Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Zarayskaya site of the Upper Paleolithic era.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

This is the oldest human settlement discovered today in the territory north of Kostyonok.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

It was opened in 1980.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Regular excavations are carried out by the Zaraisky Upper Paleolithic Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

The site is a monument of history, archeology and culture of federal significance.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

In 2008, a mammoth rib was found in the parking lot with figures painted on it, presumably depicting three mammoths; a small bone with an x-shaped ornament; two human figures (probably — female) and a cone-shaped object carved from a mammoth bone, whose purpose is a real mystery [40] [41].


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Sister cities


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Popovo (Bulgaria)


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Arzamas (Russia)


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

comments


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Notes


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Literature


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Dittel I. Antiquity in the city of Zaraysk and its uyezd//Archive of historical and practical information related to Russia.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Kn.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

2. — SPb, 1859.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

on the Runivers website


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Polyanchev V. AND. Zaraysk.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— M.: Moscow worker, 1972.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— 144 p.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Polyanchev V. AND. Zaraiskaya Rus.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

A textbook on local history for teachers and students of secondary general education and Sunday schools in the Zaraisky district of the Moscow region.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— M.: Academia, 2004.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— 440 p. — ISBN 5-87444-210-3.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Polyanchev V. AND. Atlas of Zaraisky District, Moscow Region.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— M.: Academia, 2002.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— 60 p. — ISBN 5-87444-161-1.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Architectural monuments of the Moscow region, vol. 2, Moscow: “Art”, 1975.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Pages 166—172, 353—354.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Cities of the Moscow region.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Kn.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

3. — M.: Moskovsky Rabochiy, 1981.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— 736 p., Il.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— 35,000 copies


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Wagner G. K., Chugunov S. IN. Ryazan marginal lands.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— M.: “Iskusstvo”, 1995.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— (Roads to beauty).


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— P. 33-46.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Podyapolskaya E.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

N., Razumovskaya A. A., Smirnov G. K. Architectural Monuments of the Moscow Region, vol.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

2, — M.: Stroiizdat, 1999.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

— P. 126—150.


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

References


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Category:Cities from the List of Russian Cities Far and Near


Question: What is the length of the city of Zaraysk?

Zaraysk

Category:Populated places in Zaraisky District


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Postage stamps and postal history of Germany

The history of postal and postage stamps in Germany covers stages corresponding to postal systems in present-day Germany:


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

before and after the first merger,


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

during the existence of two German states (Germany and GDR until 1990) and


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

after the second merger.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The main postal operators in the entire German history of mail were:


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Imperial Post Office (1871—1945),


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Deutsche Post (German Post Office, under the control of the Allied Powers: 1945—1949),


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German Post of the GDR (1949—1990),


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Deutsche Bundespost (German Federal Post; 1949—1995), along with


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

(German Federal Post in Berlin; 1949—1990),


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Deutsche Post AG (since 1995).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Postage stamps have been issued in Germany since 1849.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Early history


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Butcher's mail


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

is considered the first international post of the Middle Ages [1].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

For example, in some cities in southern Germany, the butcher shop (German: Metzger) was charged with transporting letters and parcels, in return for which it was exempt from community duties.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The so-called “butcher post” thus formed in some places has become a state institution (in Württemberg) [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The Butchers Guild organized courier delivery of correspondence on horseback: upon arrival of the mail, a horn was heard announcing this, which gave rise to the generally accepted emblem of the post office.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Butcher's Post Office originated in the 12th century and operated until 1637 [3], when the Thurn and Taxis family became monopolistic in the delivery of mail [1].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Church and city messengers


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The church needed the exchange of information most of all in the Middle Ages, both because its structure rested at the beginning of centralization, and because for a long time it was the only one bearer of the mental life of peoples.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Archives of church institutions and regestas of the Roman Curia indicate that at the very beginning of the Middle Ages there was a lively exchange of messages between the head of the Catholic hierarchy and its members.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In the lands of the German Spiritual Order, a special administration or couriers were established for this purpose and stations for changing horses were established [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

With the development of urban liberties, one of the most important means of communication in the Middle Ages was the institution of urban messengers, which since the XIV century existed almost everywhere, but received special development in large shopping malls in Germany.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

From the numerous regulations that have survived to us for city messengers (in Cologne, Mainz, Nordhausen in the XIV century, in Strasbourg in 1443, in Augsburg in 1552, in Breslavl in 1573, etc.) that they were under the authority of the City Council, to which they were obliged to obey under oath.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

They did not receive salaries from the community, individual corporations or merchant guilds.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Speaking from the city on certain days, they delivered the correspondence of the city administration to its destination on horseback or on foot within the established time frame, as well as letters and parcels of citizens from which they were charged tax fee.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The institution of city messengers has been firmly and widely developed thanks to the unions of cities on the Rhine and Lower Germany.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The messengers of the Rhine City Union maintained correct connections from Cologne and Mainz via Frankfurt to Nuremberg.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The messengers of the Hanseatic cities were famous for their accuracy in meeting deadlines, maintaining communications between Hamburg, Bremen, Amsterdam and Antwerp, as well as east via Stettin, Danzig and Königsberg all the way to Riga.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In southern Germany, Augsburg messengers took the first place; in addition to lines to Nuremberg (three times a week), Lindau and Regensburg, they maintained connections with Italy; they arrived in Venice via Brenner for eight days [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Thurn and Taxis


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By the end of the 15th century, the name of the post office in Germany began to mean the whole set of regulations that were established by the state or under the control of the state for the transfer of both government and private correspondence and transportation of passengers.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first experience of organizing mail in this sense of the word on a broad international basis was made by members of the Taxis family from Bergamo, who took over the support of communications between the Habsburg possessions [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1497, on behalf of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, Franz von Taxis established a post office that replaced messengers carrying state correspondence [4].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Branches of this post office organized in Germany and other European countries have provided great services in the development of postal messages [2]: within its framework, an equestrian relay system was created, which reduced the time transportation of mail and made its delivery time predictable.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After that, the Thurn and Taxis House, which used the imperial yellow and black colors, retained its postal privilege for many centuries.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1650, the Thurn and Taxis post office used the first horse mail carriages since Ancient Rome in Europe [5].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Mark Thurn and Taxis for the North German States (1865)


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Thurn and Taxis Mark for the South German States (1859)


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The Thurn and Taxis family lost their monopoly when Napoleon granted the Rhine Union the right to carry out postal services.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Thurn and Taxis Post continued to operate and even issued its own postage stamps, but after Prussia created the North German Union, the owners of the Thurn and Taxis post office had to sell their postal privilege in 1867 [6].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German principalities


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The idea of a postal regalia, that is, the exclusive right of the government to maintain postal institutions within the state territory, was first put forward at the end of the 16th century, and in the 17th century it became to be carried out in life.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first German ruler to establish a government post office and recognize it as a monopoly was the Grand Elector Friedrich Wilhelm (1646).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Other significant imperial ranks followed suit.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At the same time, mail content began to be seen not only as a right, but also as an obligation of governments.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Already at the beginning of the 18th century, some statesmen (for example, Frederick Wilhelm I in Prussia) abandoned fiscal views on the post office and saw its task in reducing the cost of postal tariffs and possibly greater accessibility of email messages to the public.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Unlike France, where the forwarding of letters (French: poste aux lettres) was declared a state monopoly, but along with government mail there were private passenger transportation companies ( messageries), in larger German states, the activities of government mail covered both the forwarding of letters and goods, and the transportation of passengers.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The government post of Saxony, Braunschweig-Hanover, Hesse and especially Brandenburg-Prussia was famous for its expedient organization.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Since 1655, mail departed twice a week on the main Prussian Kleve-Memel line; it arrived from Königsberg to Berlin within four days, and from Königsberg to Kleve in 10 days.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

It was an extraordinary speed for that time.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In addition to branches to Hamburg, Stettin, Leipzig and Breslavl, postal services were maintained in the west with Holland, in the east with Warsaw and Swedish Post in Riga.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In terms of passenger transportation, Prussia, however, was surpassed by countries with more comfortable roads at the end of the 18th century.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Contemporaries were all the more impressed by the success achieved by Prussia in 1821, when the so-called German: Nagler'sche Schuellposten was established, with convenient crews for traveling [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

A big step forward in the organization of mail was concluded in 1850 between Prussia, Austria, other German states and the Taxis Post Office on the basis of monotonous and uniform collection of postage fees.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

This union ceased to exist after the war of 1866, but during 1867-1873, first the North German Confederation and then the German Empire concluded a number of postal conventions imbued with the same spirit [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Prior to the unification of Germany in 1871, individual German principalities and cities began to issue their own postage stamps.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first was Bavaria, which issued the Black Unit on November 1, 1849.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After that, the stamps were issued: Baden (1851), Bergedorf (1861), Braunschweig (1852), Bremen (1855), Hamburg (1859), Hanover (1850), Heligoland (1867), Lübeck (1859), Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1856), Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1864), Oldenburg (1852), Prussia (1850), Saxony (1850), Schleswig-Holstein (1850) and Württemberg (1851).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Also, not being a state entity, Thurn and Taxis Post had the right to issue postage stamps and transport mail, and issued their own stamps (1852).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1868, the northern German principalities merged into the North German Union and merged their postal services in.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the unification, Bavaria and Württemberg retained the postal right to continue issuing postage stamps until March 31, 1920 [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Further development of mail and stamp issues


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German empire


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

This period in German postal history corresponds to the united Kaiser state, which existed from 1871 to 1918 and issued its own postage stamps.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Imperial Post


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The unification of mail on the territory of the North German Union has been carried out since 1868.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

When the German Empire was founded, the latter took over the postal business in all states that became part of the empire, with the exception of Bavaria and Württemberg, which retained independent postal management.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The postal business was granted to imperial legislation, which applied to Bavaria and Württemberg.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The domestic legislation of the latter regulated only fees for postal items that did not go beyond their territory [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Deutsche Reichspost (German Imperial Post) was officially established on May 4, 1871.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The central office of the Imperial-German Post was the Imperial Postal Office (Reichspostamt), subordinate to the Imperial Chancellor and under the jurisdiction of the State Secretary for Postal Affairs [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Initially, post offices continued to use postage stamps of the North German Union until the first imperial postal stamps appeared in circulation on January 1, 1872 [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Heinrich von Stefan, a well-known expert in postal affairs [2], inventor of the postcard and founder of the Universal Postal Union, was appointed the first postmaster general of the imperial post [8].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

According to G. von Stefan, of the 600 million letters sent in 1873 by German mail, 15% accounted for correspondence from government agencies, 5% to science and art, 45% — to the share of family and private contacts and only 35% to the share of trade and industry.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In addition, 230 ml was sent by German mail in the same year.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

copies of periodicals.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1873, Germany took the initiative to establish a uniform cheap tariff, regardless of distance and actual weight of the parcel, for low-weight parcels not exceeding 5 kg [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The history of the Universal Postal Union began in 1874, when the International Postal Congress was held in Bern, which was attended by representatives of 22 states, including Germany.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The main principles proposed by Germany are the unity of the postal territory, complete freedom and possible gratuitous transit, the unity of the postal fee and the principle of balancing, not the distribution of postal fees — some were accepted in its entirety, some were the subject of various compromises.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

On October 9, 1874, the Universal Postal Convention was signed, which applied to Germany and other countries that joined this treaty [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In the same year, Germany first introduced an operation (), which consisted in the post office accepting the demand from the debtor for payment on bills, invoices, invoices and the like and forwarding them to the creditor by affiliation.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At the same time, the post office, at the request of the sender creditor, not only presented bills to receive payment to the addressee debtor, but, if necessary, protested them in accordance with the generally established procedure.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The post office also took on another type of order: it presented bills to the tracate for acceptance and, in the absence of acceptance, was obliged to protest.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Later, at the Lisbon Congress of the UPU in 1885, Germany and the states in which the postal order operation is carried out concluded an agreement among themselves to extend this operation to mutual your intercourse.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

With the advent of the telegraph and its recognition as an indispensable means of communication, in Germany, postal business was combined with telegraph, to great benefit for both departments, which was followed in the future by almost all other states.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

This happened in 1875, when the Imperial Postal Office began to concentrate on the management of telegraphs [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In subsequent years, the entire territory of the German Imperial Post was divided into 40 postal and telegraph districts, which were under the jurisdiction of the chief post directors.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

They were accompanied by advisers for the execution of assignments, architects (Postbauräte) for the construction of postal and telegraph buildings and post inspectors for audits.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Wherever only the vastness of communications did not require special telegraph and telephone facilities, the latter were connected to post offices (Postämter), which, according to the importance of the locality, were divided in three categories.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The fourth category of postal institutions was postal agencies (Postagenturen), which were entrusted not to a special official, but to one of the local people in the street (postal agent) who did not leave and private classes.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Thirty-three traveling post offices (Bahnpostämter) were in charge of transporting mail by rail.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In large villages where there were no postal institutions, auxiliary post points () were set up, which sold postage stamps, received and issued simple correspondence, and in some places internal telegrams were also received [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At the UPU Congress of Vienna in 1891, Germany joined, among other countries, an agreement under which governments mutually undertook to deliver periodicals published in within their territories, at the same prices as domestic subscribers, with a surcharge only for possible transit costs.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In addition, Germany has concluded separate agreements with France, England and the United States on the observance in mutual relations of the same regulations in relation to periodicals of such countries that have not yet acceded to the international convention on newspaper operation [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1893, the total number of mailboxes in Germany reached 95,149 units, compared to 24,703 in 1871 [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

According to information on the number and activities of postal institutions in 1894, in Germany there were [2]:


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

30,346 post offices, or one post office for 17.8 km² and for 1,629 inhabitants;


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

3.65692×10^9 items, including:


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

1,312,154 thousand letters,


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

448.124 thousand open letters,


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

1,640,486 thousand printed works,


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

99.695 thousand postal orders and


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

139,932 thousand parcels.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

There were an average of 68.8 postal items per inhabitant.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The excess of the income of the postal department over expenses, in terms of rubles of the Russian Empire at that time, amounted to 11,029,605 rubles [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The exemplary structure of the German post office owed much to G. von Stephen, during whose management the number of postal institutions increased from 4,520 in 1870 to 31,786 in 1895 (with Bavaria and Württemberg), the number of letters sent — from 857 million (including 7 million open letters) to 2,360 million (including 443 million open letters), the number of newspapers forwarded — from 191 million to 890 million, the number of forwarded parcels — from 7 million to 443 million, and the number of international shipments — from 68 million to 132 million [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By the end of the 19th century, Germany remained one of the few countries where the post office also took over the transportation of passengers in areas where there were no railways.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In addition to their direct purpose, German postal institutions also served as state insurance bodies for workers, performing a lot of work in this role in accepting and making payments; stamp and bill paper were sold.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

To perform its extensive functions, the German Imperial Post had a staff of 148,961 people in 1895.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By the end of January 1898, there were 8,335 postal agents, including 1,449 innkeepers, 1,375 artisans, 1,298 villagers, 1,174 merchants and 1,084 teachers.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Demand correspondence was stored at German postal offices for one month, and valuable packages abroad for two months, after which it was received as unissued correspondence.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Measures were also taken to combat the inaccuracy of senders who deliver correspondence with illegible addresses, for which students of German public schools practiced the correct inscription addresses [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In Germany, a postal order system was introduced, in which the money was sent by official order directly by the postal place of departure to the postal place of destination, which paid the money to the addressee at home or summoned him to receive money.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The limit for which postal orders were allowed was not very high and did not exceed 400 deutsche marks.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Recipients who received many transfers and had a current account with the Imperial Bank could transfer the corresponding amounts to their account instead of paying in cash.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1905, Germany entered into an agreement on the mutual exchange of postal money transfers with Russia [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

According to the UPU International Bureau for 1903 [9], Germany ranked third in the world in terms of the density of the postal network, with one postal office per 14 square kilometers.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Imperial mail was second only to the United States in terms of its staff (231 thousand postal workers), in terms of the number of kilometers traveled by mail per year (346 million) and in the number of written items domestic correspondence (4 billion, or 5.5 billion, if we include newspapers delivered by mail).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In terms of the frequency of postal services, Germany was far ahead of other countries: for every kilometer of the railway postal route, there was an annual work of 4,600 km.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Germany had the largest number of foreign letters in the world: from there, 266 million written items were sent to other countries in 1903, and 242 million were received.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

length of postal routes.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Germany is also significantly ahead of other countries in terms of domestic (210 million shipments) and international (11.8 million items made and 7.2 million received) exchange of parcels sent by mail letters and parcels with a declared value (24 billion francs) and postal orders (13 billion francs).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In Germany, postal orders worth 900 million francs were fulfilled, which is the largest number of other countries (except Belgium) in which this kind of service was established [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The main rate for sending simple closed letters in Germany at that time was 10 pfennig.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At the same time, 15 g was accepted as a weight unit, and letters that had a higher weight, up to the maximum weight (250 g), were paid only by a double dachshund.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Although unpaid or not fully paid letters were sent, there was a uniform surcharge of 10 pfennig for sending an unfranked letter; such letters accounted for 2.7% of the total letters.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

For open letters, there was a reduced dachshund of 5 pfennig.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

For parcels, the highest weight limit was set, which for printed works reached 1 kg, and for factory samples - up to 250 g. For printed works, a fee was established with four units, ranging from 3 to 30 pfennig, and samples of goods were charged, regardless of weight, 10 pfennig.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Written correspondence could be charged special increased fees, for example, for letters that, on the basis of a prior agreement, were issued to addressees at the station immediately upon arrival of the train ().


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Although the basic fee for closed international letters exceeded twice the basic fee set for internal correspondence, it still did not reach the maximum of the normal tariff, amounting to only 20 pfennig for every 15 g [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The most common stamps of the Reichspocht were stamps with the allegorical pattern “Germany”.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

These postage stamps were issued from 1900 to 1922, making them the longest series in postal circulation in German philately, the most significant change in this the time was the change of the inscription “Reichspost” (“Imperial Post”) to “Deutsche Post” (“German Post”).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German colonies


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At an early stage (around 1887 or 1888), the postage was paid by ordinary German postage stamps of that period, so stamps that were mailed in the German colonies can only be identified by an impression postmark of the corresponding post office.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Such brands are known as “” (“predecessors”) [10].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At the next stage, ordinary postage stamps were used with the name of the territory overprinted.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In general, by 1896 and later, overprinted stamps had been issued by the German authorities for all colonies: German South West Africa, German New Guinea, Kiautschou, Togo, Samoa, Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, German East Africa and Cameroon.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By about 1900, the Hohenzollern Yacht series was issued for various colonial territories with the same pattern, the image of the imperial ship of the same name.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After Germany lost its colonies during World War I, the printed stamps depicting the yacht were temporarily used by the new owners of the colonies.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German Post Abroad


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

For postal services to overseas countries, Germany had government - subsidized mail and steamship lines that supported German postal services with the Far East, Australia and East Africa.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Germany has established several post offices.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

agencies in Asia, Polynesia and Africa [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In particular, the German Empire opened post offices in certain cities in Morocco, Turkey, and China.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Postage stamps issued and mailed there can be identified by a postmark impression, or by an overprint, which may indicate the denomination in local currency and the name of the country [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Occupation of territories during the First World War


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

During the First World War, German authorities issued postage stamps in German-occupied countries: Belgium, Poland, Romania, as well as in some areas of the Western and Eastern Fronts [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Weimar Republic


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Reichspocht


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The Imperial Post continued to operate as a state organization after Germany was proclaimed a republic.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1919, the Reichspocht issued its first commemorative, airmail and charity stamps [11].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first postage and charity stamp in 1919 overprinted a new tariff in favor of war invalids.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1923, during the period of hyperinflation, the Reichspocht issued postage stamps in denominations of up to 50 billion marks.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The most common vintage series then were the “famous Germans” series, and then stamps with Hindenburg.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first stamp from the valued German Zeppelins series appeared in 1928 ().


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Plebiscite territories


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, plebiscites were held in some territories to determine their fate.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Postage stamps were issued in these territories for a short period of time: Allenstein and Marienwerder, Schleswig and Upper Silesia [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Danzig


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

As a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1920, the Free City of Danzig became an independent unit.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Initially, the use of German postage stamps continued, which were later overprinted “Danzig” (“Danzig”) [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Danzig then issued original postage stamps, which were in circulation until 1939.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In addition, Polish Post (Poczta Polska) had a post office in Danzig and issued Polish postage stamps with the overprint “Port Gdansk” (“Port of Gdansk”).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Over the entire period of circulation, 133 overprints were made on Danzig's original stamps, 51 of them for franking official correspondence; 49 for changing the nominal value of the stamp; 16 — commemorative; 14 — occupation; 3 for charitable fundraising to the Fund for Improving the Welfare of the Population in Winter.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first DM overprint (Dienst Marke translated with it. Service stamp) was made on August 25, 1921 on a series of standard stamps of 14 denominations.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

They were intended for franking official correspondence, were in circulation until September 30, 1923.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The last overprint by Deutsches Reich (translated from it. German Reich) was made on September 28, 1939 at 14 denominations of stamps during the establishment of the German administration in Danzig in September 1939, indicating the new denomination in the Reichspfennigs (German. Reichspfennig) or the Reichsmark (German. Reichsmark).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

It was in circulation until December 31, 1940 [12].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Memel


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

As a result of the Treaty of Versailles, the Memel Region (Memelland, Klaipeda Krai) was allocated.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

First, German, then French and Lithuanian postage stamps with appropriate overprints were used.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Memel issued his own stamps in the period from 1920 to 1923, when this territory was annexed by Lithuania [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The original stamps were overprinted, a total of 67 stamps were printed, all indicating the new denomination in Lithuanian Centų or Centai cents, as well as Litas litas.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first overprint was made on April 16, 1923, the last on December 15 of the same year [12].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Saarland


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Saarland was under the administration of the League of Nations.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

There, between 1920 and 1935, when Saarland was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, its own postage stamps were issued there.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first stamps were German and Bavarian postage stamps with overprints.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After World War II, Saarland came under French administration and issued its own postage stamps from 1947 to 1956.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the referendum, Saarland was returned to Germany in 1956, but continued to issue its postage stamps until 1959 [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Nazi Germany


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

See also


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Third Reich Post


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

During the Third Reich (1933—1945), the Reichspocht continued to function as a state monopoly under the auspices of the Imperial Ministry of Post, while on the design of postage stamps and on the program the issue of stamps was strongly influenced by National Socialist propaganda.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Miniatures depicting Hitler's head became widely used postage stamps, and a large number of postage and charity stamps were issued.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In the last year before the end of the war, the inscription on the postage stamps “Deutsches Reich” (“German Empire”) was changed to “Grossdeutsches Reich” (“Great German Empire”).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Since 1942, military field mail stamps have been issued for troops.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

On July 25, 1941, the world's first two-digit postal code system was introduced [13].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

This system was first used for parcels and then extended to all postal items.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Sudeten/Bohemia and Moravia


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Under the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland became German territory in 1938.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Initially, local post offices used overprinted postage stamps of Czechoslovakia before German postage stamps went on sale.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1939, Nazi Germany occupied part of the Czech Republic, first overprinted Czechoslovak stamps, and then issued postage stamps for Bohemia and Moravia until 1945 [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Occupation of territories during World War II


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

During the Second World War, Germany issued postage stamps in the territories it occupied: Albania, Belgium, Zadar, Kotor, Courland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, the Channel Islands , in Poland (Governor-General), on part of the territory of Russia, in Serbia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Zakynthos, part of France, Montenegro, Alsace and Estonia [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Divided Germany


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

During this period (1945-1990), the territory of Germany, in accordance with the results of the Second World War, was occupied by the Allies, and then divided into two states - western (Germany) and eastern (GDR).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Local issues


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

During the collapse of Nazi Germany, postal services were disrupted or stopped altogether.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

On the ground, making up for the lack of centralized mail, postal communication was carried out by local authorities using postage stamps with a disfigured image of Hitler [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Allied occupation


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the occupation of Germany by Allied troops, postal services were resumed, but under different controls.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1945, the occupation authorities of the United States and Great Britain issued postage stamps of mail from the military command of the allied countries as a first step towards restoring mail in their zones of occupation (” AM Post”, where “AM” means “Allied Military”).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By December 1945, the French authorities had issued postage stamps for the French occupation zone (“zone française”), which were later supplemented by postage stamps for Baden, Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In addition, stamps for Saar were issued separately.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In the Soviet occupation zone, early in 1945, different regions produced different stamps, namely Berlin-Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, East Saxony (), West Saxony (), The provinces of Saxony () and Thuringia.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1946, German postage stamps were issued with the inscription “Deutsche Post” (“German Post”) for the American, British and Soviet zones, but not for the French zone.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The characteristic yellow color for mail was introduced by a decision of the Supervisory Board in 1946 [14].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

However, with the outbreak of the Cold War, attempts to unite mail failed - common postage stamps were replaced by 1948 by standard stamps for the Soviet zone and various series of postage stamps for Bisonia, even before the formation of the two German states.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German Federal Post West Berlin


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

West Berlin, which was run by three Western powers, began issuing its own postage stamps on September 3, 1948.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

It continued to issue postage stamps with the inscription “Deutsche Bundespost Berlin” (“German Federal Post West Berlin”) for 42 years, issuing more than 800 original stamps in total before the merger Germany in 1990.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Many West Berlin standard stamps were similar to those of West Germany.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

West German and West Berlin postage stamps could be used to pay for sending correspondence both in Germany and in West Berlin [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German Post GDR


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the creation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the state postal authority Deutsche Post der DDR was established [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first postage stamp was issued on October 9, 1949.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The production of these often beautiful postage stamps was abundant.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

During the existence of the GDR, about 3,000 original stamps have been issued.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

However, at the same time, the number of postage and charity stamps issued was relatively low.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

To some extent, stamps were used to obtain currency, that is, some postage stamps were not issued for postal circulation, but were immediately sold to philatelic dealers.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Also, in some series, a single stamp was deliberately printed in low print runs — and was called “Sperrwert” (letters. “blocking value stamp”, or “limited edition stamp”) — in order to artificially increase its value and sell it to philatelic dealers at a higher price [15].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the unification of Germany in 1990, the Deutsche Post became part of the German Federal Post (Deutsche Bundespost).


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Deutsche Bundespost


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

When the Federal Republic of Germany was formed, the Deutsche Bundespost (German Federal Post) became a state body with a monopoly position in the field of postal services.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

This name was adopted in 1950, before it was called Deutsche Post (German Post) [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first issue of Germany was released on September 7, 1949 ().


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1961, the two-digit postal code was replaced by a four-digit zip code [13], which in turn was changed after the unification of Germany.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By the time of the merger, about 1,400 original postage stamps had been issued.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1989, the process of transforming a state body into a public company began by separating mail from the post bank and communications.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

United Germany


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

After the unification of Germany in 1990, Bundespost (Germany) and Deutsche Post (GDR) merged.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

At the same time, the unified state-owned company Bundespost began to provide postal services to the entire territory of the united Germany.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

German postage stamps, regardless of their origin, were suitable for postal circulation until the expiration of their use: for GDR postage stamps it was October 1, 1990, and for German stamps - 12 December 1991 [7], the last date was also the date of withdrawal from circulation of West Berlin postage stamps [7].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

By 1993, a new five-digit zip code was introduced.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1995, Bundespost was transformed into a joint stock company called Deutsche Post AG (Deutsche Post AG), which became available in 2000.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

This company, together with its subsidiaries, works in the logistics industry on an international scale.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Summary data


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

According to the Scott catalog, the following number of different stamps (postal and postal and charitable) were issued by the Imperial Post (Reichspost), the German Post (Deutsche Post) of the GDR, the German by the Federal Post of West Berlin (Deutsche Bundespost Berlin) and the German Federal Post (Deutsche Bundespost) of Germany:


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Propaganda and science fiction


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1970, the West German writer and publisher decided to celebrate the centenary of V. AND. Lenin by publishing fantastic stamps.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

They were printed at the printing house of the Communist Party of Germany in Frankfurt by Schroeder.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The stamp with a portrait of Lenin had a face value of 20 pfennig and was made at a high printing level.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

However, initially the stamp was printed with the erroneous date of Lenin's birth — “11.4.1870”, so another edition with a corrected date was made.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

On April 15, the publisher sent these stamps in letters to the deputies of the Bundestag.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The cost of a simple letter in Germany at that time was 30 pfennig, so he glued a genuine postage stamp with a face value of 10 pfennig next to his stamp.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

It is interesting that only one of the deputies paid attention to the brand.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The original trick cost Schroeder a trial and a fine of 12,000 German marks [16] [17].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Philately development


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Already in the 19th century, philatelic organizations began to appear in Germany and exhibitions of postage stamps were held.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1863, the magazine Magazin für Briefmarken-Sammler (Illustrated Magazine for Postage Stamp Collectors, publishers Zschishe and Köder) began to be published in Leipzig.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The first philatelic associations or unions appeared in Germany in 1869 [18] [19].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1874, a postal museum was established in Germany, which stored rich items related to writing and methods of compiling and sending news from all peoples, of all times [2].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

The National Postal Museum was established in Berlin, and under it began to form a state collection of postage stamps.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Thus, according to the owner's will, the legendary collection of Philippe Ferrari went away, but after the end of the First World War, it was sold at the request of the French government at a public auction with the purpose is to ensure that the proceeds from the sale of the collection are included in the total reparations account of defeated Germany [19].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

In 1930, a philatelic exhibition was held in Berlin, at which the North-Western Department of the All-Russian Society of Philatelists presented a thematic collection that included Soviet postal miniatures with a portrait of V. AND. Lenina [20].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Germany regularly organizes national and international philatelic exhibitions.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

For example, on April 6—11, 1976, the national exhibition “Naposta-76” was held in Wuppertal under the patronage of the Minister of Posts and Telegraphs of Germany [21].


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

See also


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Notes


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Literature


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

Harper A., Scheck W. The Stamps of Germany Third Reich.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

— Darlington: A. Harper, 1966.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

— 181 p.


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

(in English) (German Third Reich postage stamps.)


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

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Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

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Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

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Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?


Question: Since what year did postage stamps begin to be issued in Germany?

References


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT (English: File Allocation Table) is a classic file system architecture that, due to its simplicity, is still widely used for flash drives.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It is used in floppy disks, memory cards and some other storage media.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It was previously used on hard drives.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It was developed by Bill Gates in 1976-1977 [1] [2].


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It was used as the main file system in the operating systems of the MS-DOS and Windows 9x families.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT structure follows the ECMA-107 standard and is detailed by Microsoft's official specification known as FATGEN [3].


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT system versions


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

There are three versions of FAT — FAT12, FAT16 and FAT32.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

They differ in the bit depth of writes in the disk structure, that is, the number of bits allocated to store the cluster number.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT12 is used mainly for floppy disks, FAT16 for small disks.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

On the basis of FAT, a new file system exFAT (extended FAT) was developed, which is used mainly for flash drives.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Initially, FAT did not support a hierarchical directory system.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

All files were located at the root of the disk.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

This was done for the sake of simplification, as it is not


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

on single-sided floppy disks with a capacity of only 160-180 KB, it simply did not make sense to sort a few files into directories.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

With the spread of 320 KB or more floppy disks, storing all files at the root turned out to be inconvenient, and the small size of the root directory limited the number of files on disk.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The catalogs were introduced with the release of MS-DOS 2.0.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Various FAT extensions have also been implemented in various operating systems.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

For example, DR-DOS has additional file access attributes; Windows 95, Linux support for long file names (LFN) in Unicode format (Virtual FAT - VFAT); OS/2 has extended attributes for all files.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

VFAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

VFAT is a FAT extension introduced in Windows 95.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In FAT, file names are in 8.3 format and consist of only ASCII characters.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

VFAT added support for long (up to 255 characters) file names (English: Long File Name, LFN) in UTF-16LE encoding, while LFN is stored simultaneously with 8.3 names, retrospectively called SFN (English: Short File Name).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

LFNs are case-insensitive when searching, however, unlike SFNs, which are stored in upper case, LFNs retain the case specified when creating the file [4] [5].


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT system structure


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In the FAT file system, adjacent disk sectors are combined into units called clusters.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The number of sectors in a cluster is a power of two (see below).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

An integer number of clusters (at least one) are allocated to store file data, so for example, if the file size is 40 bytes and the cluster is 4 KB, only 1% will actually be occupied by the file information the space reserved for it.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

To avoid such situations, it is advisable to reduce the size of clusters, and vice versa to reduce the amount of address information and increase the speed of file operations.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In practice, some compromise is chosen.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Since the disk capacity may well not be expressed as an integer number of clusters, there are usually so-called surplus sectors at the end of the volume — a “remainder” smaller than a cluster that cannot be allocated OS for storing information.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT32 volume is logically divided into three adjacent areas:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Reserved area.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Contains service structures that belong to the Partition Boot Record (PBR, to distinguish it from Master Boot Record, the master boot record of the disk; also, the PBR is often incorrect is called the boot sector) and is used when initializing the volume;


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A FAT table area that contains an array of index pointers (“cells”) corresponding to data region clusters.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Usually, two copies of the FAT table are presented on disk for reliability purposes;


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The data area where the actual contents of the files are recorded — that is, the text of text files, the encoded image for picture files, digitized sound for audio files, etc.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT12 and FAT16 also specifically allocate the root directory area.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It has a fixed position (right after the last item in the FAT table) and a fixed size of 32 bytes, i.e.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Partition Boot Record describes exactly the number of 32-byte elements, each of which describes an element in the root directory (be it a file or other subdirectory).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If the cluster belongs to a file, the corresponding cell in the FAT table contains the number of the next cluster in the same file.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If a cell matches the last cluster in the file, it contains a special value (0xFFFF for FAT16).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Thus, a chain of file clusters is built.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Unused clusters in the table correspond to zeros.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

“Bad” clusters (which are excluded from processing, for example, because the corresponding area of the device is unreadable) also have a special code (0xFFF7 for FAT16).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

When a file is deleted, the first character of its name is replaced by the special code 0xE5 and the file's cluster chain in the allocation table is reset to zero.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Because the file size information (which is located in the directory next to the file name) remains intact if the file clusters were sequentially on disk and they were not overwritten with new information, it is possible to recover a deleted file.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Boot record


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The first FAT volume structure is called BPB (English: BIOS parameter block) and is located in the reserved area, in the zero sector.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

This structure contains information that identifies the type of file system and the physical characteristics of the media (floppy disk or partition on the hard disk).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

BIOS Parameter Block


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

BPB, in principle, was absent from FAT, which served MS-DOS 1.x, as at that time only two different volume types were assumed — single- and double-sided five-inch 360 KB floppy disks, and the volume format was determined by the first byte of the FAT region.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

BPB was introduced in MS-DOS 2.x in early 1983 as a mandatory boot sector structure that should henceforth determine the format of the volume; the old FAT first-byte definition scheme was lost support.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

MS-DOS 2.0 also introduced a hierarchy of files and folders (before that, all files were stored in the root directory).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The BPB structure in MS-DOS 2.x contained a 16-bit “total number of sectors” field, which meant that this version of FAT was fundamentally inapplicable for volumes larger than 216 = 65,536 sectors, that is, more than 32 MB for a standard sector size of 512 bytes.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In MS-DOS 4.0 (1988), the above BPB field was expanded to 32 bits, which meant an increase in the theoretical volume size to 232 = 4,294,967,296 sectors, that is, 2 TB with a 512-byte sector.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The next modification of BPB came with Windows 95 OSR2, which introduced FAT32 (in August 1996).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The 2 TB limit on the volume size has been removed, and the FAT32 volume can theoretically be up to 8 TB in size.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

However, the size of each individual file cannot exceed 4 GB.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

BIOS Parameter Block FAT32 repeats BPB FAT16 up to and including the BPB_TotSec32 field for compatibility with earlier versions of FAT, followed by differences.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT32 “boot sector” is actually three 512-byte sectors—sectors 0, 1, and 2.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Each of them contains a 0xAA55 signature at 0x1FE, that is, in the last two bytes, if the sector size is 512 bytes.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If the sector size is more than 512 bytes, the signature is contained both at 0x1FE and in the last two bytes of the zero sector, that is, it is duplicated.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FSinfo


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT32 partition boot record contains a structure called FSInfo that is used to store the value of the number of free clusters on a volume.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FSInfo usually occupies sector 1 (see the BPB_FSinfo field) and has the following structure (addresses relative to the beginning of the sector):


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The 4-byte signature 0x41615252 indicates that the sector is being used for the FSInfo structure.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The interval from 4th to 483rd bytes of the sector inclusive is reset to zero.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Another signature is located at 0x1E4 and contains the value 0x61417272.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The four-byte field at 0x1E8 contains the last known value for the number of free clusters on the volume.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A value of 0xFFFFFFFF means that the number of free clusters is unknown and should be calculated.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The four-byte field at 0x1EC contains the cluster number from which to search for free clusters in the index pointer table.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

This field usually contains the number of the last FAT cluster allocated to store the file.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A value of 0xFFFFFFFF means that the search for a free cluster must be performed from the very beginning of the FAT table, that is, from the second cluster.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Reserved 12-byte field at 0x1F0.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The 0xAA550000 signature is the last 4 bytes of the FSInfo sector.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The purpose of introducing FSInfo is to optimize the system's operation, since in FAT32 the index pointer table can be of significant size and its byte-by-byte viewing can take a significant amount of time.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

However, the values of the FSI_Free_count and FSI_NXT_Free fields may not be true and should be checked for adequacy.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In addition, they are not even updated in the FSInfo backup, which is usually located in Sector 7.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Determining the FAT volume type


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT type of a volume (that is, the choice between FAT12, FAT16, and FAT32) is determined by the OS by the number of clusters on the volume, which in turn is determined from the BPB fields.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

First of all, the number of sectors in the root directory is calculated:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

RootDirSectors = (BPB_RootentCNT* 32) /BPB_BytsPersec


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It then determines which of the BPB_FatsZ16/32 and BPB_TotSec16/32 fields are non-zero, and they are used to determine the number of sectors in the volume's data area:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

DataSec = TotSec — (BPB_ResvdSeccnt + (BPB_NumFats * FatsZ) + RootDirSectors)


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Finally, the number of data area clusters is determined:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

CountOfClusters = DataSec /BPB_SecperClus


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The number of clusters is uniquely matched with the file system:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

CountOfClusters < 4085 — FAT12


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

CountOfClusters = 4085 ÷ 65524 — FAT16


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

CountOfClusters > 65524 — FAT32


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

According to the official specification, this is the only acceptable way to determine the FAT type.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Artificially creating a volume that violates these compliance rules will lead to incorrect processing by Windows.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

However, it is recommended that you avoid CountOfClusters values that are close to critical (4085 and 65525) in order to correctly determine the file system type by any drivers that are often incorrectly written.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT12 is always created on a floppy disk when formatting.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

As for hard drives and flash drives, when the drive size is up to 512 MB (with a 512-byte sector), FAT16 is created by default, and FAT32 is over 512 MB.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The cluster size is formatted based on the file system and volume size.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Volume serial number


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The volume serial number (BS_Volid field) in Windows 98 is created from the date and time of formatting in such a way that it is impossible to restore them without additional information.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT table


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The next important structure of a FAT volume is the FAT table itself, which occupies a separate logical area.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It defines a list (chain) of clusters that host files and folders in a volume.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

There is a one-to-one correspondence between clusters and table index pointers — the Nth pointer corresponds to a cluster with the same number.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The first data area cluster is assigned number 2.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The index index value corresponds to the state of the corresponding cluster.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The following conditions are possible:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

the cluster is free — the pointer is set to zero;


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

the cluster is occupied by a file and is not the last cluster of the file — the pointer value is the number of the next file cluster;


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

the cluster is the last cluster of the file — the pointer contains an EOC (End Of Clusterchain) label, the value of which depends on the FAT version: for FAT12, any value greater than or equal to 0x0FF8 (default is 0x0FFF); FAT16 is greater than or equal to 0xFFF8 (default is 0xFFFF); for FAT32, any value greater than or equal to 0x0FFFFFF8 (default is 0x0FFFFFFF)


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

the cluster is corrupted — the pointer contains a special label, the value of which is 0x0FF7 for FAT12, 0xFFF7 for FAT16 and 0x0FFFFFF7 for FAT32.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A damaged cluster cannot be used by the file system to store data; the corresponding pointers are not affected when formatting the volume, when all other pointers are reset to zero;


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

the cluster is reserved “for future standardization” — the pointer contains a value greater than CountOfClusters, but less than the label of the damaged cluster (that is, up to 0xFFF6 inclusive for FAT16).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In this case, the cluster, without matching any real data, is considered busy and skipped when searching for a free one, but no other information is provided about it.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Clusters 0 and 1 are specifically reflected by FAT.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The index pointer corresponding to the cluster zero (the very first pointer to the FAT table) contains the BPB_Media value in the lower 8 bits; the remaining bits are set to 1.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

For example, if BPB_Media = 0xF8 (hard disk), FAT [0] = 0x0FFFFFF8 for FAT32.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Thus, formally FAT [0] = EOC, which is used when processing files of zero size (see below).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The second reserved pointer, FAT [1], is formatted to the EOC label value.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In FAT12, it is no longer used, and in FAT16 and FAT32, the upper two bits of this pointer may contain a note that the volume needs to be checked (so-called. “dirty bit”), with all other bits set to 1.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The presence of a dirty bit is checked during Windows startup by autochk.exe.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A dirty bit is generated when the volume is incorrectly disconnected or a hardware error occurs in the media, and accordingly takes two possible values.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT32 index pointer is 32-bit by definition, but the upper 4 bits are actually ignored, so the pointer value is essentially 28 bits.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The only operation that operates with the upper 4 bits of the pointer is to format the volume when the entire pointer is reset to zero.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

This means that, for example, the pointer values 0x10000000, 0xF0000000, and 0x00000000 all correspond to a free cluster, as they differ only in the upper 4 bits.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The BPB FAT table size, that is, BPB_FATSZ16/32, can be larger than the real size, so that each FAT table may end with sectors that do not correspond to any real data clusters.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

When formatting, these sectors are reset to zero, and during operation, the volumes are not used in any way.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Therefore, the valid address of the last sector of the FAT table that contains pointers to real clusters on a volume should always be calculated from the total number of data area clusters, not from the BPB_fatSZ16/32.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In addition, the last sector occupied by the FAT table is not necessarily all occupied by it — in this case, the excess space of the sector is also not used and is clogged with zeros when formatting the volume.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

File records


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Immediately after the end of the last FAT table, there is a data area containing files and folders.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT directory is a regular file marked with a special attribute.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The data (contents) of such a file in any FAT version is a chain of 32-byte file records (directory records).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A directory cannot normally contain two files with the same name.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If the disk checker detects an artificially created pair of files with the same name in the same directory, one of them is renamed.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Root directory


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The only directory that must be present is the root directory.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In FAT12/FAT16, the root directory has a fixed sector size that is calculated from the BPB_RootentCNT value and follows on disk immediately after the FAT table.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In FAT32, the root directory, like any other directory, is variable in size and is a chain of clusters.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The number of the first root cluster is reflected by BPB_RootPlus.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The root directory differs from other FAT directories as follows:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

It doesn't have date and time stamps;


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

does not have your own name (except “\”);


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

it does not contain files named “.” and “..” (see below);


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

is the only directory that can host a volume label file (see below).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

File record structure


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT32 file record consists of the following structures:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The 11-byte field at relative address 0 contains a short file name (within the framework of the 8.3 standard).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

For file names, see below.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A byte at 0x0B that is responsible for file attributes.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The byte at 0x0C is used on Windows NT.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Byte at 0x0D.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Counts tens of milliseconds of file creation time, valid values are 0-199.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The field is often unjustifiably ignored.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at 0x0E.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

File creation time accurate to 2 seconds.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at address 0x10.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

File creation date.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at address 0x12.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The date of the last access to the file (that is, the last read or write — in the latter case is Dir_wrtDate).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

There is no similar field for time.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at address 0x14.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The file's first cluster number (the highest word, zero on the FAT12/FAT16 volume).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at address 0x16.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The time when the file was last written (modified), for example, it was created.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at address 0x18.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The date of the last record (modification) of the file, including creation.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

2 bytes at address 0x1A.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The file's first cluster number (low word).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A DWORD that contains the file size value in bytes.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT32's fundamental limitation is that the maximum file size allowed is 0xFFFFFFFF (i.e. 4 GB minus 1 byte).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If the first byte of a FAT record (that is, DIR_name [0]) contains 0xE5 or 0x05, it means that the write is free (the corresponding file has been deleted).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Zero in DIR_name [0] means that not only this entry is free, but all subsequent directory entries are free; Windows does not analyze the rest of the directory after a zeroed write.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

FAT filename


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The dir_name field is logically split into the first 8 characters that make up the file name and the last 3 characters that make up the extension.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A separator point is added at the operating system level and is not stored in the name field.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If the file name and extension do not fill the space allocated for them, the remaining bytes of the dir_name field are filled with spaces (0x20).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The file name and extension can contain any combination of letters, numbers, or characters with ASCII codes greater than 127; special characters fall into three groups:


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Allowed:!


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

# $% & () - @ ^ _ `{} ~ '


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Forbidden: +.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Service: *?


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Service characters have a special meaning in DOS and Windows and cannot be part of the file name (*?


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

are metacharacters, and the characters:/\ are used as separators in file paths, the rest of the service and prohibited characters are control in the command.COM and cmd.exe command-line interpreters), while prohibited characters can still be included in the file name at the cost of an LFN record (see below).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

For example, a directory with a name starting with a dot or containing multiple points can be created in command line mode (mkdir .directory) or in shells like FAR Manager, Total Commander, WinRAR.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The file name cannot begin or end with a space; no ASCII control characters (i.e. 0x00-0x1F) are allowed in any byte of the name field, except in the case of code 5 above.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Information about the current (at the time of file creation) DOS code page is not saved, so access to files that have national codes from Extended ASCII in their names (for example, Cyrillic characters from the code page 866), with a different code page may be problematic or impossible (because before searching for a file in the directory, its name is converted to upper case according to the table embedded in code page).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The full path to the file cannot exceed 80 bytes (3 is the drive letter; 64 is the path; 12 is the file name, including the separator point; 1 is the terminal null character).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

All 8.3 alphabetic characters of the name are always translated and stored in the DIR_name field in uppercase.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The dir_ntres byte is used to preserve the original Windows NT name case: 1 in bit 3 says the name should be displayed in lower case; bit 4 is responsible for the extension.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If the name or extension contains characters from both registers, an LFN record is created for the file (see below).


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

Windows 9x always creates an LFN record to preserve a non-trivial name register and ignores the Dir_NTres field.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

As a result, the name of the same file without an associated LFN record may appear in Windows 9x in its entirety in uppercase, and Windows NT (partially) in lower case.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

File attributes


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In the attribute byte, the top two bits are fallback and should always be set to zero.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The rest of the bits are distributed in such a way that 0x01 corresponds to the read-only attribute, 0x02 is hidden, 0x04 is system, and 0x20 is archive.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

A set of several attributes is compiled by summing up the main values.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

In addition to these standard attributes, the following are also used: 0x10 — indicates that the file is a directory (container for other files); 0x08 — ATTR_VOLUME_ID, a special attribute of the unique a zero-sized file in the root directory whose name is considered a volume label.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

The FAT volume label length limit of 11 characters is related to the size of the DIR_name field.


Question: Who was the developer of the FAT file system architecture?

FAT

If a file has the READ_ONLY | HIDDEN | SYSTEM | VOLUME_ID attribute set (value 0x0F), this indicates that the entry does not correspond to an individual file, but contains part of the long name of another file, not within the 8.3 framework (see below).