Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

One of them was prepared by distillation of wormwood anise tincture in a small distillation apparatus and was called “Bon Extract d'Absinthe”.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The final alcoholic beverage also included chamomile, fennel, veronica, coriander, hyssop, parsley root, lemon balm, spinach.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This elixir was sold by the sisters through doctor Pierre Ordiner, who fled to Switzerland during the French Revolution.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Some historians believe that Pierre Ordiner himself developed the absinthe recipe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The doctor prescribed absinthe to his patients almost as a panacea for any disease.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Later, entrepreneur Henri Dubier bought a secret recipe for the drink and established its mass production with the help of his friend Henri-Louis Pernault in 1798.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The sale of absinthe went well, which made it necessary to open a new plant in Pontarlier in 1805, which later became the main center for the production of the drink, the plant was called Pernod, absinthe is still produced under this brand [13].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Distribution


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The popularity of absinthe increased dramatically during the French colonial wars in North Africa, which began in 1830 and peaked in 1844—47.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The French military was given a certain amount of absinthe to prevent malaria, dysentery and other diseases, as well as to disinfect drinking water.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe was so effective that it became firmly established in French army life from Madagascar to Indochina.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

At the same time, North African troops began to experience increasing cases of paranoid schizophrenia, called “le cafard”.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Among French colonists and emigrants in Algeria, the fashion for absinthe has also spread.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In 1888, absinthe was widely distributed in France.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The popularity of absinthe in France was equal to that of wine.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The New York Times noted that in France, girls between 18 and 20 years old suffer from cirrhosis of the liver much more often than in other countries, and the reason is addiction to absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This hobby was explained by the special taste of women for absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

They drank it more often undiluted because they did not want to drink much because of the corset.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Connoisseurs argued that even white wine may seem unclean after absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe has a special flavor, like menthol cigarettes.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Over time, absinthe “polled”.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Whereas earlier “old Algerian warriors and bourgeois idlers consumed this dubious potion, which smells like they were rinsing their mouths”, around 1860 absinthe began to descend from bohemian heights to the level simple workers.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

At its best, absinthe was quite an expensive drink, but with the advent of cheap brands, it became much more affordable and harmful.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

There are several reasons for the “infection” of workers with a bourgeois habit.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

But in general, the picture looks like this: a reduction in the working day to 8 hours, an increase in wages, the death of vineyards from phylloxera in the 1870s and 1880s and, as a result, an increase in the cost of wine.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Accordingly, the cost of grape alcohol, which was previously used in the manufacture of absinthe, increased, producers turned to industrial alcohol, which made absinthe 7-10 times cheaper than wine.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The cheapest absinthe was a real poison, and it was consumed by workers in dubious eateries, which sometimes did not even have tables and chairs, but only a zinc rack.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Since 1880, absinthe has been strongly associated with schizophrenia, suffering and death.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It was called “bottle madness” (French: la folie en bouteille).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Consumption of the drink grew every year.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

If in 1874 it was 700,000 liters per year, by 1910 it was already 36,000,000 liters.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It is not surprising that absinthe had more and more opponents — “If absinthe is not banned, our country will quickly turn into a huge felt chamber, where one half of the French will wear straitjackets to the other.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Bans


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In July 1905, Gene Landfrey, a Swiss farmer and famous absinthia, shot his entire family — consumed by large amounts of absinthe and other alcoholic beverages farmer on the same day, glasses of mint liqueur, glasses of cognac, two cups of coffee with cognac, three liters of wine did not find such an enthusiastic response from the newspapers.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This story occupied the front pages of European newspapers, as a result of which 82,450 people signed a petition to the authorities asking for a ban on absinthe in Switzerland.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

As a result of a referendum on July 5, 1908, absinthe was banned.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In addition, mass alcoholism among French workers and mass shortages in the army due to the general deterioration of the health of conscripts (this was associated with the widespread use of absinthe) on the eve of the Great the wars led on August 16, 1914 to an attempt by the French Chamber of Deputies to ban the sale of absinthe on the basis of fears “that Teutons drinking beer would exterminate the decadent French absinthe drinkers.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

At the same time, a military poster was distributed in which a woman in a pointed helmet characteristic of German troops was busy preparing absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In March 1915, with the support of the so-called “wine lobby”, not only the sale, but also the production of absinthe was banned in France.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Earlier, in 1912, the US Senate voted to ban “all drinks containing thujone” (in the 1980s, this law supplemented another law that banned US military personnel use absinthe even abroad).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Ultimately, absinthe was actually expelled from many countries around the world: Switzerland, the USA, France, Belgium, Italy, Bulgaria, Germany.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe came to be called a drug [14].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

From the 1930s to the end of the 1980s, absinthe existed in a semi-legal position, either in the form of substitutes: anise vodka, wormwood leaves soaked in vodka, and the like.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Legalization


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The place where absinthe returns to the market is Great Britain, or rather Scotland.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It was never banned there, but even after persecution in other countries, it was completely unpopular until 1998, when the Czech brand Hill's, founded in 1920, launched the drink on the British market.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

To a large extent, the success of this enterprise was facilitated by celebrities, in particular Johnny Depp, while in the UK on the set of the film “Sleepy Hollow”, told how he repeatedly used absinthe with Hunter S. Thompson on the set of Fear and Hate in Las Vegas.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In general, the success of the Czech brand is difficult to explain, because the taste of this absinthe did not meet basic requirements.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“This absinthe is drunk to get drunk quickly; only a masochist adds water to it to prolong its effect.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This phrase, which can only be heard in nightclubs or among wealthy alcoholics, nevertheless correctly conveys the fact that such a product was used as a narcotic drug, and not actually as a drink (by definition, a table drink of such a strength cannot be).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

High-quality, on the contrary, does not cause intoxication so quickly, although it surpasses, except for the “bad”, all known drinks containing ethyl alcohol.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Hill's was scolded by all qualified critics of alcohol products and producers; a year later, with the assistance of Marie-Claude Delahey, the chief French expert on absinthe and creator of the absinthe museum, a new brand “La Fee” was released, which could be consumed without experiencing such unpleasant taste sensations and other consequences, albeit with precautions.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The marketing policy of the manufacturer took into account the comic attitude of the British to the “most dangerous of poisons”, a number of actions were clearly “frivolous” in nature, unusual for alcohol advertising.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This led to a more “positive” image of absinthe — downplayed harmful and slightly sinister; never before had highly toxic alcohol had such a “rosy” reputation.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In 2004, the Swiss Parliament voted to legalize absinthe, which had been banned since 1907.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

On July 24, 2004, a court in Amsterdam overturned the Dutch law of 1909 prohibiting absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe producers are now required to comply with restrictions imposed by the European Union, according to which the amount of thujone in absinthe should not exceed 10 mg/kg (35 mg/kg since 2008).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

However, these norms are often violated by unscrupulous producers.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Since 2007, the United States has allowed the import and production of absinthe with a thujone fraction not exceeding 10 mg/kg.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Types of absinthe


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe can be classified according to different criteria:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

By color:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Green is the classic natural color of absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It has several shades: from rich emerald to light green.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Almost every manufacturer produces green absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Since coloring with natural dyes (chlorophyll from green leaves) is short-lived, manufacturers in the vast majority of cases use artificial green food colors.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Yellow absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Bright amber color.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In most cases, this color is created by food colors, but it can also be a sign of the naturalness of absinthe, as natural dyes (chlorophyll from green leaves) change color to the side yellowness a few months after production (aging absinthe).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Red absinthe is a drink with pomegranate extract, which gives it a piquant light ruby hue and an original aftertaste.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Most red absinths use food colors.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Black (brown) absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Unlike other types of drink, black absinthe does not use leaves or inflorescences of wormwood, but roots.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The dark color of the drink is given by the infusion of black acacia Catech, which brings berry and sweet tones to the absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Currently, food colors are used to give absinthe dark shades.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Unfortunately, at present, the color of such a potentially dangerous product for consumption as absinthe cannot be judged on its quality and naturalness.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

By fortress:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

high strength (55-65%): French, Czech and Spanish varieties with wormwood extract and low or no thujone content;


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

extremely large strength (70-85%): Swiss, most of the Czech, Spanish, Italian and German, as well as some French absinthe varieties.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Natural absinthe, made according to the classical technology (tincture, hereinafter distillation), usually fall into this category.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

By thujone content [p 1]


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

with a high content: 25-100 mg/l: Swiss La Bleue Swiss absinthe, Czech Logan 100, King of Spirits and others.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

with a low thujone content of 1.5 to 10 mg/l: most absinthe produced in Europe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

without thujone: Logan Fils (Switzerland), Absente (France), but most often tinctures that mimic absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The effect of consumption


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The harm from absinthe is mainly associated with the content of thujone (monoterpin) in it, a toxic substance that is contained in bitter wormwood and can be quite likely to cause a number of negative consequences for the body.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe intoxication (overdose in case of excessive abuse) resembles the effect of certain drugs that cause general arousal, changes in consciousness and hallucinations, unmotivated aggression.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Sometimes, when consuming absinthe, hallucinations occur, which are usually associated with the content of thujone in absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In his book Absinthe, the famous English culturologist Phil Baker talks about cases of the hallucinogenic effect of taking absinthe, which does not contain thujone at all, which indicates the importance secondary factors, such as the tolerability of other herbal ingredients of the drink by the drinker's body.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

However, this statement was not accompanied by factual confirmation, and all other plant components are not hallucinogenic in any form.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The role of thujone and essential oils is to mask the taste of alcohol, which can lead to unusually fast and severe intoxication, accompanied by trembling, headaches, dizziness, muscle cramps and even loss of consciousness [15].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It is for this reason that people who are not confident in their willpower should refrain from drinking ultra-strong alcoholic beverages for life.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In addition, due to the high concentration of alcohol, absinthe is guaranteed to harm the body when consumed doses from the glass at intervals of less than half an hour, and its more or less frequent use is always ends with a hangover syndrome, damage to internal organs and brain.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Side effects of excessive consumption of this drink can be: insomnia, nightmares, trembling or chills, depression, numbness, psychosis, seizures, nausea - that is, withdrawal symptoms, as with the abuse of any alcoholic beverage.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It should be noted that “absinthe hangover” is very simply cured in specialized (drug treatment) medical institutions or general practice hospitals, but mental dependence can be overcome only by the consumer of the drink himself, who once made a rash choice towards such a strong and especially dangerous alcohol.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Consumption culture


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Some absinthia recommend interrupting the bitter taste of absinthe with a slice of lemon.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Although the latter is considered a deviation from the generally accepted.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Ways to use absinthe:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Crystal Czech.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

One of the classic and easiest ways.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour some absinthe over the eye into a thick-walled glass beaker.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Set it on fire and wait for it to burn out.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Blow out and drink immediately, in one gulp, without eating or drinking.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

French.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour one part of absinthe into the glass, put a special absinthe spoon on the edges of the glass, put a sugar cube on it.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour three parts of ice water into a glass through the sugar in a spoon.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The sugar will dissolve in water, and the resulting syrup will be mixed with absinthe [16].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The continuation of this method is the use of absinthe with crushed ice in the same proportions.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Czech”.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Through a piece of sugar on an absinthe spoon installed on the edges of the glass, pass one part of the absinthe in large drops.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Set fire to sugar and drip the resulting caramel into absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Then dilute with three parts water.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This, most famous, method is dangerous because absinthe in the glass can easily catch fire, and requires caution.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

(In such cases, some connoisseurs consider this one of the signals to start diluting absinthe with water — the drink, losing its strength, will go out by itself) [16].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The second method is to put a piece of sugar on a heated spoon with holes, which is held above the glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

A drink is poured on a spoon.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It turns out a mixture (melted sugar and slightly heated absinthe) [16].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Russian”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Make sugar syrup separately by mixing sugar with water.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Then dilute absinthe with syrup in the right proportion [16].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe is poured into the glass, set on fire.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

They let me burn out a little.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Then cover with a second glass, the flame goes out.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe is quickly poured into the second glass, and the first is covered with a napkin and turned upside down.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Heated absinthe is drunk, and a cocktail straw is put under the inverted glass and vapors are inhaled.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The order of inhalation of alcohol vapors and drinking can be changed.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Severe”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour four pieces of ice absinthe into a glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Set it on fire.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Put a piece of sugar on an absinthe spoon, hold it over the flame.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The sugar will begin to melt and drip into the glass, crystallizing at its bottom.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

When the amount of round brown crystals fills the remaining fifth of the glass, remove the spoon with sugar.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Prepare a cocktail tube.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Blow out the flame and immediately, lowering the tube into the glass, without coming off, drink all the liquid contents of the glass through it with a few quick large sips, be sure to pass it all over the tongue to deeper feel the taste.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The volume of the glass is determined by the courage of absentia.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

You can use glasses with a volume of at least 50 ml.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Precautions: Carefully choose the container in which the absinthe will burn — many glass vessels may not withstand temperatures, burst or deform.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Also, carefully approach the choice of the tube - it can begin to melt, coming into contact with the highly heated surface of the drink.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

And most importantly, it is not recommended to drink more than three hundred-gram servings of absinthe prepared in this way at once.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Modified parachute”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour 40 ml of absinthe into a cognac glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour 45 ml of sprite or juice into an old-fashioned glass, the one for whiskey.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The cognac is placed sideways on the glass; set fire to absinthe and twist the wine glass (so that the wine glass does not burst).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Burning absinthe is quickly poured into a glass, smoothly lifting the cognac up; quickly cover the glass with a wine glass, absinthe goes out in a tightly covered glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After we tilt the cognac wine glass and insert a tube into the resulting gap; we smoke.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Breathing in through the nose, exhaling through the mouth.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

While a person smokes vapors, pre-prepared sugar is set on fire in the saucer: two sugar cubes are placed in the center of the saucer, one on top of the other, then they are soaked in absinthe until a puddle forms in the recess for cups (in the middle).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

When everyone is smoking, you pick up the cognac and drink absinthe in one gulp (if with juice); if with a sprite, you first blow it up like a tequila boom and drink in one gulp.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

When you finish drinking, gradually drive the same cognac over the melting sugar, cover, thereby stew.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

If you did it right, the cognac remains intact.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

There should be an explosion in the form of a flash of gases 1 cm before the saucer.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The tube is slipped and smoked again.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The effect of this method of use is quite interesting - a slight euphoria mixed with physical sensations, increased sweating and slowing down in movements.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Ryazansky Severe” (“Shilovsky”).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

A teaspoon with a piece of sugar is placed on a glass of absinthe (no more than 50-70 g).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Then either a piece of sugar is dripped with absinthe, or a piece of sugar is dipped in absinthe in a glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After that, a piece of sugar soaked in the drink is set on fire.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After waiting for the melting of sugar, blowing sharply, they extinguish the flame and eat a piece of sugar (some craftsmen eat sugar without extinguishing).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After chewing sugar soaked in absinthe, but not swallowing it, drink it with a drink from a glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Czech Severe”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Place the absinthe spoon on the edges of a large glass, put a piece of cane sugar on a spoon, pour a portion (for example, 50 g) into a glass from which you can spill absinthe in a thin trickle, spill a few grams on sugar, set it on fire, wait until it goes out, pour a few grams into sugar in a thin trickle, the sugar is washed out of the piece and ends up at the bottom of the glass, dissolved in absinthe, we set fire to sugar, make sure that the absinthe in the glass does not burn, repeat until the portion of absinthe runs out or all the sugar dissolves, drink in small sips.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Korzhevsky Severe”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour 50 g of absinthe into a glass after 2 pieces of refined sugar, put one on a spoon, put the second one side by side on a saucer.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We set fire to absinthe in a glass, the flame from absinthe sets fire to the sugar, use a spoon to dissolve the burning sugar in the burning absinthe, gently moistening the refined absinthe until it dissolves and crystallizes in beaker.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We extinguish the flame in the glass with a saucer (we put the saucer on the glass).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We set fire to the refined sugar soaked in advance on a saucer, let it burn for a couple of seconds and knock down the flame with a sharp exhalation.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We drink quickly still warm absinthe, then carefully take the refined sugar from the saucer (it may crumble in our hands), eat refined sugar.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The main effect is that many people expect a sharp relief from pure hot absinthe after a snack, but this feeling is deceptive!


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After consumption, the sensation is accompanied by a slight relaxation...


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

You can drink absinthe in its pure form, very chilled in portions of 30 grams.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Citrus absinthe:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Take a slice of orange/tangerine with the peel, peel off the inner film, exposing the pulp of the fruit.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Roll the slice in a mixture of granulated sugar and cinnamon (to taste).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Set fire to 50 g of absinthe in a suitable bowl (it is better to use a thick-walled glass), take a previously prepared orange/tangerine slice with tongs and keep it over fire so that the mixture of sugar, cinnamon and the juice dripped into the glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

You can press the slice a little with forceps for more abundant juice production.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Put out the drink, let the glass cool down a little and drink warm absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

For a snack, dissolve the crystals of burnt sugar with cinnamon.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Tarhun:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

You need: Absinthe (not any, not cloudy), crystalline sugar (not refined sugar), glasses for cooking (glass, but their further use is not possible), drinking glasses (possible using ordinary glasses for cooking), spoon (metal).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour absinthe into cooking glasses (33-100 g), throw a little sugar there, set it on fire.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We wait, we interfere with a spoon, we observe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We stir the sugar and watch how it dissolves; due to heating as a result of combustion, the sugar dissolves much better, and the most important thing is to understand that for a particular absinthe temperature the concentration of dissolved sugar has reached its maximum and sugar does not dissolve anymore.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

At this point, it is necessary to pour absinthe from the cooking cups into drinking cups (the cooking glasses may crack, but due to the film formed as a result of burning, they do not crumble).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It is necessary to pour very carefully, since the glass of the glasses for cooking cracks precisely because of the temperature difference between the walls and absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Drink quickly, as it cools down and the sugar crystallizes.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

There is no taste of alcohol at all, like tarragon to taste, but after a while it “covers” after a couple of shots (it makes no sense to drink more than 5, even if, besides that, you did not drink anything).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

(The recipe is based on increasing the solubility of sugar with increasing the temperature of the solution and masking the taste of absinthe with a sugar solution)


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Toad (Friday)


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

For cooking, you need a rocks glass and a cognac glass (snifter).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

30 ml of absinthe is poured into a cognac glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The rocks are filled with 15 ml of mint liqueur, 100 ml of champagne and 30 ml of vodka.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe is set on fire in cognac (snifter) and spins so that the glass heats up evenly and does not crack.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Then we pour the burning contents into the rocks to the rest of the mixture and insert the cognac (snifter) on top.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

It's important!


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Cognac (snifter) inserted into the rocks should immerse itself in the mixture with the edges 5-10 mm, due to the fact that a vacuum has been created in the glass, it will draw it into the glass through the mixture, diluting absinthe vapors, and bubbles will start to inflate from the liquid, like a toad.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After the bubbles run out, we put the cognac (snifter) on a pre-prepared saucer/napkin.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Cover the glass with a couple of napkins and either hit the counter/table or shake it, the mixture foams, drink it in one gulp until it settles, and breathe in pairs.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Merry milkman


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Mix absinthe, whiskey and milk in equal proportions.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

To drink slowly, if possible, with pleasure.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Tender”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour 1/3 of ice water into a glass, then 2/3 absinthe, so that the liquids do not mix, but there are 2 layers.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We're drinking.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The effect is that the strong taste of absinthe is replaced by the softness of the water.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Warm:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour 1 to 1 lemon/lime juice into a glass, mix it, drink it, wait 20-30 seconds and drink it with sweets.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This method gives the effect of a strong warming up of the throat.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Beautiful”:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

We take a 50-gram shot, pour absinthe and grenadine in a ratio of 9 to 1, set it on fire and gently lower the stack into a 300-gram glass of champagne.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The contents begin to slowly turn into a bright cherry color, and at the end you get a drink of rich eggplant color.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The stack must remain in the glass at all times.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

To make the taste of the drink uniform, you can stir it with a straw.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Drink slowly and with pleasure.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The Cheshire Cat:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In the tumbler glass, 1/4 of the frappe ice is laid out on the bottom, 1/4 green absinthe is added, let the ice melt a little and add 2/4 of the chilled apple juice.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Hemingway:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In an iron mug, pour absinthe on one finger, add cold water to the level of 2/3 of the mug.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Mix and drink in small sips.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Nagatkinsky:


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Pour 25 grams of absinthe into a glass, set on fire for 5 seconds.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In advance, already extinguished absinthe is poured into the finished glass of milk and drunk.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

State regulation


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe in art


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Painting and fine arts


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Seeing the spread in Europe of the first form of drug addiction among the masses, European artists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries often turned to the image of a person drinking absinthe with an absent with a glance.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The Hermitage collection includes Pablo Picasso's painting Absinthe Lover (1901).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

There are at least three versions of this painting.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Picasso also has a painting “A Glass of Absinthe” (1914).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In 1912, he also painted a painting depicting a bottle of absinthe Pernod and a glass.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Surrealist artist Giger painted some of his works after experimentally using absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Later, in 2005, his name was given to one of the varieties of French absinthe Brevans.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Literature


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Erich Maria Remarque's book Three Comrades mentions absinthe four times, and in the novel Arc de Triomphe, absinthe is mentioned as a forbidden drink that causes infertility.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

- Ah, absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

They say he makes the French impotent, did you hear?


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Absinthe is really forbidden,” Ravik said.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Pernod” is completely harmless.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe causes infertility, not impotence.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

That's why it was banned.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In 1913, Charles Foley staged a play called Absinthe in Paris.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The hero of Edgar Burroughs' novels Tarzan, following the example of many Europeans of that time, drank absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Tarzan entered the smoking room and found a chair a little away from the others.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

He did not want to talk, and sipping his absinthe in small sips, he sadly returned to the days he had just experienced [17].


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Absinthe is of great and invaluable importance for the development of French symbolist poetry, although it was perceived in a negative sense, because of the suffering of the craving for it by the poets themselves.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Such pillars of this trend as Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud were largely inspired by this drink, which Verlaine in his 1895 Confession called the “green witch” and demanded a ban on this “source of madness and crime, idiocy and shame”.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

This largely realistic attitude towards absinthe was developed by Verlaine's characteristic manner of drinking “evening and night”, as he himself called it.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Because of his passion for the drink, he, being a sensitive person, nevertheless attacked his wife and even tried to set her on fire, shot his friend Rimbaud with a revolver and, with a knife in his hands, demanded money from elderly mother (he was imprisoned for two months, although his mother demanded an acquittal in court, because in fact, as she herself assured, “he is a good boy at heart”).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In 1930, Culson Kernahan wrote a short story, “Two Absinthe-Minded Beggars”, in the United States.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The tragic images that frighten the unprepared reader convey the attitude of Americans to absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Two beggars decided to write and, since they “will have to portray a person addicted to absinthe”, they decided to try the drink for themselves.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Ideas about the “depravity” of absinthe in the mind of the American man in the street are conveyed by these lines - “The mystery with which the thicker liquid wriggled, curled up into rings and spirals around the more liquid, brought to my mind the image of a python wrapped around its victim.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In the book “The Thirsty Muse”, which explores American literary alcoholism in detail, the author, Tom Dardis, says that absinthe is considered the limit among alcoholic beverages, “nowhere else.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In a short article “Experimental and clinical study on alcoholism. Alcohol and Absinthe. Absinthe epilepsy” (French: Étude Expérimentale et Clinique sur l'Alcoolisme — Alcool et Absinthe, Épilepsie Absinthique, 1871) Jacques-Joseph-Valentin Magnan described the features of alcohol addiction in absinthe lovers, largely laying the foundations for the perception of this drink and its fans in Europe (Manyan insisted that absinthe causes the most serious consequences in the form of epilepsy in his consumers and genetic consequences — morbidity, imbecility, etc. — in several generations of their descendants).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Aleister Crowley (1875—1947) is one of the most ardent defenders of absinthe, and this drink left a noticeable mark in his work.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Crowley devoted many of his works to the glory of absinthe; in his essay “The Green Goddess”, he justifies absinthe and says that something cannot be judged only by abuse.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“We do not curse the sea, where shipwrecks occur, and we do not forbid loggers to use axes just out of sympathy for Charles I or Louis XVI. Absinthe is associated not only with special vices and dangers, but also mercies and virtues that no other drink will give.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Crowley talks about the special role of absinthe in creativity, according to him, absinthe helps “separate the part of itself that “exists” and perceives from the other part that acts and suffers in the external world.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

And this is what he calls creativity.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In Interview with the Vampire (1976), Anne Rice mentions absinthe, emphasizing its detrimental nature to health.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

After drinking blood “contaminated” with bitter wormwood extract, the vampire Lestat feels acute poisoning that threatens his life (this is not true, the life of the vampire Lestat was threatened that he drank the blood of a dead man, death which was disguised as absinthe).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

A famous absinthe lover was the world-famous American novelist Ernest Hemingway.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

While living in Cuba and working on his work The Old Man and the Sea, he ordered absinthe from neighboring Florida and cooked it in a classic way — with a special fountain, which lets water in a thin stream to dilute absinthe.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

In his book Death in the Afternoon, there are words like “With age, it was becoming more and more difficult to enter the ring without drinking three or four absinthe, which, inflaming my courage, somewhat upset my reflexes.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Also in his novel “For Whom the Bell Tolls,” Hemingway gave protagonist Robert Jordan the habit of drinking absinthe in the evenings in the peculiar way given above.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

And in Garden of Eden, Hemingway recommends putting a glass of ice and a small hole at the bottom on a glass of absinthe so that the water drips gradually.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The writer even came up with the Death in the Afternoon cocktail for a collection of celebrity favorite drinks.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Pour one shot of absinthe into a champagne glass. Add the ice-cold champagne, shake slightly until it reaches an opal turbidity. Slowly drink three to five glasses of this cocktail.”


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Cinematography and TV


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The Grand Hotel (1932) is directed by Edmund Goulding, starring Greta Garbo (scene in a Berlin bar).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992) (seduction scene).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Total Eclipse (1995) begins with a scene in which a bartender prepares absinthe to Paul Verlaine.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

From Hell (2001).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

The film is based on the graphic novel of the same name by Alan Moore and Eddie Campbell, while Alan Moore expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that the character of Inspector Fred Abberline, presented by Moore in his graphic novel, turned into a “gushing absinthe dandy and a regular in opium brothels” performed by Johnny Depp.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Moulin Rouge! (2001).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

“Handsome Alfie, or What Men Want” (2004), characters Jude Law and Susan Sarandon use absinthe in one of the scenes.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Episode 5 of Season 1 of the sitcom Black's Bookstore (2000).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Episode 22 of the 6 sitcom How I Met Your Mother (2005—2014).


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Episode 6 (“Absinthe Makes the Heart Grow Fonder”) season 1 of “California”.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Eurotrip stage in Bratislava.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

14 episode 1 season of Highlander (1992-1998)


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

comments


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Notes


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Literature


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Marie-Claude Delahaye: L'Absinthe, histoire de la Fée verte, Paris, Berger-Levrault, 1983.


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

References


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Category:Absinthe


Question: In what year was Absinthe created?

Absinthe

Category:Alcoholic drinks


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics (from Ancient Greek: makros - “long”, “big”, “house” and “law”) is a branch of economic theory that studies the functioning of the economy as a whole, the economic system as a whole, a set of economic phenomena.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The term was first used by Ragnar Frisch on August 14, 1934 [1].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

John Maynard Keynes is considered the founder of modern macroeconomic theory after he published his book “The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money” in 1936 Employment, Interest, and Money) [1].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main problems of macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The science of macroeconomics deals with questions that cannot be answered at the microeconomic level: the problems studied by macroeconomics are common to the economy as a whole [1].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomic problems can be called [1]:


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Economic growth, economic cycles: What is economic growth?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How can economic growth rates be determined?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

What factors can influence economic growth?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How does economic growth affect the development of the country under consideration?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Unemployment: Who are unemployed?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Is unemployment a positive or disastrous factor for the economy?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How do you deal with unemployment?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How can we determine the different unemployment rates in a country?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

What does unemployment affect?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

General Price Level: What is meant by the general price level?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How do changes in the price level affect the state of the economy?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

What is inflation?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Which inflation is good and which is harmful?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Money circulation, interest rate: What is the role of money in macroeconomics?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

What affects the overall interest rate and what does it affect in the economy?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

State budget: How does the state regulate its revenues and expenditures?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How do criteria such as the welfare of society or business development in the country depend on changes in the state budget?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Trade balance: How does a country trade internationally with other countries?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

How do changes in exports and imports affect the exchange rate, the development of the country in question, and the state of the world economy?


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The history of macroeconomic thought


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics as a science was born relatively recently.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Until the 30s of the twentieth century, the term “macroeconomics” itself simply did not exist as such.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

From 1940 to 1977, this science was “consolidated”, and from the 1980s and later, the fruitful development of macroeconomics began [3].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Despite this, from earlier times, more and more macroeconomic ideas have developed that explain the behavior of the economy, the reasons why it is worth using this or that economic policy for its development, the difference between the long-term and short-term periods in the economy and other factors.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Some of them contradicted each other.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, many supporters of various macroeconomic ideas have appeared; entire schools of macroeconomic thought have appeared.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Early insights into macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

From mercantilism to Marxism


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Despite the relative youth of macroeconomics, the study of economics at the macro level began long before the Keynesian Revolution.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In the 15th century, mercantilism was born, the first economic school, the development of which was particularly influenced by Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford, Thomas Man, Jean-Baptiste Colbert [4].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Such problems as increasing monetary security through the intervention of the legislative branch in the economy, supporting the trade balance (by supporting exports produced in this the country of goods and import restrictions); mercantilists paid great attention to the field of money circulation [4].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In the middle of the 18th century, a school of physiocrats was formed (Francois Quenet, Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Victor Mirabeau and Pierre Paul Mercier de La Riviere) [5].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In developing their ideas, physiocrats were based on the dominant role of agriculture.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, one of the earliest and most well-known economic models, the Kene table, explains the circulation of “pure product” only from the point of view of rural production, dividing the whole society into productive, “barren” classes and owners [5].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In the 19th century, Marxism and Marxist political economy were born, founded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Marx's economic teachings significantly influenced the development of macroeconomic theory.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

New concepts are being introduced and actively developed, such as surplus value, production relations, simple and expanded reproduction [6] [7].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Classical school


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Supporters of a self-regulatory economy are considered adherents of classical or neoclassical [8] macroeconomic thought.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This school was founded in the seventeenth century [9].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

At the end of the 18th century, the second stage of development of classical economic theory began


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This period was marked by the significant influence of Adam Smith and his “invisible hand principle” [9].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Hypotheses appear about the eternal stability of the economy, the theory of “laissez-faire” is emerging, which states that there is perfect competition in all markets, all prices regularly change depending on supply and demand conditions, the market is able to independently come into equilibrium [10].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In the nineteenth century, economists such as David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus came [9].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

It was during this period that the assumption was formulated that in macroeconomics there can be no imbalance in aggregate supply and demand, since the latter “generates aggregate demand itself”.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This statement was made by the outstanding French economist Jean Baptiste Say and was called Say's Law [11].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

For supporters of the classical model, the main problem in the economy is the limited resources, for them there is no difference between the short-term and long-term economic periods.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This model actually ceased to work by the beginning of the 20th century, when, during World War II and the Great Depression of the 1930s, the global economy was unable to recover on its own.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main representatives of neoclassical macroeconomic thought are Alfred Marshall, Leon Valras, Arthur Pigou and others [12].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Austrian school


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Representatives of the Austrian school of economics, which originated at the end of the 19th century, emphasize the role of the self-organizing force of the market price mechanism.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The basis of this approach is the statement that the complexity of human behavior and the constant change in the nature of markets make mathematical modeling in the economy extremely difficult (if generally possible).


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

When studying macroeconomic problems, including studying the nature of the money cycle, Austrians focus on the heterogeneity and temporal structure of capital.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main representatives of the Austrian school are Karl Menger, Eugen von Boehm-Bawerk, Ludwig von Mises.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Famous economists of the 20th century who belong to the Austrian school also include Henry Hazlitt, Murray Rothbard and Nobel laureate Friedrich von Hayek.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

[13] [14]


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The Keynesian Revolution and the Emergence of Modern Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The Keynesian School of Economics was founded by the British economist John Maynard Keynes in 1936, when he published his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money [15].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

By this time, the Great Depression had shaken faith in the classical, self-regulatory economy.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Keynes, based on his research, the experience of the First World War and the Great Depression of 1929—1933, came to conclusions that almost completely refuted the ideas of classicism.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

First, it showed that only perfect competition cannot operate on the market [16].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Secondly, Keynes suggested that in the short term, prices may “stick”, that is, not change for a short period of time [16].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

For a representative of Keynesian thought, the economy can be unstable: Keynes was convinced that in certain situations, the market was unable to support itself; sometimes the state must intervene in economy in order to troubleshoot “problems” [17].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, Keynes was a supporter of a mixed economic system.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Soon, a large number of followers of Keynes economic theory appeared.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

So-called Neo-Keynesianism and “New Keynesianism” were born in the second half of the twentieth century, the purpose of which is “to fit Keynesianism into the standards of modern economic analysis” [18] and find a connection with earlier, neoclassical ideas [19].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The popularity of the Keynesian macroeconomic school increased significantly during the global financial crisis that began in 2007 [20].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

William Philips, Ben Bernanke, James Tobin and Gregory Mankiw are also the main supporters of this school [21].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Second half of the 20th century


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetarism


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetarism was born in the sixties of the twentieth century [22].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This school is based on the fact that the supply of money in the economy is the main criterion for its development.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetarists believe that according to the monetary rule, the economy is always stable and functions at full employment if the supply of money changes at a constant rate [23].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Also, for adherents of the monetarist school, the long-term period in the economy plays a greater role than the short term.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The famous equation of quantitative theory of money (MV = PQ) was formulated by Irving Fisher, which became one of the important components of the monetarist school.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetarists often argue with Keynesians about the effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policies.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The latter believe that the demand for money is extremely sensitive to the equilibrium interest rate, which is why an increase in the supply of money does not help much to increase the volume of total output; representatives Keynesian thought believes that fiscal policy is much more effective than monetary policy.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetarists, on the contrary, believe in the effectiveness of monetary policy and doubt the effectiveness of fiscal policy, believing that, on the contrary, money demand is extremely insensitive to the interest rate.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

To carry out fiscal policy, it is often necessary to increase the size of public procurement of goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

To do this, the state needs funds: the demand for borrowed funds is increasing, which leads to an increase in the key interest rate.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetarists believe that the latter will lead to a sharp decline in private investment in the economy, which, in turn, will significantly slow down the increase in aggregate supply.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This effect is called the crowding out effect of private investment. Crowding-out Effect).


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, fiscal policy is ineffective for monetarists [24].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Well-known economists such as Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps are considered monetarists [23]


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

1970s: New Classical Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

appeared in the 1970s thanks to the American economist Robert Lucas [25].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thomas Sargent is also one of the key representatives of the school of rational expectations [25].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The ideas of the “new classics” are mostly based on the principles of asymmetry of information and the rationality of macroeconomic agents: the quality of the economic information provided is the main criterion for the behavior of the economy as a whole


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, supporters of this school assume that if all economic agents are rational in their behavior, if they are provided with ideal information, then the economy cannot be unstable [ 26].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

It is also believed that because people behave rationally, they cannot “make the same mistake twice”, that is, they are able to quickly adapt to any economic situation.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

As a result, all agents are able to predict what may happen if the state uses the same methods of stabilizing the economy [27].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The end of the 20th century: the new Keynesianism


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

New Keynesianism is an offshoot of Keynesianism.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

It was founded in 1991 thanks to the work of influential economists such as Gregory Mankiw, David Romer, Olivier Blanchard and Stanley Fisher.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In the same year, Mankiw and Romer edited the book New Keynesian Economics in two volumes [18] [28].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This school of economics is not much different from the “mainstream” Keynesianism.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

It also assumes that all prices are “sticky”, that is, having the ability to remain unchanged for a certain period of time, and the theory of “laissez-faire” is also severely criticized.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

However, the assumptions of the “new Keynesians”, as well as the “new classics”, are supplemented by hypotheses about the imperfection of information, which makes this school different from the main trend of Keynesianism [18].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Supply economy


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This idea, according to official data, was put forward in the second half of the 1970s [29].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

For the first time, this term was voiced by Herbert Stein, former adviser to US President Richard Nixon, in 1976 [30].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Significant contribution to the development of supply economics theory (eng. Supply-side economics) was contributed by economists such as Arthur Laffer and Robert Mundell.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Adherents of this school are sometimes called “supply siders” (eng. “Supply-siders”) [31].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

According to representatives of this school, it is necessary to create all conditions for the population for the effective production of goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, stimulating the supply of labor and capital was an important criterion for the development of the economy [32].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

As a rule, supply siders actively support tax cuts by the state, since, in most cases, firms consider taxes as an additional cost for each additional unit products, and an increase in taxes can lead to a reduction in the aggregate supply, which, in turn, can lead to consequences such as stagflation and cost inflation [32].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The beginning of the 21st century: the global financial crisis


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The second half of the 2000s marked the beginning of a financial crisis around the world, which led many economists to think seriously about its causes.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

It soon became known that the so-called economic bubble was the main reason for this decline.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

A bubble usually refers to the “swelling” of the market by a large number of securities, including derivatives, sold at a price significantly higher than their real value.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

At the same time, no economic school put forward hypotheses or assumptions about the properties, problems of economic bubbles and ways to combat them [33].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The experience of the financial crisis has brought considerable results in the development of macroeconomic thought and put an end to the already fragile consensus between the Keynesians and the new classics on the effectiveness of the application of fiscal and monetary policy [34].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Representatives of both schools once came to the conclusion that monetary policy should be used to smooth out business cycles, but the financial collapse of the economy at this time reopened the dispute over this topic [35].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Modern macroeconomic theory


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Analysis


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics is a social science.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Therefore, economic phenomena do not lend themselves to accurate predictions; macroeconomic agents can only be observed and forecasts made on these observations.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The economic model is a simplified form for studying the economy as a whole.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Many economic models have serious drawbacks and do not take into account many important factors [36].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The economy is analyzed using graphs, tables, diagrams, mathematical functions [37].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

At the same time, macroeconomic variables that can be either exogenous, that is, occurring outside the economic model, or endogenous, which are formed within the model itself, are subject to study [37].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

All macroeconomic parameters can be considered both for a certain period of time and be characterized at a certain moment.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Thus, all variables in macroeconomics are divided into two groups:


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Streams are variables that are considered over a certain period of time, for example, for a year.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Flows include such parameters as investments, the state budget (surplus or deficit), exports and imports, gross domestic product [38].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Inventories are indicators that determine the quantity at a given time.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Reserves include the size of wealth, the number of unemployed, and public debt [38]


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The analysis of macroeconomic indicators is divided into two groups: positive analysis and regulatory analysis.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The first one determines and explains the behavior of the economy and is the basis for economic forecasts for the future.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Normative analysis shows what needs to be done and what economic transformations should be implemented.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

As a rule, normative analysis is a political approach to the study of the economy as a whole.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomic studies are carried out in the “ceteris paribus” mode (“all other things being equal”), that is, when considering one variable, the others do not change at the moment [36].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Components of the economy


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Any economy consists of markets and economic agents.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In theory, four macroeconomic agents and three markets are distinguished.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

All components of the economy are interconnected by the cycle of expenses, income and real values [39].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomic markets


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Factor market


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Economic resources (or factors of production) are considered to be [21] land, labor (labor market), physical and financial capital.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Some economists also add human capital to this list: the abilities, talents of people that increase productivity [21].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Goods and services market


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

It is in this market that aggregate supply and demand are formed.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

At the same time, the demand for goods is presented by all macroeconomic agents, while the supply is created by firms, the main producers of goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Since real values are exchanged in this market, it is also called a real market [21].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Financial market


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The financial market consists of [40]:


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The money market, where demand and supply for money are formed, the study of the equilibrium interest rate and the money supply


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Securities market: a market for financial assets such as stocks and bonds


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomic agents


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Four economic agents are considered in macroeconomics [41]:


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Households are owners of economic resources (factors of production), the main consumers of goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

As income, they receive wages from the use of labor by firms: the main resource produced by households.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

They pay taxes to the state and receive the necessary transfers from it, such as pensions, unemployment benefits, student scholarships, and others.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Firms are the main producers of goods and services, the main goal is to maximize their own profits.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

They are the main borrowers in the securities market.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Firms profit from investments in goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main costs of firms are taxes, investment costs, and payments to households for resources.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Households and firms form the private sector of the economy.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The state is the main producer of public goods, the main goals are the redistribution of national income, regulation of the economic activity of other agents and markets.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Receives taxes — his main source of income, pays transfers to households and subsidies to firms, if necessary, makes purchases on the goods market.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The state is inextricably in contact with the financial market.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The private sector and the state form a closed economy.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The foreign sector is international trade, circulation of capital and securities.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

All four macroeconomic agents form an open economy.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main parameters in macroeconomic theory


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The following main parameters are considered in macroeconomic theory: [42]


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Consumer spending (review. C) — household expenditures on goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Household savings (review. S) is the part of income that households save in banks in order to receive additional income from deposits.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Investments (review. I) —- firms buy capital in order to increase the production of goods and, consequently, maximize profits


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Public procurement of goods and services (review. G) — — state investments, salaries of civil servants, etc.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Net taxes (review. T) — is the difference between taxes and transfers.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The ratio of public procurement and net taxes shows the state of the state budget.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

If public procurement exceeds net taxes, then in the country the state budget deficit, respectively, the budget surplus means that net taxes exceed the amount of public procurement.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Net exports (review. Xn or NX) is the difference between exports and imports.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The ratio of exports and imports shows the state of the trade balance.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

If exports exceed imports, then the country has a trade surplus, if imports are exports, then the trade balance deficit, respectively.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Total output (review. Y)


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Y


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

C


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

I


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

G


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

X


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

n


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

C


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

S


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

T


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

{\ displaystyle Y=C+I+G+Xn=C+S+T}


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

—- the total output formula for the open economy.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In a closed economy, net exports are not taken into account, and the total output for the private sector does not include the amount of public procurement of goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The aggregate output function determines the aggregate demand curve (eng. Aggregate Demand —- AD).


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The intersection of the aggregate demand curve with the aggregate supply (AS) curves (in the short and long term) shows the equilibrium in the economy: the equilibrium price level and the value cumulative output.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The total output formula is also the calculation formula for gross domestic product by expenditure.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

System of National Accounts


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The combination of the main parameters of macroeconomics forms the cycle of products, income and expenses.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The circular model is the basis for the so-called system of national accounts (abbreviated). SNA), developed in the late 1920s by American scientists such as Simon Kuznets [43].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main parameters of the SNA are: Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Income (GNI), Net Domestic Product (NPV), Net National Income (NNI), Gross National Disposable income, gross national savings [44].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The best known SNA indicators are GDP and national income.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

GDP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in a given country during the year [45].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

GNI is the total income received by residents of the country under consideration, regardless of the place of its formation [46].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Net domestic product and national income are calculated similarly to GDP and GNI, but do not include the cost of consumed fixed capital (i.e. depreciation) [47] [48].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The indicators of the system of national accounts are used not only to calculate the total income and output in the country, but also to roughly measure the level of well-being of the population, that is, the level provision of the country with vital means: material, social, cultural, spiritual, environmental and other benefits.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

For this purpose, parameters such as GDP per capita, the level of national income per capita, and the consumer price index are used.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

These “per capita” indicators have a considerable number of drawbacks and do not take into account many important criteria, primarily the distribution of per capita income [49].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics and state policy


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Business cycles in macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In any economic system, cyclical fluctuations can be distinguished: ups and downs in the economy caused by shocks in aggregate demand and aggregate supply and called business cycles, economic or business cycles.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The phases of business cycles are rise, peak, recession (or decline) and bottom, that is, crisis.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The deepest recession is called depression [50].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Often, such fluctuations in business activity are unpredictable and irregular.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

There are business cycles of different periods, frequencies and sizes.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Cycles lasting an average of 3-4 years and called Kitchin cycles have been discovered and studied [51].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Business cycles, which range from about seven to eleven years, are Juglar cycles [52].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Cycles such as Kuznets rhythms [53] last 15-20 years, while long-term cycles or the so-called Kondratyev cycles last from 45 to 60 years [54].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The reasons for such cycles can be very different: from wars, revolutions, technological process and investor behavior to, for example, the number of magnetic storms per year and the rationality of macroeconomic agents [50] [55].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In general, this unstable behavior of the economy is explained by the constant imbalance between aggregate supply and demand, total costs and production volumes [50].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The theory of business cycles has gained great popularity thanks to the American economist William Nordhaus [50].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

A great contribution to the development of business cycle theory was made by such people as Robert Lucas, Norwegian economist Finn Kidland, American Edward Prescott [55] and Austro-American economist, sociologist and historian Joseph Schumpeter.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The nature and nature of economic cycles are in direct contact with the main problems of macroeconomics: inflation and unemployment.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Overheating of the economy, that is, a state when a country is at the peak of its economic capabilities, often causes high inflation rates, that is, rapid growth or “swelling” of prices [50].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

A prolonged recession, in turn, threatens to create significant levels of cyclical unemployment.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

This means that employers themselves reduce the number of labor, as a rule, due to high wage costs during a decline in business activity in the economy [50].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

As a rule, state policy depends on the state of the economy of a given country, that is, on what phase of the cycle the country is in: recovery or recession.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

If the country is in recession, the authorities pursue a stimulating economic policy to bring the country out of the bottom.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

If a country is experiencing an upswing, the government pursues a restraining economic policy in order to prevent high inflation rates in the country.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Economic theory distinguishes two types of economic policy that the state can pursue [56].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Fiscal policy


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Fiscal policy is a stabilization policy of the state in order to soften economic cycles by changing the parameters of total costs.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The main instruments of this policy are net taxes and public procurement of goods and services.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

If the country is in recession, the government can either increase purchases or reduce taxes in order to increase total output.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

If the economy rises or overheats, then, on the contrary, it is necessary to reduce purchases or increase taxes [57].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

One of the many positive features of fiscal policy is that it is relatively easier for the State to pursue than monetary policy, as the government does not adopt special, separate decisions for the implementation of fiscal policy [58].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In addition, representatives of the Keynesian school suggested that it is easier to manage the interest rate when pursuing monetary policy, but investments do not change much [24].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Fiscal policy also has its drawbacks.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The state, like any other macroeconomic agent, can suffer losses, that is, have a state budget deficit.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

A large supply of excess funds is also harmful to the state.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Illiterate implementation of fiscal policy can result in a serious imbalance in the state budget [24].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Economists call the Crowding-out effect (displacement effect) the main problem of fiscal policy, when public spending increases, due to a certain reaction in the borrowed market, decreases the volume of investments in the country, which slows down the country's development [58].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetary policy


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Monetary policy is a stabilization policy of the state in order to soften economic cycles by changing the Central Bank's supply of money.


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

In order to change the supply of money in circulation, the Central Bank may change the required reserve rate for commercial banks, operate on the open market, that is, sell or buy government bonds from the population, or print money [59] [60].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

The advantage of monetary policy is that the banking system reacts faster to monetary policy than to fiscal policy [61].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

A stimulating monetary policy is also beneficial not only to the population, but also to commercial banks, since with an increase in the money supply, banks can issue more loans [61].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

As a drawback of monetary policy, we can highlight the fact that the change in the supply of money depends not only on the Central Bank, but also on the rationality of commercial banks and household behavior, which often makes monetary policy longer in execution than fiscal policy [62].


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

See also


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Keynesianism


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Microeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Mesoeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Constitutional economy


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Notes


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

Literature


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

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Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics

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Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: When did macroeconomics start?

Macroeconomics


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Pravda is a Soviet and Russian newspaper, until 1991 it was the main daily print media of the CPSU and the most influential print publication, in fact, the main newspaper in the USSR.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

After the ban, the CPSU is a body of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, published


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Creating a newspaper


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The first Pravda appeared in 1903 as a literary and journalistic magazine published by Valentin Alekseevich Kozhevnikov, a railway engineer and art critic [1].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The magazine positioned itself as a monthly publication of art, literature and public life [2] and had a left-wing orientation, many of its authors adhered to Marxist views, but it also literary prose was published [3].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The magazine published A. A. Bogdanov A. IN. Lunacharsky, I. A. Bunin Yu.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

M. Steklov [3].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

At the same time, in social democratic circles, the publication was considered Menshevik [2].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Due to censorship restrictions, most editors left the magazine and by 1906 it had actually ceased to exist [4].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

In 1912, the VI All-Russian (Prague) Conference of the RSDLP (b) was adopted on the initiative of V. AND. Lenin's decision to publish a mass Bolshevik workers' daily newspaper.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The Lensky shooting accelerated the issue of publishing a working newspaper.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

[5] The first issue of the newspaper called Pravda was published on Karl Marx's birthday [6].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

At that time, Pravda was not the official body of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b), such was considered the illegal newspaper Social Democrat, which was published abroad and imported into Russia illegally.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Even before that, from October 1908 to April 1912, first in Lviv and then in Vienna, the popular social democratic newspaper Pravda, edited by Trotsky, was published in a circulation of 3000—4,000, an international the department of which was led by Joffe (the so-called. “Viennese Pravda”).


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The publication of the second newspaper with the same name caused sharp controversy, including even with the appeal to the German socialists as arbitrators, but this did not lead to anything, and the name “Pravda” remained for the Lenin newspaper [7].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Pravda was conceived as a legal mass publication.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The Bolsheviks took advantage of the freedom of the press proclaimed by the tsarist manifesto of 1905 [7].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Pre-revolutionary period


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The circulation of the pre-revolutionary Pravda ranged from 40,000 to 60,000 copies [7].


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

In 1912-1914, 285 Lenin's works were published in Pravda.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The official publisher of the newspaper until December 1912 was N. G. Poletaev, then A. E.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Badaev said.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Maxim Gorky headed the literary department in 1912—1914.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The editorial secretary was V. M. Molotov said.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

The newspaper was repeatedly closed (the first time it happened a; 49 out of 356 issues were confiscated, 21 were fined), but continued to be published under different names: in 1913, Rabochaya Pravda (July 13 — August 1): 17 issues were released, of which 12 were confiscated, 2 were fined, Severnaya Pravda (August 1 — September 7): 31 issues were released, of which 20 were confiscated, 3 were fined,” Truth of Labor” (September 11 — October 9): 52 issues were released, of which 21 were confiscated, 2 were fined, “For Truth” (October 1 — December 5), then Proletarskaya Pravda (December 7, 1913 — 21 January 1914): 34 issues were issued, of which 13 were confiscated, “The Way of Truth” (January 22 — May 21, 1914): 92 issues were issued, Trudovaya Pravda (May 23 — July 8): 35 issues were issued.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

[9] [10], before the outbreak of the First World War, the newspaper was finally banned.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Among the permanent employees listed in the first issue of the Pravda newspaper from a are:


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

B.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Avilov N. Azarov M. Baklanov N. Baturin, Demyan Bedny, V. Brusinin, Eduard Belsky, B.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Veselovsky, A. Vinogradov P. Vinogradov, State Duma member S. Voronin, State Duma member A. Voyloshnikov, P. Voisky, S. Gamyshin L. Germanov and I. Gladnev, M. Gorky, Y.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

Gradov, and S. Gusev-Orenburgsky, T. Gnevich, B.


Question: Who was the first editor-in-chief of Pravda: Rabochaya Gazeta?

Pravda (newspaper)

G. Dansky, A. Dikiy, P. Dnevnitsky, Ilya Dubov, State Duma member N. Yegorov, K. Yeremeyev, State Duma member M. Zakharov G. Zarim G. Zuev G. Zinoviev, V. Ilyin, Ivashi, F. Ilyin B.