Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category: January 1954


Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category:1954 in Italy


Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Italy


Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category: Aviation accidents and incidents in 1954


Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category:Aviation accidents and incidents with de Havilland Comet


Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category:Aviation accidents and incidents British Overseas Airways Corporation


Question: How many people died in the de Havilland Comet disaster near the Elbe?

De Havilland Comet disaster near Elbe

Category:Aviation accidents due to uncontrolled decompression


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

A luminescent lampa is a gas-discharge light source in which an electrical discharge in mercury vapor creates ultraviolet radiation that is converted into visible light using a phosphor — for example, mixtures of calcium halophosphate with other elements.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The luminous efficiency of a fluorescent lamp is several times greater than that of incandescent lamps of similar power.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The service life of fluorescent lamps is about 5 years, provided that the number of inclusions is limited to 2000, that is, no more than 5 inclusions per day during the warranty period of 2 years.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Varieties


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The most common are high and low pressure mercury discharge lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

high-pressure lamps are used mainly in street lighting and in high-power lighting installations;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

low-pressure lamps are used to illuminate residential and industrial premises.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

A low-pressure mercury discharge lamp (GRLND) is a glass tube with a phosphor layer applied to the inner surface, filled with argon at a pressure of 400 Pa and mercury (or amalgam).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Plasma displays are also a type of fluorescent lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Scope of application


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps are widely used in lighting public buildings: schools, hospitals, offices, etc. With the advent of compact fluorescent lamps with electronic ballasts, which can be included in E27 and E14 sockets instead of incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps are gaining popularity in everyday life.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps are most appropriate for general lighting, primarily large rooms (especially in conjunction with DALI systems), which make it possible to improve lighting conditions and This reduces energy consumption by 50-83% and increases the service life of lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps are also widely used in local lighting of workplaces, in light advertising, and facade lighting.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Prior to the use of LEDs, they were the only source for illuminating liquid crystal screens.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Advantages and disadvantages


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The popularity of fluorescent lamps is due to their advantages (over incandescent lamps):


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

significantly higher light output (a 20 W fluorescent lamp gives illumination like a 100 W incandescent lamp) and higher efficiency;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

a variety of shades of light;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

diffuse light;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

long service life ([1] — [2] unlike incandescent lamps), provided that sufficient quality of power supply, ballast is ensured and restrictions on the number of switching on and off are observed (therefore they are not recommended for use in public areas with automatic switches with motion sensors).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The disadvantages include:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

chemical hazard (LLs contain mercury in an amount of 2.3 mg to 1 g);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

an uneven, linear spectrum that is unpleasant for the eye and causes color distortions of illuminated objects (there are lamps with a phosphor spectrum close to solid, but have a lower light output);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

degradation of the phosphor over time leads to a change in the spectrum, a decrease in light output and, as a result, a decrease in the efficiency of LL;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

flickering of the lamp with twice the frequency of the supply network (the use of electronic ballast solves the problem, provided that the rectified current smoothing capacitor at the input of the electronic ballast inverter is sufficient (manufacturers often save on capacitor capacities);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

the presence of an additional device for starting the lamp - a ballast (a bulky noisy choke with an unreliable starter or an expensive electronic ballast);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

very low lamp power factor - such lamps are an unsuccessful load for the power grid (offset by the use of very expensive electronic ballast with a power factor corrector);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are also smaller drawbacks [3].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

History


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The first ancestor of fluorescent lamps was gas discharge lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

For the first time, Mikhail Lomonosov observed the glow of gases under the influence of electric current, passing current through a glass ball filled with hydrogen.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

It is believed that the first gas-discharge lamp was invented in 1856.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Heinrich Geisler received a blue glow from a gas-filled tube, which was excited by a solenoid.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

On June 23, 1891, Nikola Tesla patented an electric lighting system with gas discharge lamps (patent No. 454,622), which consisted of a high-frequency high-voltage source and gas discharge argon lamps, patented by him earlier (patent No. 335,787 of February 9, 1886 was issued to the United States Patent Office).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Argon lamps are still in use today.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In 1893, at the World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois, Thomas Edison showed a fluorescent glow.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In 1894, M. F. Moore created a lamp that used nitrogen and carbon dioxide to emit pink and white light.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This lamp was a moderate success.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In 1901, Peter Cooper Hewitt demonstrated a mercury lamp that emitted blue-green light, and was thus unsuitable for practical purposes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

However, its design was very close to modern, and had much higher efficiency than the Geisler and Edison lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In 1926, Edmund Germer and his staff proposed to increase the operating pressure within the flask and cover the flasks with fluorescent powder that converts ultraviolet the light emitted by the excited plasma into a more homogeneous white and colored light.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

E.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Germer is now recognized as the inventor of the fluorescent lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

General Electric later bought Hermer's patent, and under George E.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Inmana brought fluorescent lamps to widespread commercial use by 1938.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In 1951, for the development of fluorescent lamps in the USSR, V. A. The manufacturer was awarded the title of laureate of the Stalin Prize of the second degree together with S. AND. Vavilov, V. L. Levshin, F. A. Butaeva, M. A. Konstantinova-Schlesinger, V. AND. Dolgopolov.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The principle of operation


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

When a fluorescent lamp is operating, an arc discharge [4] [5] burns between two electrodes located at opposite ends of the lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The lamp is filled with an inert gas and mercury vapor, and the passing electric current leads to the appearance of UV radiation.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This radiation is invisible to the human eye, so it is converted into visible light by the phenomenon of luminescence.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The inner walls of the lamp are covered with a special substance — phosphor, which absorbs UV radiation and emits visible light.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

By changing the composition of the phosphor, you can change the shade of the lamp's glow.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Calcium halophosphates and calcium-zinc orthophosphates are mainly used as a phosphor.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The arc discharge is maintained by thermionic emission of charged particles (electrons) from the cathode surface.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

To start the lamp, the cathodes are heated either by passing current through them (DRL, LD lamps) or by ion bombardment in a high-voltage glow discharge (“cold cathode lamps”).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The discharge current is limited by ballast.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Labeling


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The color perception of light by a person varies greatly depending on the illumination.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In low light, we can see blue better and less red.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Therefore, daylight with a color temperature — in low light conditions will appear excessively blue.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The average illumination of living quarters is 75 lux, while in offices and other work areas it is 400 lux.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In low light (50-75 lux), light with a color temperature looks most natural.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

At 400 lux, this light already seems yellow, and the most natural light seems to be light with a temperature.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The industry produces lamps for various applications.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Labeling helps determine whether the lamp is suitable for a particular task.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

International marking for color rendering and color temperature


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The three-digit code on the lamp packaging usually contains information regarding the quality of light (color rendering index and color temperature).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The first digit is the color rendering index in 1x10 Ra (compact fluorescent lamps have 60-98 Ra, so the higher the index, the more reliable the color reproduction).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The second and third digits indicate the color temperature of the lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Thus, the marking “827" indicates a color rendering index of 80 Ra and a color temperature of 2700 K (which corresponds to the color temperature of an incandescent lamp).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In addition, the color rendering index can be indicated in accordance with DIN 5035, where the color rendering range of 20-100 Ra is divided into 6 parts — from 4 to 1A [6].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Color rendering marking in Russia


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The marking of fluorescent lamps in Russia differs from the international one and is determined by GOSTs and other regulatory documents.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In accordance with the current GOST 6825-91* (IEC 81-84) [7] “Fluorescent tubular lamps for general lighting”, general-purpose linear fluorescent lamps are marked as:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LB (white light)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LD (daylight)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LHB (cold white light)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LTB (warm white light)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Domestic producers also use other markings [8]:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LE (natural light)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LHE (cold natural light)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Adding the letter C at the end means the use of a de-lux phosphor with improved color reproduction, and the TP means a super de-lux phosphor with high-quality color reproduction.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Special-purpose lamps are marked as:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LG, LK, LZ, LV, LR, LGR (color glow lamps)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LUF (ultraviolet light lamps)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

DB (type C ultraviolet light lamp)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LSR (Blue Light Reflex) [9]


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The parameters of domestic lamps in terms of color reproduction and light output are given in the table:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Features of connecting to the electrical network


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Any gas-discharge lamp (including a low-pressure gas discharge fluorescent lamp), unlike an incandescent lamp, cannot be connected directly to the electrical network.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are two reasons for this:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In the “cold” state, the fluorescent lamp has a high resistance and a high-voltage pulse is required to ignite a discharge in it;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp has a negative differential resistance after a discharge occurs in it, so if no resistance is included in the circuit, a short circuit will occur and the lamp will exit out of order.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

To solve these problems, special devices are used - ballasts (ballasts).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The most common connection schemes today are with electromagnetic ballast (EMPA) and neon starter, and with electronic ballast (electronic ballast; there are many different models and options).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Electromagnetic ballast


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Electromagnetic ballast (abbreviated as EMPA - Electromagnetic Control Gear) is an electromagnetic choke with a certain inductive resistance, connected in series with a lamp (s) of a certain power.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

A starter is connected in series to the filaments of the lamp, which is a neon lamp with bimetallic electrodes and a capacitor (the neon lamp and capacitor are connected in parallel).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The choke generates a trigger pulse (up to 1 kV) due to self-induction, and also limits the current through the lamp due to inductive resistance.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Currently, the advantages of electromagnetic ballast are the simplicity of design, high reliability and durability.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are a lot of drawbacks to this scheme:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Long start-up (1-3 seconds depending on the degree of lamp wear);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Consumption of more energy by the throttle, compared to the electronic ballast (at a voltage of 220 V, a lamp of 2 lamps of 58 W, that is, a total of 116 W, consumes 130 W);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Small cos φ, about 0.35-0.50 (without compensating capacitors);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Depending on the quality of the choke manufacturing, there may be a low-frequency buzz (with twice the network frequency) of the magnetic core plates;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Flickering of the lamp with twice the mains frequency (100 Hz), which can adversely affect vision, and also causes a stroboscopic effect (objects and machine parts rotating synchronously with the network frequency may appear motionless).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps with electromagnetic ballast should not be used to illuminate moving parts of machines and mechanisms (at least without additional illumination by incandescent lamps).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

To reduce flicker, the lamps in the room are divided into three groups, which are connected to different phases of the three-phase power grid;


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Large dimensions (compared to the most primitive electronic ballast) and significant weight (several kilograms);


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

At negative temperatures, lamps connected using a starter-throttle circuit may not light up at all.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps for two LB-20 (LD-20) lamps mass-produced in the USSR had means of compensating for both cos φ and storboscopic effect.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

One section was connected via a phase-shifting capacitor.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Thus, the current in the sections differed by about a quarter of the mains voltage period.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

As a result, the brightness of one lamp is maximum when the brightness of the second lamp is zero, and vice versa.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Moreover, the current was shifted in phase from the voltage by approximately the same amount (by 1/8 of the period), but with a different sign.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This significantly improved the total power factor.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamp starting mechanism with electromagnetic ballast and starter


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In the classical switching circuit with electromagnetic ballast, a starter (starter) is used to automatically control the ignition process of the lamp, which is a small neon lamp with a capacitor connected in parallel to it, enclosed in a housing.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

One inner electrode of the starter neon lamp is fixed rigid, the other is bimetallic, bending when heated (there are also starters with two flexible electrodes (symmetrical)).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In the initial state, the starter electrodes are open.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The starter is connected in parallel to the lamp so that when its electrodes are closed, the current passes through the lamp spirals.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

At the moment of switching on, the full mains voltage is applied to the electrodes of the lamp and the starter, since there is no current through the lamp and the voltage drop across the choke is zero.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The lamp spirals are cold.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There is no discharge in the lamp and does not occur, since the mains voltage is not enough to ignite it.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

But in the starter lamp, a glow discharge occurs from the applied voltage, and the current passes through the lamp spirals and the starter electrodes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The discharge current is small to heat the lamp spirals, but it is sufficient to heat the starter electrodes, which causes the bimetallic electrode to bend and close with the rigid electrode.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Since the mains voltage can vary relative to the nominal value, the ignition voltage in the starter lamp is selected so that the discharge in it ignites at the lowest mains voltage.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The current limited by the inductive resistance of the choke flows through the lamp coils and heats them up.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

When the closed electrodes of the starter cool down (in the closed state, heat is not released on them due to low resistance), the circuit opens, and due to self-induction, a voltage surge occurs on a throttle sufficient to ignite a discharge in the lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Parallel to the neon lamp, a small-capacity capacitor is connected in the starter, which serves to form a resonant circuit together with the inductance of the choke.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The circuit generates a pulse long enough to ignite the lamp (in the absence of a capacitor, this pulse will be too short and the amplitude is too large, and the energy stored in the choke will be spent on the discharge in the starter).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

By the time the starter is opened, the lamp spirals are already sufficiently heated, and if the voltage surge resulting from the self-induction of the throttle is sufficient for breakdown, then the discharge in the lamp ignites.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The operating voltage of the lamp is lower than the mains due to the voltage drop across the choke, so the discharge extinction voltage in the starter lamp is set slightly more than the voltage on the fluorescent lamp, therefore the starter does not re-operate.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

During the ignition of the lamp, the starter sometimes operates several times in a row if it opens at a time when the instantaneous value of the throttle current is zero, or the lamp electrodes are not yet heated enough .


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

As the lamp operates, its operating voltage increases slightly, and at the end of its service life, when an activating paste is used up on one of the lamp spirals, the voltage on it increases to a value greater than the discharge extinction voltage in the starter lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This causes a characteristic continuous flashing of the failed lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

When the lamp goes out, you can see the glow of the cathodes heated by the current flowing through the starter.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Electronic ballast


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Electronic ballast (abbreviated electronic ballast - Electronic Control Gear) feeds the lamps with a current with a voltage not of the mains frequency (50-60 Hz), but with a high-frequency voltage (25-133 kHz), as a result of which it is noticeable for eye flashing lamps is excluded.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Depending on the model, the electronic ballast can use one of two options for starting the lamps:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Cold start - the lamp lights up immediately after switching on.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This scheme is better to use if the lamp is rarely turned on and off, since the cold start mode is more harmful to the lamp electrodes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Hot start — with preheating of electrodes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The lamp does not light up immediately, but after 0.5—1 seconds, but the service life increases, especially with frequent switching on and off.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The electricity consumption of fluorescent lamps when using electronic ballast is usually 20-25% lower.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Material costs (copper, iron) for production and disposal are several times less.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The use of centralized lighting systems with automatic adjustment allows you to save up to 85% of electricity.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are electronic ballasts with the possibility of dimming (brightness adjustment) by changing the duty cycle of the lamp supply current.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Electronic ballast lamp starting mechanism


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Unlike electromagnetic ballast, electronic ballast usually does not require a separate special starter, since such ballast is generally able to form the necessary stress sequences itself.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are various ways to start fluorescent lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Most often, electronic ballast heats the cathodes of the lamps and applies a voltage to the cathodes sufficient to ignite the lamp, usually alternating and of a higher frequency than the mains (which at the same time eliminates the flickering of the lamp, characteristic of electromagnetic ballasts).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Depending on the design of the ballast and the time parameters of the lamp start sequence, such ballasts can provide, for example, a smooth start of the lamp with a gradual increase in brightness to full in a few seconds or instantly turn on the lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Combined starting methods are often found when the lamp is started not only due to the fact that the cathodes of the lamp are heated, but also due to the fact that the circuit in which the lamp is included is oscillatory outline.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The parameters of the oscillating circuit are selected so that in the absence of a discharge in the lamp, an electrical resonance phenomenon occurs in the circuit, leading to a significant increase in the voltage between the cathodes of the lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

As a rule, this also leads to an increase in the cathode heating current, since under such a scheme for starting the cathode filament coil, the cathodes are often connected in series through a capacitor, being part of the oscillating circuit.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

As a result, due to the heating of the cathodes and the relatively high voltage between the cathodes, the lamp is easily lit


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Since the cathode filament spirals have thermal inertia, that is, they cannot warm up instantly, the lamp ignites when the cathodes are not heated, which leads to a reduction in service life.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

To prevent this, a posistor is connected in parallel to the capacitor - this is a resistor in which, when an electric current flows, the resistance increases sharply, which prevents the discharge from igniting in the lamp at the first time, that is, when the cathodes are not heated.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

After the lamp is ignited, the parameters of the oscillating circuit change, the quality factor decreases, and the current in the circuit drops significantly, reducing the heating of the cathodes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are variations on this technology.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

For example, in the extreme case, the ballast may not heat the cathodes at all, instead applying a sufficiently high voltage to the cathodes, which will inevitably lead to an almost instantaneous ignition of the lamp due to gas breakdown between cathodes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This method is essentially similar to the technologies used to start cold cathode lamps (CCFL).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This method is quite popular with radio amateurs, since it allows you to run even lamps with blown cathode filaments that can not be started by conventional methods due to the impossibility cathode heating.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In particular, this method is often used by radio amateurs to repair compact energy-saving lamps, which are conventional fluorescent lamps with built-in electronic ballast in compact body.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

After a small rework of the ballast, such a lamp can serve for a long time, despite the burning of the heating spirals, and its service life will be limited only by the time until the electrodes are completely sprayed.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Reasons for failure


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The electrodes of the fluorescent lamp are a spiral made of tungsten filament, covered with a paste (active mass) of alkaline earth metals.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This paste provides a stable discharge.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

During operation, it gradually falls off the electrodes, burns out and evaporates.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

It falls off especially intensively during start-up, when for some time the discharge does not occur over the entire area of the electrode, but on a small area of its surface, which leads to local differences temperatures.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Therefore, fluorescent lamps still have an end service life (it depends mainly on the quality of the electrodes, the ignition speed), although it is longer than that of conventional incandescent lamps, of which the spiral evaporates at a constant rate.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Hence the darkening at the ends of the lamp, which increases closer to the end of the service life.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

When the paste burns out completely, the voltage on the lamp increases abruptly and the circuit in which the lamp operates cannot provide a large voltage for its burning.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Failure of lamps with electromagnetic ballast


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

As a rule, at the end of the service life, the paste completely burns out on one of the two electrodes, which leads to an increase in the voltage across the lamp to a value equal to the ignition voltage of the discharge in the starter.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This leads to the fact that the starter starts to work constantly - hence the well-known flashing of heavily worn lamps, accompanied by the ignition of the lamp, then it goes out, and its electrodes heat up, after causing the lamp to light up again.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

At the same time, the electrodes of the lamp are constantly heated, and in the end (after about 2 to 3 days of flashing) one of the filaments burns out.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In addition, due to prolonged operation in the mode of repeated starts, the starter often fails, so when replacing the lamp, you have to change it too.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If the starter fails (the bimetallic contacts are closed or the capacitor is broken), the lamp becomes shunted along the starter circuit, and the discharge cannot be ignited.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Only the filaments of the lamp electrodes work, which leads to their accelerated wear, the current consumed by the lamp is somewhat overestimated, but it is not emergency, since the choke is designed for such mode of operation.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If the choke fails (turn-to-turn short circuit or violation of the magnetic circuit and, as a result, a decrease in inductance), the current in the lamp circuit increases significantly, the discharge heats the electrodes to their melting, which leads to an instantaneous failure of the lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Failure of lamps with electronic ballast


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

During the aging process of the lamp, the active mass of the electrodes gradually burns out, after which the filaments warm up and burn out.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In high-quality ballasts, a scheme for automatically turning off a blown lamp is provided.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In low-quality electronic ballast, there is no such protection, and after increasing the voltage, the lamp will go out, and a resonance will occur in the circuit, leading to a significant increase in current and burnout of ballast transistors.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Also, it is not uncommon for low-quality ballasts (usually on compact fluorescent lamps with built-in ballast) at the output to be equipped with a capacitor designed for a voltage close to the operating voltage the voltage of the new lamp.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

As the lamp ages, the voltage rises and a breakdown occurs in the capacitor, which also destroys the ballast transistors [11].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If a lamp with electronic ballast fails, there is no flickering, as in the case of electromagnetic ballast, and the lamp goes out immediately.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

You can determine the cause of the failure by checking the integrity of the lamp filaments with any ohmmeter, multimeter or specialized lamp testing device.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If the filaments of the lamp have a low resistance (about 10 ohms, that is, they did not burn out), then the reason for the failure is low ballast quality, if one or both of the filaments have a high (infinite) resistance, the lamp burned out from old age or from overvoltage.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In the latter case, it makes sense to try to replace the lamp itself, however, if the new lamp also does not glow and the ballast circuit is powered, this also indicates a low ballast quality (while there is a risk of spoiling a new lamp).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Phosphors and the spectrum of light emitted


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Many people find the light emitted by fluorescent lamps to be rough and unpleasant.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The color of objects illuminated by such lamps may be slightly distorted.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This is partly due to the blue and green lines in the emission spectrum of the gas discharge in mercury vapor, partly due to the type of phosphor used, partly due to the incorrectly selected lamp designed for warehouses and non-residential premises.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Many cheap lamps use a halophosphate phosphor, which emits mainly yellow and blue light, while red and green emit less.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This mixture of colors appears white to the eye, but when reflected from objects, the light may contain an incomplete spectrum, which is perceived as a color distortion.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

However, such lamps tend to have a very high luminous efficiency.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If we consider that there are three types of color receptors in the human eye, and the perception of the continuous spectrum is only the result of brain work, then there is no need to strive to recreate the continuous solar spectrum, it is enough to recreate the same effect on these three receptors.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This principle has long been used in color television and color photography.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Therefore, more expensive lamps use a “three-band” and “five-band” phosphor.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This makes it possible to achieve a more uniform distribution of radiation over the visible spectrum, which leads to a more natural reproduction of light.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

However, such lamps tend to have a lower luminous efficiency.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The bulbs of special lamps are made of uviolet glass that transmits rays in the ultraviolet wavelength range [12].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

At home, you can evaluate the spectrum of the lamp using a CD.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

To do this, you need to look at the reflection of the lamp light from the working surface of the disk — the spectral lines of the phosphor will be visible in the diffraction pattern.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If the lamp is close, it is better to place a screen with a small hole between the lamp and the disc.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Special fluorescent lamps


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are also special fluorescent lamps with different spectral characteristics:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps, which meet the highest requirements for color reproduction of natural color in daylight, serve to eliminate the effect of color mimicry.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

It is indispensable in cases where you need an atmosphere of lively daylight, for example, in printing houses, art galleries, museums, dental offices, and laboratories, when viewing transparencies and in specialized textile stores.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps that emit light that is similar in spectral characteristics to sunlight.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

These lamps are recommended for rooms with a lack of daylight, such as offices, banks and shops.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Due to its very good color rendering and high color temperature (), it is ideal for color comparison and medical light therapy.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps for plants and aquariums with enhanced radiation in the spectral range of blue and red light.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

It has an ideal effect on photobiological processes.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

These lamps with designations emit light with a minimum content of ultraviolet component type A (with the absolute absence of ultraviolet components of type B and C).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

They are usually combined with fluorescent lamps (—) to give natural background lighting.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps for marine life in aquariums with radiation in the blue and ultraviolet range.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

They are used to give a natural color to corals and inhabitants of coral reefs.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Also, these lamps allow some types of corals to fluoresce, which in turn “enlivens” the composition.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Decorative lamps in red, yellow, green, blue and crimson colors.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Colored fluorescent lamps are particularly suitable for decorative lighting and creating special lighting effects.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The color of the lamp is obtained by using a special phosphor or by painting the bulb.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Among other things, a yellow fluorescent lamp does not contain an ultraviolet component in its spectrum.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Therefore, this lamp is recommended for sterile industries, for example, for chip manufacturing workshops (photoresists are used in such production - substances that react with UV), as well as for general lighting without UV radiation.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps designed to illuminate rooms where birds are kept.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The spectrum of these lamps contains near ultraviolet light, which makes it possible to create more comfortable lighting for them, bringing it closer to natural, since birds, unlike humans, have four-component vision.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps designed to illuminate butcher counters in supermarkets.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The light of these lamps has a pink tint, as a result of this lighting, the meat becomes more appetizing, which attracts customers [13].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps for solariums and beauty salons come in three versions [14]:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps with almost pure type A ultraviolet radiation above 350 nm.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

When irradiated in this range, there is practically no risk of burns for normal skin.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

With sufficiently prolonged irradiation due to direct skin pigmentation, the tanning effect appears shortly after the first irradiation session.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps with high UV power type A for direct pigmentation and with a small component of type B ultraviolet radiation for new pigment formation.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Due to the minimum value of the type B ultraviolet component, the risk of sunburn is minimal.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps with an effect similar to that of sunlight due to a significant component of type A ultraviolet radiation and a harmonious component of biologically effective type B radiation. After regular irradiation procedures, as a result of prolonged skin pigmentation, a fresh and persistent “vacation” tan is formed with a high degree of skin protection from radiation.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The lamp allows irradiation to create a natural tan effect in the shortest possible time and is therefore recommended for professional use.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Ultraviolet fluorescent lamps with black glass bulbs: Various materials have the ability to convert invisible ultraviolet radiation into light (create an effect fluorescence).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Such lamps are irradiators with long-wave ultraviolet radiation that use this effect.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Therefore, they are indispensable sources of radiation for all types of studies using luminescence analysis.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

These lamps differ from standard fluorescent lamps in that their bulb is made of a special glass that is practically opaque in the visible region and transmits near UV radiation, and is covered a special phosphor emitting about 370 nm in a narrow spectral region.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Such lamps emit almost only in the long-wave ultraviolet range from 350 to 410 nm, which is almost invisible to the eye and is completely harmless (except for the phosphor radiation band in the spectrum there are clearly visible lines of 365.0153 nm and 404.6563 nm, as well as lines 398.3931 nm and 407.783 nm [15] [16]).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Almost all visible radiation, as well as shorter-wave ultraviolet light, is delayed by the filter glass.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Areas of application:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Materials Science: Studies of materials using luminescence, for example, identifying the thinnest cracks in the motor shaft.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Textile industry: Analysis of materials, such as chemical composition and types of impurities in wool materials.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Detection of invisible stains and possible stains after cleaning


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Food industry: Detection of falsifications in food, rotting sites in fruits (especially oranges), meat, fish, etc.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Forensics: Detection of counterfeits among banknotes, checks and documents, as well as changes made to them, removed blood stains, counterfeit paintings, detection of invisible secret inscriptions, etc.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Mail: Efficient handling of correspondence with automatic envelope stamping machines, verifying the authenticity of postage stamps


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Creating lighting effects on the stages of drama and music theaters, cabarets, variety shows, discos, bars, cafes...


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Other applications: advertising and display decoration, agriculture (e.g. seed testing), mineralogy, gem testing, art history...


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Irradiators for sterilization and ozonation, typically with a wavelength of 253.7 nm [16].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Due to their short-wave UV radiation of type C, these irradiators have a bactericidal effect and are therefore used for sterilization.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The rational use of these irradiators is guaranteed only in special installations designed for them.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Therefore, the installation of irradiators in installations should be carried out only by the plant manufacturer.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Areas of application:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Sterilization of water: in aquariums, drinking water, swimming pool water, wastewater...


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Air sterilization and deodorization in air conditioners, hospitals, warehouses


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Surface sterilization in the pharmaceutical and packaging industries


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

erasing information from microelectronic memory units (EPROM)


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps with special color characteristics:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

for polymerization of plastics, adhesives, varnishes, paints to a depth of no more than 1 mm; treatment of hyperbilirubinemia, treatment of psoriasis; attracting insects to insect traps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Execution options


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Fluorescent lamps — low-pressure discharge lamps — are divided into linear and compact ones.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Linear lamps


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Linear fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure mercury lamp of straight, ring or U-shape, in which most of the light is emitted by a fluorescent coating excited by ultraviolet discharge radiation.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Often, such lamps are completely incorrectly called flask or tubular, this definition is outdated, although it does not contradict GOST 6825-91, in which the designation “tubular” is accepted.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

A two-base rectilinear fluorescent lamp is a glass tube, at the ends of which glass legs are welded with electrodes fixed on them (spiral heating threads).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

A thin layer of crystalline powder, phosphor, is applied to the inner surface of the tube.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The tube is filled with an inert gas or a mixture of inert gases (Ar, Ne, Kr) and hermetically sealed.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

A dosed amount of mercury is introduced inside, which, when the lamp is operating, turns into a vapor state.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

At the ends of the lamp there are caps with contact pins for connecting the lamp to the circuit.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Linear lamps vary in length and tube diameter.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Tube length (usually the length of the tube is proportional to the power consumption):


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The tube diameter has the following designations:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

G13 cap type — the distance between the pins is 13 mm.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps of this type can often be seen in industrial premises, offices, shops, transport, etc.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In the practice of manufacturers of LED lamps and lamps, the designation of lamps of the type “T8" or “T10", as well as the base “G13", is also often found.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

LED lamps can be installed in a standard luminaire (after minor modifications) for fluorescent lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

But the principle of operation is different and apart from the external similarity they have nothing to do with fluorescent lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Linear fluorescent lamps consume only about 15% of the power of incandescent lamps, while the light fluxes from these two light sources are the same.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Compact lamps


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

They are lamps with a curved tube.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

They differ in the type of socle on:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Lamps are also available for standard E27, E14 and E40 sockets, which makes it possible to use them in many luminaires instead of incandescent lamps.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Safety and disposal


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

All fluorescent lamps contain mercury (in doses from 1 to 70 mg), a poisonous substance of the 1st hazard class.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

This dose can be harmful to health if the lamp breaks, and if constantly exposed to harmful effects of mercury vapor, they will accumulate in the human body, causing harm to health.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

RoHS legislation (short for English. Restriction of use of Hazardous Substances (Restriction of the Use of Hazardous Substances) regulates the use of mercury, as well as other potentially dangerous elements in electrical and electronic equipment.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

On July 1, 2006, the RoHS Directive came into effect throughout the European Community.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The purpose of the Directive is clear — to limit the use of the six main hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, thereby ensuring the required level of protection of human health and the environment


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

There are several companies for the disposal of lamps, and legal entities, as well as individual entrepreneurs, are required to hand over lamps for recycling and develop a hazardous waste passport.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In addition, in a number of cities there are landfills for the disposal of toxic waste that receive waste from individuals free of charge.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

In Moscow, burnt out fluorescent lamps are accepted free of charge for further processing in district housing offices, where special containers are installed [17] [18].


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

If the lamps are not accepted at the DEZ and the Russian University of Economics, you must complain to the council or prefecture.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

[19] IKEA stores accept any energy-saving lamps from any manufacturer for recycling in the Exchange or Return Department.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

On September 3, 2010, Russia adopted Resolution No. 681 “On Approval of the Rules for Handling Production and Consumption Waste Regarding Lighting Devices, Electric Lamps, Improper Collection, the accumulation, use, neutralization, transportation and placement of which may lead to harm to the life, health of citizens, harm to animals, plants and the environment.”


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

The resolution also contains recommended measures to prevent and disinfect premises after the occurrence of emergency situations with mercury-containing lamps:


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

V. Rules for the elimination of emergency situations when handling mercury-containing waste.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

27. In the event of a failure of a mercury-containing lamp (s) by an individual in a domestic environment, or in the event of complex mercury contamination in the organization, the contaminated premises must be left by people and, at the same time , the call of relevant units (specialized organizations) should be organized through the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergencies and Liquidation consequences of natural disasters.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

28. After the evacuation of people, sufficient measures should be taken to exclude access to the contaminated area by unauthorized persons, as well as possible measures to localize the boundaries of the distribution of mercury and its vapors.


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

29. In the event of a single destruction of mercury-containing lamps in the organization, the elimination of mercury pollution can be carried out by personnel independently with the help of a demercurization kit (the composition of the demercurization kit is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation on the proposal of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergencies and Elimination of the consequences of natural disasters together with the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Supervision and the Federal Service for Supervision of Consumer Rights Protection and human well-being).


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

References


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Notes


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Category:Lighting


Question: What is the lifespan of a modern fluorescent lampa?

Fluorescent lamp

Category:Sources of ultraviolet radiation


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Grenade (Spanish: Granada - grenade) is an explosive ammunition designed to destroy enemy manpower and equipment by hand throwing.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

At the same time, until the beginning of the 20th century, grenades were called explosive shells as well as for manual throwing, and artillery caliber up to 1 pound (approximately 196 mm).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The design of hand and artillery grenades was similar.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Since the First World War, the name of the grenade was established exclusively for ammunition for hand throwing.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

A modern hand grenade consists of a body, an explosive charge and a fuse (fuse).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The defeat is inflicted by fragments of the body, a shock wave or a cumulative jet, as well as, alternatively, by ready-made striking elements (shrapnel).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

It is made of light alloys, materials of high specific strength and plastic.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

A trained soldier throws a fragmentation grenade at 40-50 meters, an anti-tank grenade - about 20 meters.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The name of the weapon comes from the name of the pomegranate fruit, since the early types of pomegranates looked like a fruit both in shape and size, and in how the grenade fragments flying away resembled the grains inside fetus [1].


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Device


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Modern hand grenades can either have a throwing handle (RGD-33) or not have one (F-1).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The grenade body is made both solid and chopped (“shirt”), to increase the fragmentation effect.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

In addition, between the body and the explosive there may be a stock of small ready-made striking elements (balls, cubes, etc.).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

To-DolistFor Main Page:


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

To-do list is empty: remove {{To do}} tag or click on edit to add an item.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Fuse


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Grenades can have a fuse that operates on different principles of detonation - dynamic (detonation when hitting the target) or with a delay (detonation by a fuse with a given delay).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The detonation with a delay is carried out as follows: when the safety check is pulled out and the bracket is released, the spring mechanism cocked in advance is triggered, and the fire forcefully hits the capsule from a shock sensitive substance (similar to the production of a shot from a hand firearm).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The exploding capsule ignites the powder in the thin ignition tube.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

The powder burns at a speed of about 1 cm per second and does not require oxygen, so the grenade can explode under water.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

When the fire in the ignition tube reaches the detonator, it explodes and causes the explosive with which the grenade is equipped to detonate.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Depending on the design, the grenade fuse includes an ignition tube with a capsule and a detonator, and may also include a spring mechanism with a striker, a check and a trigger guard.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Dynamic detonation of hand grenades is carried out using an inertial load connected to the detonator.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

When a grenade hits a solid target, the load shifts and the detonator is triggered.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

To prevent the grenade from exploding in the hand, a special mechanism brings the inertial detonator into combat position a short time after the trigger is released.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Grading


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

By purpose


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

According to their purpose, grenades are divided into:


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

main purpose (designed to directly defeat the enemy):


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

anti-tank (high-explosive, cumulative)


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

anti-personnel (fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive)


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

incendiary


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

special purpose:


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

smoke


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

lighting


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

signaling


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

light and sound


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

gas


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

and others


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

training (have the shape and weight of a combat grenade)


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

Among hand-held anti-personnel grenades, there are:


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Pomegranate

defensive grenades with a large radius of destruction (more explosive power, quantity, quality and range of fragments).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Defensive grenades should only be used from behind cover, otherwise they are dangerous for the grenade launcher himself.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A typical defensive grenade is F-1 (explosive charge - TNT, 60 g; weight 600 g. );


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

offensive (a small explosive charge, splinters and a damaging effect).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Offensive grenades are guaranteed to be less than the average range of the hand throw, so they can be used in open space.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Offensive grenades include, for example, RG-42 grenades (explosive charge - TNT, 110-120 g; mass 420 g), RGD-5 (explosive charge - TNT, 110 g; mass 310 g).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

By throwing method


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

According to the method of throwing grenades are divided into:


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

hand - hand rushing


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

rifle, pistol, under-barrel grenade launchers — fired from special means


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

rifle and hand - fired or thrown by hand


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Use as mines


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Hand grenades are often used as mines. To do this, they almost pull out the check, leaving a very light effort.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The grenade is then fixed on one side of the enemy's intended path.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A rope or wire is attached to the check, its end is fixed on the other side of the track.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The enemy, passing along the way, touches the wire - the check is pulled out, an explosion occurs.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

This device is called “stretching”.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

History


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The prototype of hand grenades was clay vessels with lime or incendiary cocktails, which were used since the 9th century.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

As evidenced by the ancient manuscript of Nejim-Edlin-Chassan Alram entitled “A Guide to the Art of Horse Fighting and Various War Machines”, the prototype of modern grenades, which was called” bortab”, also appeared among the Arabs; it consisted of a glass ball filled with a composition of nitrate, sulfur and coal, equipped with a stopin blank and suspended on a chain to the shaft [2].


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The first pomegranates were also made mainly from clay.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In 1405, Konrad Kaiser von Eichstadt first proposed using a cast-iron body for grenades, and creating a cavity in the center of the powder charge that accelerated the combustion of the mixture and increased the probability shredding the body into fragments.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

English author of the XVI century Peter Whitehorn notes that “in the old days they used clay bottles or pots stuffed with fire and explosives”, and recommends “preparing empty balls in foundry molds the size of a small ball for the game, and the walls are a quarter of an inch, made of three parts of copper with one part of tin.”


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The charge should be made up of three parts of “serpentine”, three parts of fine “flour powder” and one part “resinous”.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

At the same time, they should be “thrown immediately”, since “they are scattered into a thousand pieces almost without delay.”


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A hand grenade was lit from a wick, which was inserted into a wooden plug that plugged the seed hole.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Such a grenade could have exploded too soon or too late, and during the English Civil War, Cromwell's soldiers improved the device by tying a bullet to the wick at the bottom (inside the grenade) , and at the same time surrounding the wick with twigs inserted into small holes, which acted as stabilizers.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The wick remained facing backwards until the grenade hit the ground, when the bullet, continuing by inertia, pulled it inside the grenade.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Grenades were used mainly in the siege and defense of fortresses, as well as at sea in boarding battles.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In the 17th century, grenadiers began to be actively used in field combat.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In 1667, in England, four people were allocated in a company for throwing grenades; they were called grenadiers.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Within a few years, this new type of weapon was introduced into the main European armies.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The British also introduced grenadier caps in the form of high caps with a copper top.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In the XVIII century, the ignition tube of hand grenades was gunpowder, as well as artillery grenades.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Flare grenades made of cardboard, wood or tin, equipped with sparklers and used in night combat were also used.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The English artillery handbook of 1839 states that in the ground forces, a hand grenade weighs 1 pound 13 ounces (approx. 800 grams) and can be thrown at a distance of 40 to 60 feet (12-18 feet) m.).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

As linear tactics developed, grenades lost their importance in field combat and by the middle of the 18th century were removed from service with field armies, and grenadiers became only an elite infantry family.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Grenades remained only in service with fortress garrisons and in the navy.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Grenades were again widely used during positional hostilities, as during the defense of Sevastopol, where they were used by both sides, and Russians, for lack of shells, filled bottles with gunpowder.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The old type of wick cast iron grenades were used by the British back in 1885 in Sudan.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Modern grenades were, in fact, invented during the Russo-Japanese War, during which there was an urgent need for this type of weapon for storming and defending trenches.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Meanwhile, grenade types corresponding to modern technical capabilities were not developed, and the parties had to improvise.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The Russians used shell casings filled with dynamite (such devices were called a “bomb” [3]) as a body, and the Japanese used bamboo trunks and pyroxylin marmalade cans.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In order for the grenade to explode in time, shock fuses were made from a piece of wire and a rifle cartridge; Nobel detonator caps were used.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

For the fuse, mainly a bickford cord was used, which often gave enemy soldiers enough time to throw away the grenade.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

However, there were also black and spring fuses.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In the Battle of Mukden, the Japanese first used a grenade with a wooden handle, which played the role of a stabilizer, and a cylindrical body.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

This is followed by modern grenades: a Martin Hale grenade with a percussion mechanism at the base and a 24-segment steel fragmentation jacket (it was also equipped with a rod that allowed shooting it from a rifle), and an Aazen grenade with a wooden handle and a long cord that pulled out the check when the grenade reached the target [1].


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Hand grenades returned to widespread use during the First World War.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

During the Second World War, hand-held anti-tank grenades with cumulative warheads appeared.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Stielhandgranate (), the standard offensive hand grenade of the German armed forces from the end of World War I to the end of World War II


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Stielhandgranate.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

To use the grenade, it was necessary to unscrew the lid at the bottom of the handle, vigorously pull the cord with the porcelain ring that fell out at the same time


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

World War II hand grenades


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

World War I fragmentation hand grenade


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Grenade explosion protection


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Hand grenades are often used in terrorist attacks.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Although this is impossible to foresee, it is possible to avoid being hit by an explosion or minimize its consequences.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The grenade explosion has the shape of an inverted cone, the zone of impact by the shock wave is six meters.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

If there is no suitable shelter within a radius of three steps, you need to jump as far away from the grenade as possible and fall to the ground: your feet to the explosion, cross your legs to protect the femoral arteries, clamp hands your ears, press your elbows against your body, open your mouth to equalize the pressure.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

It should be remembered that in a city, the environment can pose an additional danger: fragments of walls, fragments of windows or shop windows can be additional factors of damage [4].


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Common myths about hand grenades


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A hand grenade explodes so hard that it destroys small buildings, throws people towards the sides.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In the cinema, such effects are created with the help of pyrotechnics.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In reality, a fragmentation hand grenade (unlike an anti-tank grenade) is not capable of causing significant damage.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A grenade rupture, even in the immediate vicinity of a person, does not always kill him.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A hand grenade explodes with a deafening noise, a ball of fire rises.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In movies, such effects are created using gasoline.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In reality, the grenade explodes with a sharp bang, raising a small cloud of dust.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The grenade check can be pulled out by the ring (and thereby transferred to combat condition) with your teeth.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In reality, such an attempt is more likely to result in tooth loss than checks.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Without straightening the antennae, it is almost impossible to pull out the check even with your hand.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

After straightening the antennae, the check is pulled out with a slight movement (training grenades, on the contrary, have a “heavy” check, as they are used repeatedly, unlike combat ones).


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

To avoid accidental triggering, the grenade cannot be activated even with a strong dash at the check.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The grenade has a radius of 200 meters, which means that when it explodes, fragments kill all living things within this radius.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In this case, the radius of damage is confused with the radius of the fragments.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

For example, an F-1 defensive grenade has a radius of 20 meters; fragments spread 200 meters.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

This means that within a radius of 20 meters, unprotected people are likely to be hit (killed or injured), and at a distance of more than 200 meters, a safe distance at which unprotected people can be kept without any particular risk to health.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

The radius of continuous destruction (the distance at which the probability of remaining alive is really extremely small) at human height for hand grenades usually does not exceed 5 meters [5].


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

At the same time, due to the peculiarities of the rupture of the metal parts of the grenade into striking fragments and the loss of their speed, with increasing distance, the damage caused falls exponentially.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

A modern grenade can be activated silently.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

In all modern fuses, when the striker hits the capsule, a noise comparable to a pistol shot is produced.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Some early fuses activated with little noise, but they were abandoned due to unreliable operation or danger to the thrower.


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

See also


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Grenade launcher


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Grenade launcher


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Artillery grenade


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Rifle grenade


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Notes


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Literature


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

References


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Category:Weapons alphabetically


Question: Who invented the pomegranate?

Grenade

Category:Throwing weapons alphabetically


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The Tu-16 (product “N”, according to NATO codification: Badger - “Badger” [1]) is a Soviet heavy twin-engine multipurpose jet aircraft.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It was produced in various modifications, including a missile-carrying version, a tanker aircraft, an electronic warfare aircraft, etc.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It was mass-produced from 1953 to 1963 by three aircraft factories.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It was in service with the USSR, Russia and the CIS countries for about 50 years.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It was also in service with Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Indonesia.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It was produced under the name Xian H-6 in the People's Republic of China.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

During production, more than 1,500 Tu-16 aircraft were manufactured.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

History


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The first Soviet post-war long-range carrier of nuclear weapons was the Tu-4, a four-engine piston aircraft - a copy of the American B-29 Superfortress.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

But already in the second half of the 1940s, it became clear that the future of long-range bomber aircraft belonged to aircraft with turbojet and turboprop engines.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

This was confirmed by the results of the Korean War, which showed the difficulty of breaking through a powerful air defense by low-speed, albeit well-armed, B-29.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

In addition, the Soviet Navy needed an aircraft to deter the superior surface forces of the Western fleets.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The terms of reference for the creation of an aircraft with an operating range of about 3000 km, transonic cruising speed and a bomb load of 3-7 tons were ready in 1948, but the development was hampered by unavailability of a suitable engine.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

At that time, the Tupolev Design Bureau was developing a number of experimental models that served as prototypes of the Tu-16.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Among them, mention should be made of the 82 model, the first front-line bomber with a swept wing and two jet engines.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The 82 aircraft did not go into production due to the fact that the IL-28 of Ilyushin's competing design bureau was adopted for service.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

However, the developments were used in the design of the Tu-22 front-line bomber.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The immediate predecessor of the Tu-16 was the 86 project, the development of which began at the end of 1948, completed by the summer of 1949.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The project assumed a flight range with 2 tons of bombs up to 4,000 km, a maximum speed at an altitude of 6,000 m — 980 km/h, a practical ceiling — 13,400 m.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

On August 29, 1949, the USSR tested the RDS-1 nuclear bomb and began preparations for the serial production of the RDS-3 bomb.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The new long-range bombers were supposed to deliver to the target this product, the weight of which exceeded 5 tons.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

In addition, the nuclear weapon required a thermostated bomb compartment and measures to protect against the effects of nuclear weapons damaging factors on the crew and aircraft.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It required a bomber that delivered a nuclear bomb to a range accessible to the Tu-4, but capable of flying twice as fast as it.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Studies of the Tupolev design bureau on the 86 project have shown that a high-speed long-range rocket carrier of nuclear weapons can be obtained by increasing mass and size, with an increase in thrust engines by 1.5-2 times.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

This is how the 88 project was launched with the location of more powerful engines at the root of the wing, and not under it, which for some time was developed proactively.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Some of the decisions of the 86 project, the composition and location of the crew, defensive weapons, were transferred to the 88 project, which became the Tu-16.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The draft design of the aircraft was approved on July 5, 1951.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The design of the aircraft included a number of features that gave the Tu-16 a very characteristic appearance - engine nacelles “recessed” into the fuselage, a large sweep of the tail unit, and a rigid wing structure large elongation.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

One of the successes of the designers was the wing of the Tu-16.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Two side members, the upper and lower wing panels formed a rigid caisson.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

On American bombers with large elongation wings of the same time of creation of the B-47 and B-52, the wing was made very flexible, which caused the chatter to be extinguished by a significant bend of the wing.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The design of the Americans came out lighter, but the rigidity of the Tu-16 wing improved fatigue strength.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Cracks appeared on the wings of the B-47 and B-52, and their design was repeatedly strengthened [2].


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

In addition, medium nuclear bomb carriers in the United States began to be prepared for use from low altitudes and bombing and coup to ensure the safety of the carrier, which greatly reduced the service life of the B-47, which was in service only until the end of the 1960s.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

After improvements related to the need to lighten the aircraft and at the same time provide it with protection from the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, the Tu-16 was adopted for service in May 1953.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The first production aircraft was built in Kazan on October 29, 1953.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Serial production of the Tu-16 was launched at three plants from 1953 to the end of 1963:800 aircraft were produced at the Kazan Aircraft Plant, 543 at the Kuibyshev Aircraft Plant No. 1 (in 1954—1960) and at the Voronezh Aircraft Plant — 166 .


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Forty series of Tu-16, 11 modifications were built, and taking into account the improvements of the built aircraft, more than 50 varieties were built.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The public screening took place at the parade on May 1, 1954, the flight over Red Square of nine bombers of the 203 TBAP.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

In the USSR, this aircraft became the first long-range high-speed missile carrier aircraft.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The operation of the Tu-16 gave experience for the creation of heavy high-speed aircraft, including the first Soviet jet passenger liner Tu-104.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The Tu-16 flew in the Russian Air Force until 1994 with a minimum of operational improvements, due to its exceptionally reliable design.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

It was decommissioned in Russia in the early 1990s, becoming one of the longest-lived combat aircraft in Soviet aviation.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The Chinese Xian H-6 based on the Tu-16 is still in service.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The latest modification of the Xian H-6K with D-30KP-2 dual-circuit turbofan engines (like the IL-76) has been produced since 2007, since 2011 in service with the PLA.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Design


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The Tu-16 is a monoplane with a swept mid-wing (the sweep along the quarter line of the chords is 35º with a transverse V minus 3º) and two Mikulin AM-3 engines with thrust 8750 kg (after 1958, the RD-3M-500 was installed with a thrust of 9520 kg, the number “500” is an increased overhaul life of 500 hours, then the overhaul life was increased to 2000 hours, without changing engine marking) in gondolas on the sides of the fuselage built into the center section.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The fuselage is cigar-shaped, of circular cross-section in the bow, with gradual compression on the sides to the stern.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Technologically it consists of 6 compartments (F-1 — F-6):


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

lamp


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

front pressurized cabin


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

center section


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

cargo compartment


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

rear technical compartment


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

aft pressurized cabin.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The wing is two-spar, caisson design, power frames are installed in the engine area.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

To prevent damage to the fuselage by hot jets from the engines, the latter are turned by nozzles to the sides by 4º.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Aluminum alloys AK-6, AK-8, B-95, AMG and AMC, magnesium alloys, fiberglass are widely used in the design of the aircraft.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The gas drains (behind the nozzles) and the skin around the upper turret are made of stainless steel.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The crew of the aircraft consisted, as a rule, of six people - the ship commander, assistant commander, navigator, second navigator (navigator-operator), VSR (air gunner-radio operator) and KOU (commander of fire installations) or an electronic warfare operator.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The entrance to the cabins was carried out through entrance hatches with ladders that recline downwards.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

On rocket versions, the navigator's cabin was a barrel-shaped structure suspended in the rear of the cargo compartment, with a small oval window on the ceiling.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

All crew members were ejected down, with the exception of two pilots, upwards, and before ejection, the pilot seats rolled back along the rails to prevent injuries to the steering column.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

To save the crew at sea, LAS-5 inflatable boats were stacked on the upper part of the fuselage in two containers.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The fuel system consisted of 10 groups of tanks (27 fuselage and planar tanks) with a total capacity of 43,800 liters of vehicle or T-1 fuel.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

B-70 gasoline was used as starting fuel for engine turbostarters.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Fuel consumption automatics and capacitive fuel meters were used.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Pumps are centrifugal type.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Refueling was carried out through the filling necks of the tanks with a dispensing gun, and there was no centralized system.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The aircraft control system is a classic boosterless, with mechanical wiring, double.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Roll control — ailerons, pitch — elevator, course — rudder.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Non-adjustable (fixed angle) stabilizer.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

To remove loads, trimmers with electric drive and cable backup wiring are used.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

Three electric steering gears included in the control wiring were used as autopilot actuators.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The flaps are single-slot, with an electric drive.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The chassis is three-wheel, with a bow stand with a pair of wheels.


Question: Do Tu-16s fly in 2019?

Tu-16

The front pillar is retracted into the fuselage compartment - the niche of the front leg, the main pillars are retracted into the landing gear gondolas, with the simultaneous flip of the trolleys.