitably occurred in the reinforced concrete house, which caused one of the phase wires to be inadvertently connected to the conductive structures of the building and the ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

But since the neutral is isolated — there was no short-circuit current, the fact of current leakage to the building and ground was not detected and the network could operate in emergency mode for a long time.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In such a situation, accidental contact of another phase conductor by a person (or an appliance with broken insulation) on a concrete floor, in a bathroom or by a sink became extremely dangerous, as a person was under linear voltage.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Therefore, with the beginning of mass construction of reinforced concrete houses (Khrushchev), household networks began to be built according to a system with grounded neutral: in the 1960s and 1980s using the TN-C system, and from the 1990s to TN-C-S system.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective earthing function


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective earths prevent a person from falling under voltage (electric shock), which is possible in case of damage to the insulation of electrical equipment or contact with broken wires.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

All metal external parts and frames of electrical equipment are subject to protective grounding.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective earthing principle


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The protective effect of grounding is based on two principles:


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Reduction to a safe value of the potential difference between the grounded conductive object and other conductive objects that have natural grounding.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Withdrawal of leakage current when the grounded conductive object contacts the phase conductor.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In a properly designed system, the appearance of a leakage current leads to the immediate operation of protective devices (protective shutdown devices - RCDs).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In systems with solidly grounded neutral, the fuse is initiated when the phase potential hits the grounded surface.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Thus, grounding is most effective only in combination with the use of protective shutdown devices.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In this case, for most insulation failures, the potential on grounded objects will not exceed safe values.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Moreover, the faulty section of the network will be disconnected within a very short time (tenths... hundredths of a second is the time of the RCD operation).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding operation in case of electrical equipment malfunctions


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A typical case of electrical equipment malfunction is the phase voltage entering the metal case of the device due to insulation failure [3].


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

(It should be noted that modern electrical appliances that have a pulsed secondary power supply and are equipped with a three-pole plug, such as a PC system unit, in the absence of grounding have dangerous potential on the hull, even when they are fully operational. [4]) Depending on what protective measures are implemented, the following options are possible:


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The case is not grounded, there is no RCD (the most dangerous option).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The body of the device will be under phase potential and this will not be detected in any way.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Touching such a faulty device can be deadly.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The case is grounded, there is no RCD.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

If the leakage current along the phase-housing-earthing circuit is large enough (exceeds the threshold of operation of the fuse protecting this circuit), the fuse will operate and disconnect the circuit.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The highest effective voltage (relative to ground) on the grounded housing will be UMAX = RG·if, where RG is the resistance of the earthing switch, IF is the current at which the fuse protecting this circuit is triggered.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This option is not safe enough, since with a high resistance of the earthing switch and large fuse ratings, the potential on the grounded conductor can reach quite significant values.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

For example, with an earthing resistance of 4 ohms and a 25 A fuse, the potential can reach 100 volts.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The case is not grounded, the RCD is installed.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The body of the instrument will be under phase potential and this will not be detected until there is a path for the leakage current to pass through.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the worst case, the leak will occur through the body of a person who simultaneously touches a faulty device and an object that has a natural ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The RCD disconnects the network section with a malfunction as soon as a leak occurs.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A person will receive only a short-term electric shock (0.01... 0.3 s is the operation time of the RCD), which, as a rule, does not cause harm to health.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The housing is grounded, the RCD is installed.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This is the safest option, as the two protective measures complement each other.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

When the phase voltage hits the grounded conductor, the current flows from the phase conductor through the insulation failure to the grounding conductor and further into the ground.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The RCD immediately detects this leak, even if it is very small (usually the sensitivity threshold of the RCD is 10 mA or 30 mA), and quickly (0.01... 0.3 s) disconnects the network section with a malfunction.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In addition, if the leakage current is high enough (exceeds the threshold of the fuse protecting this circuit), the fuse may also be triggered.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Which protective device (RCD or fuse) will disconnect the circuit depends on their speed and leakage current.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

It is also possible to trigger both devices.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

It is also important that only in this case, the failure of one of the two protective devices will not lead to the complete inoperability of the protection system.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Errors in the grounding device


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Examples of errors in the grounding device


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

An example of improper installation: connecting the working zero and the PE conductor on the upper right terminal block.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A non-conductive plastic insert (R4) prevents the flow of current.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

False alarm of the RCD (F4) when merging zeros behind the separation point.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Why it is extremely dangerous to create a PE conductor right in the plug (plug)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Wrong PE conductors


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Sometimes water pipes or heating pipes are used as an earthing switch, but they cannot be used as a grounding conductor [5].


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

There may be non-conductive inserts (such as plastic pipes) in the water pipe, the electrical contact between the pipes may be broken due to corrosion, and finally part of the pipeline can be disassembled for repairs.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

There is also a risk of electric shock when it comes into contact with conductive parts of plumbing.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Clean Land


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

A popular belief is that computer and telephone installations require grounding that is separate from the general grounding of the entire building.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

This is completely wrong, because the memory has a non-zero resistance, and, in the case of a short circuit (and even a small leakage that is not detected by automatic leakage) phase-PE on one of the devices, the current and its potential begin to flow through the memory is growing due to memory resistance.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In the case of 2 or more independent memory, this will lead to a potential difference between the PE of different electrical installations, which can create a risk of electric shock to people, as well as block (or even destroy) interface devices without galvanic isolation, which connect 2 parts of the system grounded from independent memory devices.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The right solution is to organize a potential equalization system.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

All of the above also applies to artisanal grounding of the type “we will bury a bucket in the garden and ground one device on it”, which are sometimes arranged in rural areas.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Combining working zero and PE explorer


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Another common violation is the combination of the working zero and the PE conductor behind their separation point (if any) along the energy distribution.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

[6] Such a violation can lead to the appearance of quite significant currents through the PE conductor (which should not be current-carrying in the normal state), as well as false alarms of the protective device shutdown (if it is installed).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Wrong separation of PEN conductor


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The following method of “creating” a PE conductor is extremely dangerous: a working neutral conductor is detected directly in the outlet and a jumper is placed between it and the PE contact of the outlet.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Thus, the PE conductor of the load connected to this outlet is connected to the operating zero.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

The danger of this scheme is that a phase potential will appear on the grounding contact of the outlet, and therefore on the body of the connected device, if any of the following conditions are met:


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Break (disconnection, burnout, etc.) of the neutral conductor in the area between the outlet and the shield (as well as further, up to the ground point of the PEN conductor);


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Rearrangement of phase and zero (phase instead of zero and vice versa) conductors going to this outlet.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Equipotential bonding system (EMS)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Since the memory has resistance, and if current flows through it, it is energized, it alone is not enough to protect people from electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Proper protection is created by organizing an equalization system (EMS), that is, the electrical connection of the PE wiring and all metal parts of the building available for contact (first queue water pipes and heating pipelines).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In this case, even if the memory is energized, everything is metal and accessible to touch under it, which reduces the risk of electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

In brick houses of the Soviet period, as a rule, the SUP was not organized, while in panel houses (1970s and later) it was organized by connecting the frame of electrical switchboards (PEN) and water pipes in the basement of the house.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

See also


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Zeroing


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Lightning protection


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Equalizing current


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Phase skew


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protective shutdown device


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Fuse


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Rules for the installation of electrical installations (PUE)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Tank truck grounding device


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Isolation transformer


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Static electricity


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Electrical safety


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Electric field


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Electrostatic field


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Electrostatic protection


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Electrostatic potential


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding (cable telecommunications)


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Notes


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Literature


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IEC 60050-195:1998.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

International Electrotechnical Vocabulary.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Part 195: Earthing and protection against electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Edition 1.0.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— Geneva: IEC, 1998-08.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IEC 60364-1:2005.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Low-voltage electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Part 1: Fundamental principles, assessment of general characteristics, definitions.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Edition 1.0.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— Geneva: IEC, 2005‑11.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IEC 60364- 4-41:2005.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Low-voltage electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Part 4-41: Protection for safety.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protection against electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Edition 5.0.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— Geneva: IEC, 2005-12.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IEC 61140:2016.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protection against electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Common aspects for installation and equipment.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Edition 4.0.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— Geneva: IEC, 2016-01.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

GOST R IEC 60050-195-2005.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding and protection against electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Terms and definitions.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

GOST 30331.1—2013 (IEC 60364-1:2005).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Low-voltage electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

H 1.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Main provisions, assessment of general characteristics, terms and definitions.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

GOST R 50571.3-2009 (IEC 60364- 4-41:2005).


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Low-voltage electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

H. 4-41.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Safety requirements.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protection against electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

GOST IEC 61140—2012.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Protection against electric shock.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

General safety provisions for plants and equipment.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Kharechko Yu.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IN.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Fundamentals of grounding electrical networks and electrical installations of buildings.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

6th ed.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Rev.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

and add.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— M.: PTF MIEE, 2012.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— 304 p.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

IEC 60364- 5-54:2011.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Low-voltage electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Part 5-54: Selection and erection of electrical equipment.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Earthing arrangements and protective conductors.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Edition 3.0.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

— Geneva: IEC, 2011-03.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

GOST R 50571.5.54—2013/IEC 60364- 5-54:2011.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Low-voltage electrical installations.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

H. 5-54.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Selection and installation of electrical equipment.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Grounding devices, protective conductors and equipotential bonding conductors.


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

References


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Category:Electrical engineering


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Category:Electronics


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Category:Lightning protection


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Category:Electric power industry


Question: When did the term grounding appear?

Grounding

Category:Electrical Safety


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Knights Templars (French: templers - “templars” [1]), also known by the official names Order of the Poor Knights of Christ (French: L'Ordre des Pauvres Chevaliers du Christ), Order of the Poor Knights Jerusalem Temple (French: L'Ordre des Pauvres Chevaliers du Temple de Jerusalem), Poor Warriors of Christ and Solomon's Temple (Latin: Pauperes commitones Christi Templique Salomonici) - spiritual and knightly order founded in the Holy Land in 1119 [1] by a small group of knights led by Hugues de Payne after the First Crusade [2].


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The second most established (after the Hospitallers) of religious military orders.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In the 12th-13th centuries, the order was very rich, it owned extensive land holdings both in the states created by the Crusaders in Palestine and Syria, and in Europe.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Order also had broad ecclesiastical and legal privileges granted to it by the Pope, to whom the order was directly subordinate, as well as monarchs on whose lands it had possessions and real estate.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Order often performed the functions of military protection of states created by the Crusaders in the East, although the primary purpose declared at its establishment was to protect pilgrims going to the Holy Land.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1291, when the Crusaders were expelled from Palestine by the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt Khalil al-Ashraf, the Templars switched to financial services [note 1] and trade, accumulated significant values and found themselves in difficult property relations with the kings of European states and the Pope [1].


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1307-1314, members of the Order were arrested, tortured and executed by King Philip IV of France, major feudal lords and the Roman Catholic Church, as a result of which the order was abolished by the Pope Clement V in 1312.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Headcount


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

There is a tendency in the historiography of the Order to exaggerate the number of its followers.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Thus, Wilke believed that the Order consisted of about 15,000 knights (the same figure is quoted by the Soviet Atheistic Dictionary [1]); Zekler - 20,000 knights; Mallard de Chambur - 30,000 knights.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

All these numbers are too large and do not correlate with the number of knights who participated in the war of Philip IV with the Order in 1307-1314:538 knights were arrested in France at that time, 75 knights in Cyprus, Majorca - 25 knights fought and all were defeated.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Both France, Cyprus and Mallorca were separate mentors of the Order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Obviously, historians transfer the number of workers, servants and squire bearers and all the people of the Order in general to the number of its knights.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Grand Masters of the Order


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Hugh de Paynes (1118/1119 — May 24, 1136/1137)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Robert de Craon (June 1136/1137 — January 13, 1147/1149)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Evrard de Bar (January 1147/1149 — Fall 1152)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Bernard de Tremblay (June 1152 — 16 August 1153)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

André de Montbard (August 14, 1153—January 17, 1156)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Bertrand de Blanchefort (October 1156—2 January 1169)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Philippe de Milly (27 January/August 1169 — Beginning 1171)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Odo de Saint-Amand (April 1171 — 8 (19) October 1179)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Arnaud de Torož (1179/1180 — September 30, 1184)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Gerard de Ridford (October 1184/1185 — 1 (4) October 1189)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Robert de Sable (late 1189/1191 — January 13/September 23, 1193)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Gilbert Erail (February 1193/1194—December 20, 1200)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Philippe de Plessier (1200/ early 1201 — February 12 (November (?)) 1209)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Guillaume de Chartres (1209/1210 — 25 (26) August 1219)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Pierre de Montague (1219 — 28 January 1232)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Armand de Perigord (1232 — 17/20 October 1244)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Richard de Buer (1244/1245 — May 9, 1247)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Guillaume de Sonnac (1247 — February 11, 1250)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Renaud de Visier (July 1250 — January 20, 1256)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Thomas Berard (1256 — March 25, 1273)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Guillaume de Bauge (May 13, 1273 — May 18, 1291)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Thibaut Gaudin (August 1291 — April 16, 1292/1293)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Jacques de Molay (April 1292 — March 22, 1312)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

History


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Jerusalem Era (1118—1191)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

During the First Crusade, the French nobleman Hugues de Payne gathered eight of his knightly relatives, including Godefroy de Saint-Omer, and organized a militia of the poor knights of Christ in the service.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

This militia was transformed into a new Order, called the Order of the Knights of the Temple [3] [4].


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Initially, the purpose of the order was to protect the pilgrims on their pilgrimage to holy places in the Middle East.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

They called their order “Poor Knights of Solomon's Temple”.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

They were so poor that they had only one horse for two people; in memory of this, their seal for a long time was an image of a horse on which two horsemen were sitting [5].


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

To remedy the situation, by decree of Baldwin II and Patriarch Warmund of Jerusalem, taxes were received from the surrounding villages in favor of the Order [4].


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Few people knew about the activities of the Order, as well as about the Order in general, until the Council of Troyes (1128), where the order was officially recognized, and the priest of St.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Bernard Clairvosky was instructed to develop his Charter, which would bring together the basic laws of the Order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

William, Archbishop of Tyre, Chancellor of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, one of the greatest medieval historians, describes the process of creating the order in his work:


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Several noble knights, people who are true believers and fearing God, expressed a desire to live in rigor and obedience, to give up their possessions forever, and by surrendering themselves to the Supreme Lord church, to become members of the monastic order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Among them, Hugues de Paynes and Godefroy de Saint-Omer were the first and most famous.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Since the brotherhood did not yet have their own temple or home, the king granted them temporary refuge in his palace, built on the southern slope of the Temple Mount.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The canons of the temple standing there, under certain conditions, ceded part of the walled courtyard for the needs of the new order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Moreover, King Baldwin I of Jerusalem, his entourage and the patriarch and his prelates immediately provided support to the Order by allocating it some of their land holdings — some for life, others for temporary use — so that members of the Order can earn a livelihood.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

First of all, they were ordered, in atonement for their sins and under the leadership of the patriarch, “to protect and protect pilgrims going to Jerusalem from attacks by thieves and bandits.”


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Order formed a group of knights in the service of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1120, the ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Baldwin II, even before the Council in Troyes, allocated a place for the headquarters of the knights in the southeastern wing of the Jerusalem Temple, in the Al-Aqsa Mosque.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

And Bernard Clairvosky, who developed the charter of the Knights of the Temple, also became the patron of the order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Since then, the order has been called the Order of the Temple, and the knights have been called templars (Templars).


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In the same year, Falk, Count of Anjou (father of Geoffroy Plantagenet) joined the Order, and in 1124 - Hugh Count of Champagne.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1126, Henrik and Robert de Craon were also members of the Order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Knights Templars, who were present at the Council in Troyes, launched an active and successful recruitment campaign in France and England, for which most of them, following the example of Godefroy de Saint-Omer, went to the homeland.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Hugues de Paynes visited Champagne, Anjou, Normandy and Flanders, as well as England and Scotland.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In addition to many neophytes, the Order received generous donations in the form of land holdings, which ensured its stable economic position in the West, especially in France, and confirmed its original “national” affiliation — the order was considered French.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Already in 1133, the childless king of Aragon, Alonso I, who also owned Navarre and Castile, bequeathed all his possessions to the Knights Templar and Hospitaller Orders when he died.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Although this will was not fulfilled, Ramiro el Monje, who ascended the throne of Aragonese, paid off the orders with very large alms.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On March 29, 1139, Pope Innocent II issued a bull he called Omne Datum Optimum, which stated that the Templars can freely cross any border, are exempt from taxes, and do not obey no one but the Pope himself.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1163, the Templars took an active part in the Battle of Al-Bukaya with the army of the Emir of Aleppo Nur-ad-Din Zangi, which ended in the victory of the Crusaders.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1177, the Templars participated in the Battle of Ramla and made a significant contribution to the victory of Christians; in 1179, on the banks of the Jordan River, they were defeated by Saladin and concluded a truce with him.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1185, the Temple of the Knights Templar was consecrated in London.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Order of the Knights Templar was very powerful in England, given that the head of the Knights Templar held a seat in parliament, bearing the title of the first baron in the kingdom.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Another British temple of the Knights Templar was located in Bristol.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1187, Saladin invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Many Templars are captured, led by their Grand Master Gerard de Ridfort.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Some historical sources claim that the Grand Master bought his life by adopting Islam and agreeing to the execution of all the Templars captured with him.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

By 1191, after a two-year siege, the Crusaders managed to seize the fortress of Acre.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Templars, who took an active part in the siege of the fortress, are setting up their Temple (headquarters) in the city, while capturing more than 2,500 civilians in Acre and conducting unsuccessful negotiations with Salah al - Dean, and all the prisoners were subsequently executed by Richard.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Connection to Solomon's Temple


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Since they had neither a church nor permanent refuge, the king gave them a temporary residence in the southern wing of the palace, near the Temple of the Lord


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

“Temple of the Lord” refers to the Second Temple in Jerusalem, built by Jews who returned from Babylonian Exile, led by the prophets Ezra and Nehemiah, and destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

During the existence of the Jerusalem Kingdom of the Crusaders, the Temple of the Lord was called the so-called. “Dome of the Rock”, also known as the Golden Dome or Qubbat al-Sahra in Arabic.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Al-Aqsa Mosque (Extreme) was called Templum Solomonis — Solomon's Temple.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The golden dome and Al-Aqsa Mosque, as well as, later, the palace of the King of Jerusalem, were built on the territory of the Temple Mount, the same place as the Temple of Jerusalem destroyed by the Romans.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The first residence of the Order was a house next to the Temple of Solomon.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The main residence of the Knights Templar was located in the south wing of the palace.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On medieval plans and maps depicting Jerusalem, until the 16th century, the Temple Mount bears the name of Solomon's Temple.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

For example, you can clearly read Templum Solomonis.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Hence the name of the order itself.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In documents of 1124-1125, the Templars are called “Knights of the Temple of Solomon” or “Knights of the Temple of Jerusalem”.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

“The authentic Temple is the Temple in which they live together, not as majestic, however, as the ancient and famous Temple of Solomon, but no less glorified... For... It cares more about the purity of minds, not gilding the walls.” [7]


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

“Their premises are located in the Temple of Jerusalem itself, not as huge as Solomon's ancient masterpiece, but no less glorious...


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Of course, the facade of this temple is decorated, but not with stones, but with weapons, and instead of ancient golden crowns, its walls are hung with shields.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Instead of candlesticks, censers and jugs, this house is furnished with saddles, harnesses and spears.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Acre Era (1191—1291)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On July 15, 1199, at the very beginning of the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders managed to regain Jerusalem.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Templars carry out a brutal massacre of Muslims near the walls of their old Temple.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1241, the Templars colluded with the Damascus and, together with them, attacked the troops of the Egyptian Sultan Ayub.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Moreover, they attack the forces of the Order of the Hospitallers, knock out the Teutonic Knights from Acre and capture some of the Hospitallers who find themselves in Acre.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Templars behave extremely cruelly towards their brethren, not allowing the latter to even bury their fallen.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In 1244, at the Battle of Forbia, the Egyptians, in alliance with the Khorezmians, inflicted a brutal defeat on the combined forces of the Crusaders.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

33 Templars, 26 Hospitallers and three Teutons escaped the battlefield alive.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In April 1291, Muslims approached Acre.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The defense of the city was led by Grand Master of the Order Guillaume de Bauge.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The garrison numbered 15 thousand people.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

, including 900 Knights Templar and Hospitaller.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

After forty-four days of siege on May 18, 1291, Muslims managed to bring down one of the towers of the fortress with the help of a wall-breaking machine (the so-called. Damned).


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Guillaume de Bauge, together with Grand Master of the Hospitallers Jean de Villiers, organized a counterattack, during which de Bauge was mortally wounded.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Seeing the imminent defeat, about a quarter of the garrison, mainly Cypriots, together with King Henry II of Cyprus and his brother Amory, began evacuating to ships and fled to the island of Cyprus.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

During the battle, about 300 Knights Templar fell inside the fortress, the rest (several hundred) managed to take refuge in Temple under the leadership of Marshal Pierre de Sevry of the Knights Templar.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Residents of Acre also took refuge there, who did not have time to evacuate to Cyprus.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

During the evacuation, Patriarch Nicholas of Jerusalem died — his boat, overloaded with rescuers, capsized and he drowned.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Mamluks tried to storm Temple for a week, but to no avail.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

During this period, the defenders, taking advantage of the fact that they have access to the sea, evacuated the civilian population, as well as the treasury of the order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On May 28, the Sultan offered the Knights Templar honorable conditions for surrender - going to the harbor with weapons in their hands.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On the same day, the conditions were accepted by the defenders.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Galleys entered the harbor, and the civilian population of the city, accompanied by knights, left Temple.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The banner of Islam hung above the tower served as a sign of surrender.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

But one of the emirs, who scoured the city in search of life, when he saw the flag, decided that the fortress was taken and attacked the refugees.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The defenders responded with weapons and locked themselves in the fortress again.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On May 29, de Sevry and two Templars went to negotiate with the Sultan.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

But Al-Ashraf considered the Crusaders violators of the oath, refused to listen to the parliamentarians, and ordered them to be beheaded.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The surviving defenders barricaded themselves in the Master's Tower.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The sappers undermined its foundation within 24 hours, on May 30, the tower collapsed, the Mamluks broke inside, and finished off those who survived the rubble.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Immediately after it became known about the fall of the walls of Acre, on May 19, Tyre surrendered without a fight.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

At the end of June, Sidon was captured, and Beirut was surrendered on July 31.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Pilgrim Castle and Tortosa were abandoned by the Knights Templar between August 3 and 14.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

They sailed to the waterless island of Ruad, which is located two miles from Tortosa, and held it for another twelve years.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Al-Ashraf ordered the destruction of all the castles that were on the coast so that the Franks could no longer take possession of them.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Cyprus Era (1291—1314)


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Defeat and Abolition of the Order


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Philip IV talks with the Pope


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Using as an excuse the denunciation of Squin de Florian and Noffo Dei, two former Knights Templar accused of turmoil, Philip IV the Beautiful (1285—1314) ordered several Knights Templar and then began secret negotiations with Pope Clement V, demanding an investigation.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

After some hesitation, Dad agreed.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Order did not dare to object to the investigation.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On September 22, 1307, the Royal Council decided to arrest all Knights Templar in France.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Preparations for a difficult operation were secretly going on for three weeks.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Royal officials, commanders of military units, as well as local inquisitors, did not know until the last moment what they were going to do: the orders were sealed in double envelopes, which were allowed open only on Friday, October 13.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

[8] The Templars were taken by surprise.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The king pretended to act with the consent of the Pope, and he insisted that he learned about the raid on the Knights Templar only after it was completed.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The arrested Knights Templar were credited with serious crimes against religion and morality: blasphemy, renunciation of Christ, cult of the devil, debauchery, sodomy and bestiality.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The interrogation was conducted jointly by inquisitors and royal servants, and cruel torture was used, and as a result, the investigation obtained the necessary confessions.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In May 1308, Philip IV convened the States General and enlisted their support, thereby averting any claims of the Pope.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Formally, the dispute with Rome was about who would judge the Knights Templar, and essentially who would take possession of their wealth.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Destruction of the Order


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Early Friday morning, October 13, 1307, members of the Order living in France were arrested by officials of King Philip.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The arrests were made in the name of the Holy Inquisition, and the Templar possessions were confiscated by the king.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

A lot of documentary evidence has been preserved from the Inquisition trial against the Knights Templar.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Members of the order were accused of the gravest heresy — renouncing Jesus Christ, spitting on the crucifixion, kissing each other obscenely, sodomy, worshiping the idol Baphomet in their secret meetings, cremating dead brothers and mixing ashes into a common meal, Satan attending their meetings in person and kissing him in obscene places, etc. Many prisoners were subjected to severe torture, and several hundred Knights Templar were tortured to death in the first days after their arrests.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In October and November, the Templars arrested, including Jacques de Molay, Grand Master of the Order, and Hugues de Peyro, the Visitor General, pleaded guilty almost simultaneously.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

De Molay then publicly repeated his confession on all charges before a meeting of theologians at the University of Paris.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

For his part, Philip IV wrote to other Christian monarchs urging him to follow his example to arrest all the Templars in their possessions.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On November 22, 1307, the Pope issued a bull Pastoralis praeeminentiae, in which he ordered all Christian monarchs to arrest the Knights Templar and confiscate their land and property.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

This bull marked the beginning of lawsuits in England, Spain, Germany, Italy and Cyprus.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Two cardinals were sent to Paris for personal interrogation of the leaders of the Order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

However, in the presence of representatives of the Pope, de Mole and de Peyro retracted their confessions and urged the rest of the Knights Templar to do the same.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

At the beginning of 1308, the Pope suspended the inquisition processes.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Philip IV and his people for six months tried in vain to influence the Pope and encourage him to resume the investigation.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

During a personal meeting between the King and the Pope in Poitiers in May-June 1308, after much controversy, the Pope finally agreed to initiate two judicial investigations: one was to be carried out by the Pontifical Commission inside the order itself, the second is a series of courts at the bishopric level to determine the guilt or innocence of a member of the order.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Vienne Cathedral was scheduled for October 1310, which was to make a final decision in the Templar case.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Episcopal investigations, under the control and pressure of the bishops themselves, closely associated with the French throne, began in 1309.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In most cases, the Knights Templar repeated their confessions after severe and prolonged torture.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Pontifical Commission, which investigated the activities of the Order as a whole, began hearings in November 1309.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Templar Brothers, inspired by priests Pierre de Bologna and Renaud de Provain, began to consistently defend the Order and their dignity in the face of the papal commission.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

By early May 1310, almost six hundred Knights Templar had decided to defend the order, completely denying the confessions they had torn out of them, made to the inquisitors in 1307 or to the bishops in 1309.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Pope Clement postponed the Council for a year until 1311.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Archbishop Sansa, a protege of the king, reopened an investigation into the case of individual members of the order in his diocese, ruled that 44 people were guilty as re-heresy, and handed them over to the secular authorities who carried out church sentences.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

On April 12, 1310, fifty-four Templars were sentenced to burning at the stake and executed on the outskirts of Paris.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

One of the two main inspirers of the Order's defense in court, Pierre de Bologna, went missing, and Renaud de Provins was sentenced to life imprisonment by the council of the province of Sens.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The hearings of the Pontifical Commission ended only in June 1311.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In the summer of 1311, the Pope combined testimony obtained in France with investigation materials from other countries.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Only in France and in the lands under its control did the Knights Templar confess guilt.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

In October 1311, Vienne Cathedral finally took place.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Pope demanded the abolition of the order, which had dishonored itself and was no longer able to exist in its original form.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The resistance of the fathers of the Council was quite significant.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The Pope, under pressure from the King of France, insisted on his demands, forcing the audience to remain silent on pain of excommunication.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The bull “Vox in excelso” of March 22, 1312 marked the dissolution of the Order, and according to the “Ad providam” bull of May 2, all property of the Order was transferred to their rivals, the Hospitallers.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Shortly thereafter, Philip IV seized a large sum of money from the Hospitallers as judicial compensation.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Many Knights Templar were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, sometimes for life.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Those who pleaded not guilty were imprisoned in monasteries, where they dragged out a miserable existence for the rest of their lives.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Hugues de Peyraud, Visitor General of the Order, and Geoffroy de Gonneville, Prior of Aquitaine, heard the verdict in silence, but Grand Master Jacques de Molay and Normandy Prior Geoffroy de Charnay protested loudly, denying the accusations, and claiming that the holy order is clean before God and people.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The king demanded that they be condemned as heresy a second time, and on the same evening they were burned on one of the islets of the Seine.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Earlier, de Molay and de Charnay partially recognized the justice of slander in order to avoid torture.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

If they had pleaded guilty at the trial, they might have escaped with church repentance and eruption.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Having declared their complete innocence, they condemned themselves to a painful execution as malicious heretics.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

According to a widespread legend, before his death, Jacques de Molay cursed Philippe and his family up to the thirteenth generation, and Pope Clement.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The most vivid words about the consequences of the fall of the Knights of the Temple belong to Charles William Huckerthorne: “The whole world died with the Knights Templar; chivalry and crusades ended with them. Even the papacy took a terrible blow. The symbolism was deeply shocked. A greedy and fruitless trading spirit emerged. Mysticism, which illuminated past generations with such a bright light, found coldness and mistrust in people's souls. The reaction was strong, and the Templars were the first to fall under the hard blows of the West, which sought to resent against the East, which still prevailed in many respects in it, ruled and oppressed it” [9 ].


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Charges


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The list of charges brought by the Inquisition against the Knights Templar:


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The priests of the order did not sanctify the Holy Gifts and distorted the formula of the mass.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

They worshiped a cat who sometimes appeared to them at their meetings;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

each province of the order had idols, namely heads (three-faced, and some with one face) and skulls;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

they worshiped these idols, especially in their meetings;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

they honored these idols as representatives of God and Savior;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

the Templars claimed that the head could save them and enrich them;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

The idols gave the order all its riches;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

idols made the earth bear fruit and trees bloom;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

they tied the heads of these idols or simply touched them with short ropes, which they then wore on their bodies under their shirts;


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

when a new member was admitted to the Order, he was given the aforementioned short ropes (or one long one that could be cut);


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

everything they did was to worship these idols.


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

Courts: common and special in different countries


Question: What was the Visigothic supreme god?

Knights Templar

France