Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The same motif sounds in poetry.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The poems “Nightingale and the Rose” were written by Pushkin, A. AND. Odoevsky and Fet.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Blok's poem “Nightingale Garden”, although it does not mention the nightingale's love for the rose, roses grow in the nightingale garden.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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U D. IN. Davydov in the poem “Siskin and the Rose” is replaced by a siskin.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In a famous Georgian song by A. Tsereteli and V. Tsereteli “Suliko” the author is looking for the grave of his beloved, his feelings suggest that it has turned into a rose he found in the forest, shedding tears in the form of dew.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The longing lover asks if it is not her, and the nightingale singing in the bushes seems to answer him: “It's me!”


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose in fairy tales is the standard of earthly beauty, the personification of spring and youth.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In the Grimm brothers' fairy tale Snow White and the Krasnozorka, one girl (Snow White) looked like a white rose, and the other (Krasnozorka) looked like a red, like two rose bushes growing under the window of their house.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In a Slovak fairy tale, a young sea maiden says to the old king: “My face is blooming with roses, and your head is covered with snow” [205].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Roses in fairy tales and myths are associated with the afterlife evergreen garden.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In German fairy tales (including the fairy tale of the Brothers Grimm “Mrs. Metelitsa”) and myths, the kind and hard-working stepdaughter, jumping into the well on the orders of her stepmother, got into the service of Mrs. Metelitsa, where every morning shook the feather bed, while it was snowing on the ground.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

For her work, the girl was showered with golden rain, pieces of gold fell from her mouth, tears turned into pearls, and fresh roses grew from under her feet.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Instead of a reward, the angry and negligent stepmother's own daughter was smeared with soot and resin, snakes and toads fell from her mouth.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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A. N. Afanasyev connected Mrs. Metelitsa in such fairy tales with the cloud goddesses Holda (Golda) and Perkhta (Bertha), whose dwelling, according to many peoples, was a deep well that led not down, but up into the sky.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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There is an eternal garden, where dawn roses and bright lightning flowers bloom, golden apples ripen.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The souls of unborn babies and the dead go there.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In the tales of Holde, two souls enter her kingdom: one selfless and kind, the other greedy and evil.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The good one settles in the area of light and becomes golden, illuminated by the sun, it gets to where the golden sun rises, the sky is painted with pink colors of dawn and dew and pearl falls, and the evil one hits to the area of demons, darkness and bad weather, that is, where there is snow and rain [205].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In the Christian religion, St. Peter scatters “roses of paradise”, inviting the righteous to paradise [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Some fairy tales use the ability of rose hips to form impassable thickets.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm “Spiked” and Charles Perrault “Sleeping Beauty” describe the same plot in which a princess or just a beauty falls asleep at the request of an evil witch for many years and wakes up at the appointed hour (at the behest of fate), when she is found by a prince who has made his way through insurmountable thickets of thorns or rose hips for other people.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In the German tradition, the rose belongs to and is protected by dwarves, dwarfs and fairies.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Germany, the gall, which forms on wild rose hips in the form of a mossy round growth, is called the “sleepy apple”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

There is a belief that if you put a “sleepy apple” under your head, a person will sleep until the gall is removed.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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To protect the house from misfortune, the gall is stuck behind the kitchen beams.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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This belief is associated with the myths that exist among different peoples about the murder of the sun god (and the onset of winter) with an arrow made from an alien mistletoe plant [206].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose in other forms of oral folk art


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In proverbs and sayings


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Proverbs of many peoples contrast the beauty of rose flowers and its thorns and are used in the sense that everything attractive has drawbacks:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“There is no rose without thorns” — in Russian, English (There is no rose without a thorn), French (Il n'y a pas de rose sans épines), Turkish;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“Whoever collects roses is not afraid of thorns” — in Azerbaijani and Crimean Tatar languages;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“Who loves roses also loves thorns” — in Uzbek and Armenian;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“There is no rose without thorns, no pearl without a shell” — in Uzbek;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

“Wherever a rose is, there is always a thorn next to it” and “Rose is a friend of the thorn” in Persian;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

“There is no rose without thorns, no honey without poison” — in Turkmen;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“There is no rose without thorns and love without rivals” — in the Kurdish language.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Other sayings have the opposite meaning — there can be something good in everything bad:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“Roses come out of thorns” — in Arabic;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“His mother is onions, his father is garlic, and he grew up with pink jam” — in Turkish.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Still others use the tenderness of the rose and its aroma:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

“What's harder than stones? Man! That roses are more tender? Man!” — in Persian;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

“Man is harder than stone and softer than rose” and “What does buffalo understand in rose aroma?” — in Pashtun;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“Someone else's rose does not smell” — in Turkish;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“The finished business smells like roses” — in Turkmen;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

“Anyone who does not know how to be grateful will not smell fragrant, even if he is showered with a hundred rose petals” — in Vietnamese.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In French, there are many expressions involving a rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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If you look good, they say that you are “fresh as a rose” — fraîche comme une rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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If the French doubt someone's hygiene, they will say, that he “does not smell like a rose” — il ne sent pas la rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“Sentimental story” in French — “story in rose water” — histoire dans l'eau de rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The expression “discover all the secrets” in French means “find a pot of roses” — decouvrir le pot aux roses [207].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In riddles


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Riddles in Russian folklore:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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There is a thorn on a pitchfork, dressed in purple; whoever comes up will ring.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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There is a khan's tree, a shamakhan dress, angelic flowers, claws devilishly.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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It is worth a green bush, if you touch it, it will bite.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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He sits on a stick in a red shirt, his abdomen is stuffed with pebbles [208].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Serbo-Croatian folklore: “Swi tsarimi u crveno, tsar himself is green”, which can be translated as “All princesses are in red, and the king himself is in green” [209].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In songs


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Russian folk songs, there is a motif “bed for an old husband”, which the young wife spreads from nettles and rose hips.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Similar songs were recorded in Perm and Kursk provinces, in the Tver region [210], as well as in the Vyatka province:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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I'm dexterous to the old


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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I'm dexterous, dexterous:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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I'll bed a bed,


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Bed, bed, —


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In three rows brick;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The fourth spike is prickly,


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Prickly, prickly;


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The nettle is effervescent,


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Effervescent, effervescent [211].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Many folk songs have been composed about the rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The Serbian folk song is called “Oj, ruzice rumena” — “Oh, rosy rose”, Bulgarian — “Byala rose” — “White rose”, Hungarian — “You see a rose”, Georgian — “I admired a rose”, gypsy — “Two roses”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Finnish, there are folk songs “Rose in the Valley” and “Rose by the Road”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Oryol Russian Folk Choir sings the song “There is a white and pink rose in the garden”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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There is a song by unknown authors “They picked a rose”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In people's signs


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Phenologists consider the flowering of rose hips to be the beginning of summer.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rosehip blooms - the blush of the year leads [212].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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“Rosehip, sweet messenger of summer...” (N. A. Kholodkovsky)


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The flowers of rose hips can be used to determine the time: they open at 4-5 am and close at 7-8 pm [213].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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If the rose hip or rose does not open its buds, it is for rain [214].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Roses fade — good dews fall [214].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Traditions related to the rose


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Rose Festival — Rosalia — has been known in ancient Rome since the 1st century, celebrated in mid-May, during the flowering of roses.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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It was a holiday of remembrance of the dead, when it was customary to put roses on the grave.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Later, among the peoples of the Mediterranean (Spain, Italy and Southern France), the spring-summer holiday of the Trinity (Pentecost) was called the “pink resurrection” (domenica rosarum, pascha rosata, etc.) [200] [215].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In more nordic countries (Holland, Belgium, Southern Germany and Austria), this holiday was moved to the end of June — early July and combined with Petrov's Day [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Until now, Bulgarians and Macedonians after the Trinity celebrate Rusalia, or mermaids.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Russians also celebrated mermaid week or mermaid farewell after Troits.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Russian word “mermaid” comes from the name of this holiday [216].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose is used in the Balkans in various ceremonial actions on St. George's Day, which marks the arrival of spring and the awakening of nature.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In the rite of the first milking, the windowsill is decorated with a Damascus rosebud or dog rose hip [217].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose is used in the ritual of driving away evil forces from cattle and the house, which is due to the thorns of the rose and its property of an amulet [218].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The sacrificial lamb is slaughtered under a rose bush [217].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The ability of a rose, along with other plants, to revive, grow, bloom and bear fruit every year is transferred to people who come into contact with it.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In order to preserve and increase their health, Bulgarian girls wash under a rose bush [217] or leave water under it on the eve of Yuri's Day, which they wash their hair on Yuri's Day, so that “the girl's braid is pink and beautiful as a rose” [217].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

P. AND. Melnikov-Pechersky in his novel “In the Woods” described the celebration in Russia of Ivan Kupala's Day, dedicated to the pagan god of the sun Yaril.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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During this holiday, rose hips, along with other prickly and burning plants, were covered with brushwood prepared for the festive fire.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Southern Slavs lowered hawthorn and rose hips into the bathing water for a newborn to make it a protection for the child [219].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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June 6 was called the day of the freedom tree among the Russian people, from that day rose hips bloomed and summer began [212].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The first of October is Evmen-day, or the day of Arina Rosehip.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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On this day, rose hips were harvested.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose hips harvested at this time was considered the most useful [220].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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On April 23, Spain celebrates St. George's Day, which is also called the Rose and Book Festival.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Spanish version of the legend of Saint George says that a drop of the dragon's blood killed by George grew a scarlet rose, which George gave to the princess.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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On this day, it is customary to give girls scarlet roses, and books to young men [221] [222].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose is especially honored in Bulgaria, where it has long been grown to produce rose oil.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Bulgaria, every year on May 21 (in turn in the cities of Kazanlak and Karlovy), the Rose Festival is held, at which the Rose Queen is selected [223] [224].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose festivals are also held in other countries.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The most famous is the annual Rose Festival in Portland, Oregon, USA.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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It also selects the Rose Queen.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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It has been celebrated since 1907, and rose cultivation in the state began in 1837, when the first rose bush was presented as a wedding gift [225].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In the Czech city of Cesky Krumlov, since the Middle Ages, the Rosenberg Castle has held a five-petal rose festival every year on June 17 [226].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Vardavar holiday in Armenia is also associated with roses.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

According to one version, the name of the holiday is associated with the root ward — “rose”, and it means “showering roses” [227].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Catholics celebrate Saint Rose Day on August 30 in Latin America and August 23 in Europe.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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This day is celebrated by all women whose names are associated with the rose as their name days [207].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The custom that existed since ancient times to pour rose petals on the head of the bride and groom has been revived.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

According to the custom that existed in the 19th century in Russia, the bride was decorated with a wreath of orange flowers and myrtle flowers, a bouquet of the same flowers was given to the bride before the wedding by the groom or best man, for lack of them - from white roses or lilies of the valley [228].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose in music


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

F. Schubert composed music for the songs “Garland of Roses” to lyrics by F. Klopstock, “The Rose” to the words of F. Schlegel and Wild Rose to the words of an unknown poet, R. Wagner — for the song “The Rose” to lyrics by P. Ronsard.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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A. A. Alyabyev wrote the romance “Rose” to the words of S. F. Tolstoy [229].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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M. AND. Glinka wrote the song “Where is our rose” to the words of A. S. Pushkin, and A. S. Dargomyzhsky — to the songs “O Maiden Rose, I'm in Shackles” to the words of Pushkin, “Oh, Lucky You, Rose” and music for the duet “Virgo and the Rose” to lyrics by A. A. Delvig.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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M. A. Kuzmin wrote the romance “Child and the Rose”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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R. Strauss wrote music for the comic opera Der Rosenkavalier [230].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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One of the most beautiful waltzes by I. Strauss is called “Roses from the South”, or “Southern Roses” (“Rosen aus den Sden”) [231].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Many singers sing the song “Black Rose”, which is considered to be folk, although the author of its words (later modified) is A. B.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Kusikov, who emigrated to France in 1925 [232].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose in visual arts


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose marks the “divine” harmony of the universe, serves as a symbol of holiness and is present in many works of art, on the stained glass windows of many medieval temples, in images of saints.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Sweden, the very concept of “folk art” is called rosemalning, that is, “rose painting”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose is depicted on a 3rd century mosaic from Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, kept in the Louvre.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The image of a rose is found in works of medieval miniature (Mughal painting, Armenian miniature, Persian miniature).


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Sandro Botticelli depicted roses in his paintings (“The Birth of Venus”, “Madonna and Child John the Baptist”).


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In baroque painting of the 17th century, the rose became the main part of symbolic still lifes (Frans Snyders, Maria van Oosterwijk, Evert van Aelst).


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Since the 17th century, primarily in Holland, flower painting has become a separate branch of art, and paintings with roses appeared [195].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The image of a rose is often found in paintings by Francois Boucher.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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IN. A. Tropinin painted the painting “Girl with a Pot of Roses” (1850).


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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He often turned to the image of rose hips by M. A. Vrubel (“Rosehip”, “Lilies and Roses” and “Yellow Roses” — 1884, “Rose in a Glass” — 1904 [233]).


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Still lifes with roses were painted by impressionist artists Auguste Renoir, Van Gogh, Edouard Manet, Zacharia Astruk, from Russians by K. A. Korovin.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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No artist can compare with Konstantin Korovin in terms of the number of paintings dedicated to the Crimean rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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At his dacha in Crimea, he became interested in painting still lifes, among which roses occupied the main place.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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He painted bouquets of roses in various vases, against the background of the sea or in a wicker chair, sometimes a slender female figure appeared next to them.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Despite the fact that the roses were mostly plain, the artist caught the slightest change in tones when the lighting changed.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Sometimes, in the absence of live roses, Korovin painted paper roses [32].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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French artist and botanist Pierre-Joseph Redoute is known for his drawings of roses from the Josephine Beauharnais rose garden.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In 1817, he published the book Roses with watercolor illustrations.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Botanical illustrations of Redute roses were at that time a significant phenomenon not only for science, but also for art.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The most ancient element of the floral ornament - the rosette - is a stylized image of a flower that can be a daisy, a daisy, etc., when viewed from above.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In Persian ornaments, which replaced ancient Egyptian, Assyrian and Babylonian ornaments, an image of a rose hip appeared.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In the later Islamic floral ornament, there are very often images of a rose and pomegranate fruit, symbolizing paradise life.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose has become an element of ornaments in Europe since the late Middle Ages [234] [235].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The image of floral ornaments, including roses, on carpets came to Europe from the East and is as old as the carpets themselves.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Such ornaments were depicted on wall carpets produced at the factory of the Gobelin brothers in Paris, who received their name by their last name.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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And already from the tapestries, the image of the rose passed to paper wallpaper.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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From the East in the Middle Ages, the custom of applying floral ornaments with beautiful flowers to clothes and fabric came to Europe.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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This custom reached its peak in the Baroque era, when large flower patterns began to be applied to the fabric, as well as covering dresses from top to bottom with embroideries.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose in architecture


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rosette is the main and oldest element of stylized ornaments in architecture.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rosette was found in the ruins of a palace in Nineveh and is still a favorite decoration for architecture of all styles [195].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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A rose is a round window with a binding in the form of radial rays in Romanesque and Gothic buildings of the 12th-15th centuries.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Magnificent in its exquisite pattern, the rose decorated in the 15th century the holy chapel of Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, which is the pinnacle of Gothic art in architecture [236].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The rose in the northern transverse nave of Chartres Cathedral is very famous.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The intersection points of the squares and circles of the binding of this window are determined by the Fibonacci series, a proportion associated with many structures of the plant world, including rose flowers [237].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

During the Gothic period, a type of openwork ornament was created (or rather designed with the help of a ruler and a compass), called a maswerk, one of the elements of which was a rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A large place in Gothic was given to floral ornaments, thorny plants were especially often used, and rose hips were often depicted [235].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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An image of a Damascus rose, made to the smallest detail, can be seen on the bronze door at the entrance to the Florentine Baptistery, made by Ghiberti between 1403 and 1424.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose in applied art


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Since ancient times, rose has been used in painting ceramic products.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In ancient Greece and ancient Rome, mythological scenes were chosen as a drawing, but flowers were already present in them.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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As a rule, these were single flowers.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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On a ceramic medallion from 510—500 BC


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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, stored in the Archaeological Museum in Florence, depicts Eros flying with a rose flower in his hands.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Rose is an integral part of the products of masters of Russian folk art crafts (Zhostovo painting, Gzhel, Khokhloma, Gorodetsky painting), Ukrainian Petrikov painting.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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A special technique of depicting a rose in Zhostovo lacquer painting on metal trays is called the “Tagil rose”, since this craft first appeared in Nizhny Tagil.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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In the center of the tray, it is customary to draw a rose or other large garden flower, as well as rose hips [238].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Gzhel rose is the hallmark of Gzhel cobalt underglaze painting.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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The Dulyovo Porcelain Factory, located in the city of Likino-Dulyovo, was engaged in the production of porcelain using the Gzhel technique.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Dulev residents adopted the traditional manner of painting dishes with roses from Gzhel masters, but the Dulev rose contains mainly four colors and gold instead of one blue, and the signature Dulev rose is pink- purple.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Dulevo rose is called “agashka” after the most common name of craftsmen who were engaged in hand painting products of the Dulyov factory [239].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Gorodetskaya and Petrikov painting is a painting of wooden products, although originally Petrikov painting was used to decorate the walls.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The main compositional motifs of Petrikov's painting are decorative panels resembling manufactory carpets of the 19th century.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

It is dominated by floral ornament, in which a rose is often present.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In Gorodets painting, floral ornament is also often used, and tempera is the main material.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose is drawn schematically in a peculiar manner of writing.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In 1824-1827, the Yusupov porcelain factory in Arkhangelskoye produced a series of plates “Roses” with rose drawings made exactly according to Redute's illustrations.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A dessert service with drawings of roses from the Josephine and rose hips collection is kept in the Pink Pavilion of the Pavlovsk Palace.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

It was presented to Empress Dowager Maria Fedorovna in 1820 by the wife of Emperor Alexander I and called the “Rose Pavilion Service” [240].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose has become an element of vegetative-geometric ornaments of Ukrainian folk embroidery since the 18th century, and since the 20th century it has become an element of plant-naturalistic ornaments.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

If in the first case a stylized image of a rose was used, in the second case it was a naturalistic image [241].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The favorite plot of Torzhok gold embroidery (embroidery with gold threads) is a rose branch with flowers, buds and leaves [242].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The spread of rose cross stitch among the common people of Ukraine and Russia at the end of the XIX century was facilitated by the soap company Brocar & K°, whose products at that time were very popular and wrapped in a package with printed embroidery patterns.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The motifs of Ukrainian embroidery are close to the embroidery of the peoples of Southern Europe [241].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A special place in all Russian folk paintings and embroideries was occupied by a bathing suit, or swimsuit.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

This name was kept until the middle of the XIX century, that is, before the appearance of French garden roses in Russia, and later this element was called “rosan” or “rose” for its resemblance to a real rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose, or “face”, is present on traditional “Easter eggs” of Ukrainian Polissya [241].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In the Alpine countries, in the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a custom to paint chests that served as dowries to brides, blooming rose branches and grapes [195].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The method of cutting gemstones is called a rose cut, and a distinction is made between a Dutch rose, an Antwerp rose, a semi-Dutch rose, a double Dutch rose and others [243].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose is such a vivid symbol that even in mathematics, the curve was called a rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose in numismatics


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The image of a rose is found on a silver coin of Rhodes, dating back to 500-400 BC. e.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

[244] The goddess of the island is considered to be the nymph Rhoda, wife of Helios, according to the ancient Greek legend of the founder of the island.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The symbol of Rhoda was a rose, from its name the name of Rhoda came from, and the name of the goddess, in turn, gave the name to the island [245].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

One of the rare Russian silver coins minted in 1736 with a denomination of one ruble depicts Anna Ioannovna with a rose flower in her hand.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The stamp for it was made by Gedlinger I. K. [246]


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose in heraldry


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Since the 12th century, the rose has been introduced into heraldry and has become one of its most stable signs.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A rose in heraldry could be gold, silver, red, white and even blue [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Heraldry uses a stylized wild rose with five petals.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

It can be depicted with thorns and a core, it can be true, that is, depicted with sepals and a golden core.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A rose can also have a branch and leaves.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In Russia, in the XVIII-XIX centuries, not a stylized, but a natural rose was used [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The much earlier use of the rose on Rhodes as an emblem (depicted on coins, seals, medals, etc.) can be attributed to the nascent state heraldry and therefore the rose can be considered one of the most ancient heraldic figures [247].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In England, the red rose was the emblem of Lancaster, and the white rose was the emblem of the York dynasty that was at odds with it (the War of the Scarlet and White Rose).


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

After the reconciliation of these dynasties, the rose appeared in the coat of arms of King Henry VII of England, and later became a traditional heraldic figure in England, the so-called Tudor Rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The transformation of the rose into an English emblem occurred after the Crusades and the participation of King Richard the Lionheart in them.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose became even more entrenched as an emblem in England after the Pope twice presented a golden rose to the English kings.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The Tudor Rose is now the semi-official emblem of England [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The image of the rose can be seen on the coats of arms and flags of Hampshire, Lancashire, Leicestershire, Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, Cumbria, Northamptonshire.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Three red roses are depicted on the coat of arms and flag of the city of Roosendaal in the Netherlands.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Three red roses are depicted on the coat of arms of the French city of Grenoble.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The red rose is the emblem of the England national rugby team.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The scarlet rose is the emblem of the Socialist International and its member parties.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

It is depicted natural in both shape and color along with the branch.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Individual parties vary this emblem, changing the number of leaves, size and apparent number of petals.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The Swedish Social Democratic Party depicts a rose with a scarlet contour inscribed in a circle [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The English rose, along with burdock (Scotland) and narcissus (Wales), is depicted on the national emblem of Canada at the feet of the shield holders, thereby indicating which states laid the foundation for the Canadian States [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A blooming rose hip is depicted on the coat of arms of the Canadian province of Alberta.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The coat of arms of Finland depicts nine white roses [200].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Four white roses are present on the coats of arms of Örebro and Östergötland County in Sweden.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The white rose is a component of the Lutheran emblem — the Luther Rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

One of the most famous petroglyphs of the Camonica Valley was named the Kamun rose for its resemblance to a flower.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The stylized Kamun rose has become a symbol of Lombardy and is depicted on its flag.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose blooming on the cross is the emblem of the Order of the Rosicrucians.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose is depicted on the coats of arms of the Baron Rosen dynasty, dating back to the 13th century.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The coat of arms and emblem of the Rosenberg family is a red five-petalled rose in silver frame.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

A stylized yellow rose is depicted on the coat of arms of the Krasnoselsky rural settlement of Krasnodar Krai and indicates that almost all residents of the settlement are engaged in breeding roses.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The coat of arms of Severodvinsk, Arkhangelsk Region, depicts a scarlet rose hip flower.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

There is an opinion that the rose hip flower symbolizes the propeller of the nuclear submarine and, in addition, it is a flower symbol of the first name of the place on the site of the future city of Severodvinsk - “Pink”.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

This is the name of the island of Yagra by the members of the English expedition of Richard Chansler in 1553, because of the surprise when landing ashore by the large number of rose hips


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose like a national flower


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose has been the national flower of the United States [200] [248] since 1986 [249].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

In addition, the rose is the national flower of the states of the United States: - Iowa since 1897 and North Dakota since 1907, - Georgia since 1916 and the rose in general - New York since 1955.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

'American Beauty' rose variety is Washington's national flower [250].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Needled rose hips have been the national flower of Alberta, Canada since 1930 [251].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose is the national flower of England, dog rose hips in Hampshire [252], red rose - Lancashire.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The red rose has been the national flower of Lancashire County since the Middle Ages, when the Lancasters chose it as a heraldic sign [253].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose is a symbol and semi-official emblem of Bulgaria [200] [223].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The Chinese rose is a symbol of Beijing [200] [254].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The rose has been the national flower of the Maldives since 1985, although it does not grow there, but is imported from Sri Lanka and India [255].


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose in other botanical names


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The Chinese rose, unlike the Chinese rose, belongs to the Malvo-colored order.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

An alpine rose (not to be confused with an alpine rose) is called a rhododendron, which belongs to the order of Heather.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

If the previous plants were called “rose” for their beautiful flowers, the Jericho rose is for the shape of the plant itself.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

It belongs to the order of Cabbage flowers.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The stone rose belongs to the Saxifrage order.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The leaf rosette of this plant resembles a rose, and the adjective “stone” indicates its ability to grow on rocks.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rose in place names


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

There are many place names associated with the rose.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

The most famous ones are:


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Santa Rosa and Santa Rosa are common place names in honor of Saint Rose of Lima in Latin America.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Monte Rosa is a mountain range, part of the Pennines.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Rosenheim is an ancient city in Bavaria, famous for its botanical garden.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Gulistan has many place names of Iranian origin, including the center of the Syrdarya region of Uzbekistan.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Notes


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Literature


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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— P. 163—167.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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— P. 449—476.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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— P. 616-625.


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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— P. 270-278.


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CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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— P. 329—361.


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CS1 maint: Date and year (link)


Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

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Question: What kind of climate does rose hips grow in?

Rosehip

Category:Flora of Eurasia


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

A nuclear reactor is a device designed to organize a controlled self-sustaining fission chain reaction, which is always accompanied by the release of energy.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The first nuclear reactor was built and launched in December 1942 in the United States under the leadership of E.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Fermi.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The first reactor built outside the United States was ZEEP, which was launched in Canada on September 5, 1945 [1].


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In Europe, the first nuclear reactor was the F-1 unit, which was launched on December 25, 1946 in Moscow under the leadership of I. IN. Kurchatova [2].


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

By 1978, about a hundred nuclear reactors of various types were already in operation in the world.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

History


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The theoretical group “Uranium Project” of Nazi Germany, working at the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, was headed by Weizsacker, but only formally.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Heisenberg became the actual leader, developing the theoretical foundations of the chain reaction, while Weizsacker and a group of participants focused on creating the “uranium machine” — the first reactor.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In the late spring of 1940, one of the group's scientists, Hartek, conducted the first experiment trying to create a chain reaction using uranium oxide and a solid graphite moderator.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

However, the fissile material available was not enough to achieve this goal.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In 1941, at the University of Leipzig, a member of the Heisenberg group, Döpel, built a stand with a heavy-water moderator, in experiments on which by May 1942 it was possible to achieve production neutrons in an amount greater than their absorption.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

German scientists managed to achieve a full-fledged chain reaction in February 1945 in an experiment conducted in a mine workings near Heigerloch.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

However, a few weeks later, Germany's nuclear program ceased to exist [3] [4].


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The chain reaction of nuclear fission (briefly, a chain reaction) was first carried out in December 1942.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

A group of physicists from the University of Chicago, led by E.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Fermi, created the world's first nuclear reactor, called the Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

It consisted of graphite blocks, between which were placed balls of natural uranium and its dioxide.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Fast neutrons that appeared after the fission of 235U nuclei slowed down by graphite to thermal energies, and then caused new nuclear fissions.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Reactors like SR-1, in which the bulk of fissions occur under the influence of thermal neutrons, are called thermal neutron reactors.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

They contain a lot of moderator compared to nuclear fuel.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In the USSR, theoretical and experimental studies of the features of the launch, operation and control of reactors were carried out by a group of physicists and engineers led by Academician I. IN. Kurchatova.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The first Soviet F-1 reactor was built in Laboratory No. 2 of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Moscow).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This reactor was put into critical condition on December 25, 1946.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The F-1 reactor was assembled from graphite blocks and had the shape of a ball with a diameter of about 7.5 m. Uranium rods are placed in the central part of the ball with a diameter of 6 m along the holes in the graphite blocks.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The F-1 reactor, like the CP-1 reactor, did not have a cooling system, so it operated at very low power levels.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The results of research at the F-1 reactor became the basis for projects of industrial reactors that are more complex in design.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In 1948, the I-1 reactor (according to other sources it was called A-1) for the production of plutonium was put into operation, and on June 27, 1954, the world's first nuclear power plant with an electric capacity of 5 MW in g. Obninsk.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The device and principle of operation


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Energy release mechanism


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The transformation of a substance is accompanied by the release of free energy only if the substance has a reserve of energy.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The latter means that microparticles of matter are in a state with a rest energy greater than in another possible transition to which there is.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Spontaneous transition is always hampered by an energy barrier, to overcome which the microparticle must receive from the outside a certain amount of energy — excitation energy.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The exoenergetic reaction consists in the fact that in the transformation following the excitation, more energy is released than is required to excite the process.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

There are two ways to overcome the energy barrier: either by the kinetic energy of the colliding particles, or by the binding energy of the joining particle.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

If we take into account the macroscopic scales of energy release, then all or at least some fraction of the particles of the substance must have the kinetic energy necessary to initiate reactions.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This is achievable only when the temperature of the medium rises to a value at which the energy of thermal motion approaches the value of the energy threshold that limits the course of the process.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In the case of molecular transformations, that is, chemical reactions, this increase is usually hundreds of Kelvin, while in the case of nuclear reactions it is a minimum of 107 K due to the very high height of the Coulomb barriers of colliding nuclei.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Thermal excitation of nuclear reactions is carried out in practice only during the synthesis of the lightest nuclei, in which Coulomb barriers are minimal (thermonuclear fusion).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Excitation by joining particles does not require large kinetic energy, and, therefore, does not depend on the temperature of the medium, since it occurs due to unused bonds inherent in particles forces of attraction.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

But the particles themselves are needed to stimulate reactions.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

And if again we take into account not a separate act of reaction, but the production of energy on a macroscopic scale, then this is possible only when a chain reaction occurs.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The latter occurs when the particles that excite the reaction reappear as products of an exoenergetic reaction.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Design


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Any nuclear reactor consists of the following parts:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

A core with nuclear fuel and a moderator;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Neutron reflector surrounding the core;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Heat carrier;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Chain reaction control system, including emergency protection;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Radiation protection;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Remote control system.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Physical principles of work


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

See also the main articles:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Neutron multiplication factor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Nuclear reactor reactivity


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The current state of a nuclear reactor can be characterized by an effective neutron multiplication factor k or reactivity ρ, which are related by the following relationship:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

ρ


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

{\ displaystyle\ rho = {{k-1}\ over k}}


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

These values are characterized by the following values:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k > 1 — the chain reaction increases over time, the reactor is in a supercritical state, its reactivity ρ > 0;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k < 1 — reaction decays, reactor — subcritical, ρ < 0;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k = 1, ρ = 0 — the number of nuclear fissions is constant, the reactor is in a stable critical state.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Nuclear reactor criticality condition:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

w


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

{\ displaystyle k=k_ {0} w=1}


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

where


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

w


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

{\ displaystyle w}


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

there is a fraction of the total number of neutrons formed in the reactor absorbed in the reactor core, or the probability of avoiding the neutron leakage from the final volume.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k0 is the neutron multiplication factor in the core of infinitely large sizes.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The conversion of the multiplication factor to one is achieved by balancing the multiplication of neutrons with their losses.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

There are actually two reasons for the losses: capture without fission and leakage of neutrons outside the breeding medium.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

A CONTROLLED chain reaction of nuclear fission is possible under certain conditions.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In the process of fission of fuel nuclei, instantaneous neutrons appear, which are formed directly at the time of nuclear fission, and delayed neutrons emitted by fission fragments during their radioactive disintegration.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The lifetime of instantaneous neutrons is very short, so even modern reactor control systems and controls cannot maintain the required neutron multiplication factor only due to instantaneous neutrons.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The lifetime of delayed neutrons ranges from 0.1 to 10 seconds.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Due to the significant lifetime of delayed neutrons, the control system manages to move the absorber rods, thereby maintaining the required neutron multiplication factor (reactivity).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The ratio of the number of delayed neutrons that caused the fission reaction in a given generation to the total number of neutrons that caused the fission reaction in a given generation is called the effective fraction of delayed neutrons — βef.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Thus, the following scenarios for the development of a fission chain reaction are possible:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

1. ρ<0, Kef<1 — the reactor is subcritical, the reaction intensity decreases, the reactor power decreases;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

2. ρ=0, Kef=1 — the reactor is critical, the reaction intensity and reactor power are constant;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

3. ρ>0, Kef>1 — the reactor is supercritical, the reaction intensity and reactor power increase.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In the last (3) case, two fundamentally different states of the supercritical reactor are possible:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

0<ρ<βef — with a reactivity greater than zero, but less than the effective fraction of delayed neutrons — βef, the chain reaction proceeds at a rate determined by the neutron delay time (i.e. the reactor is subcritical on instantaneous neutrons, and the required supercriticality is achieved due to the birth of delayed neutrons).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

At the same time, the fission reaction is CONTROLLED;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

ρ>βef — when the reactor reactivity exceeds the effective fraction of delayed neutrons, the reactor becomes critical on instantaneous neutrons, the power of the fission chain reaction begins exponentially to increase.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The power build-up time is so short that no control systems (including emergency ones) have time to work, and power growth can be limited only by physical processes occurring in active zone.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

For example, in a thermal reactor, this is a decrease in the neutron capture cross section with increasing temperature, which is one of the physical reasons for the negative power coefficient of reactivity.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

It is obvious that k < k0, since in the final volume due to leakage, the loss of neutrons is necessarily greater than in the infinite volume.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Therefore, if in a substance of this composition k0 < 1, then a self-sustaining chain reaction is impossible both in infinite and in any final volume.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Thus, k0 determines the fundamental ability of the medium to multiply neutrons.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k0 for thermal reactors can be determined by the so-called “4-factor formula”:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

k


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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μ


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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τ


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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θ


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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η


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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{\ displaystyle k_ {0} =\ mu\ phi\ theta\ eta}


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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where


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

μ — fast neutron multiplication factor;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

φ is the probability of avoiding resonant capture;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

θ is the utilization factor of thermal neutrons;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

η is the neutron output to one absorption.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The volumes of modern power reactors can reach hundreds of m³ and are determined mainly not by criticality conditions, but by the capabilities of heat removal.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The critical volume of a nuclear reactor is the volume of the reactor core in a critical state.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Critical mass is the mass of the fissile substance of the reactor in a critical state.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The lowest critical mass is possessed by reactors in which aqueous solutions of salts of pure fissile isotopes with a water reflector of neutrons serve as fuel.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

For 235U, this weight is 0.8 kg, for 239Pu it is 0.5 kg. It is widely known, however, that the critical mass for the LOPO reactor (the world's first enriched uranium reactor), which had a beryllium oxide reflector, was 0.565 kg, despite the fact that the enrichment in isotope 235 was only slightly more than 14%.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Theoretically, 251Cf has the lowest critical mass, for which this value is only 10 g.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In order to reduce neutron leakage, the core is given a spherical or close to spherical shape, for example, a short cylinder or cube, since these figures have the smallest area ratio surfaces to volume.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Despite the fact that the value (e — 1) is usually small, the role of multiplication on fast neutrons is quite large, since for large nuclear reactors (K∞ — 1) << 1. Without this process, it would be impossible to create the first graphite reactors on natural uranium.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Neutrons generated by spontaneous fission of uranium nuclei are usually sufficient to start a chain reaction.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

It is also possible to use an external neutron source to start the reactor, for example, a mixture of Ra and Be, 252Cf or other substances.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Iodine pit


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Iodine pit or xenon poisoning is a state of a nuclear reactor after its shutdown, characterized by the accumulation of a short-lived isotope of xenon 135Xe, which is the product of the decay of the isotope iodine - 135 (which is why this process got its name).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The high cross-section of thermal neutron capture by xenon-135 leads to the temporary appearance of significant negative reactivity, which, in turn, makes it difficult to bring the reactor to the design capacity for a certain period (about 1-2 days) after the reactor is shut down.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Grading


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By purpose


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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According to the nature of their use, nuclear reactors are divided into [5] [6] [7]:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Power reactors designed to produce electrical and thermal energy used in power engineering, as well as for desalination of seawater (desalination reactors are also classified as industrial ).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Such reactors are mainly used at nuclear power plants.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The thermal capacity of modern power reactors reaches 5 GW.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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A separate group is distinguished:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Transport reactors designed to supply energy to vehicle engines.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The widest application groups are marine transport reactors used on submarines and various surface vessels, as well as reactors used in space technology.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Experimental reactors designed to study various physical quantities, the value of which is necessary for the design and operation of nuclear reactors; the capacity of such reactors does not exceed several kW.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Research reactors in which neutron and gamma ray fluxes created in the core are used for research in the field of nuclear physics, solid state physics, radiation chemistry, biology, for testing materials intended for operation in intensive neutron fluxes (including parts of nuclear reactors), for the production of isotopes.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The capacity of research reactors does not exceed 100 MW.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

As a rule, the released energy is not used.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Industrial (weapon, isotopic) reactors used to produce isotopes used in various fields.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The most widely used for the production of nuclear weapons materials, such as 239Pu.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Industrial reactors also include reactors used for desalination of seawater.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Reactors are often used to solve two or more different tasks, in which case they are called multi-purpose reactors.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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For example, some power reactors, especially at the dawn of nuclear power, were intended mainly for experiments.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Fast neutron reactors can be both energy and produce isotopes at the same time.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Industrial reactors, in addition to their main task, often generate electrical and thermal energy.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By neutron spectrum


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Thermal (slow) neutron reactor (“thermal reactor”)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Fast neutron reactor (“fast reactor”)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Intermediate neutron reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Mixed spectrum reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By fuel placement


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Heterogeneous reactors, where fuel is placed in the core discretely in the form of blocks, between which there is a moderator;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Homogeneous reactors, where the fuel and the moderator represent a homogeneous mixture (homogeneous system).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In a heterogeneous reactor, fuel and a moderator can be spatially separated, in particular, in a cavity reactor, a moderator-reflector surrounds a cavity with fuel that does not contain a moderator.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

From a nuclear physical point of view, the criterion for homogeneity/heterogeneity is not the design, but the placement of fuel blocks at a distance exceeding the neutron deceleration length in a given retarder.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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For example, reactors with a so-called “tight grid” are calculated as homogeneous, although in them fuel is usually separated from the moderator.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Nuclear fuel units in a heterogeneous reactor are called fuel assemblies (FA), which are located in the core in the nodes of the regular grid, forming cells.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By type of fuel


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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235U, 238U, 233U uranium isotopes


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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239Pu plutonium isotope, also 239-242Pu isotopes mixed with 238U (MOX fuel)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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232Th thorium isotope (via conversion to 233U)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By degree of enrichment:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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natural uranium


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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weakly enriched uranium


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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highly enriched uranium


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By chemical composition:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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metal U


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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UO2 (uranium dioxide)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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UC (uranium carbide), etc.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By type of coolant


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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H2O (water, see Fig. Water-to-water reactor)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Gas (see Fig. Graphite gas reactor)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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D2O (heavy water, see Fig. Heavy water nuclear reactor, CANDU)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Organic heat carrier reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Reactor with liquid metal coolant


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Melt salt reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Solid heat carrier reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By type of retarder


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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C (graphite, see Fig. Graphite-gas reactor, Graphite-water reactor)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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H2O (water, see Fig. Light water reactor, Water-water reactor, VVER)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Be, BeO


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Metal hydrides


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Without retarder (see Fig. Fast neutron reactor)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By design


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Both variants are subspecies of heterogeneous reactors:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Vessel reactors


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Channel reactors


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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By steam generation method


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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A reactor with an external steam generator (see Fig. Water-water reactor, VVER)


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Boiling reactor


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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IAEA Classification


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The International Atomic Energy Agency uses the following classification of the main types of nuclear power reactors in accordance with the coolant and moderator materials used in them [8]:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

PWR (pressurized water reactor) is a pressurized water reactor in which light water is both a coolant and a moderator (for example, VVER);


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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BWR (boiling water reactor) is a boiling reactor in which, unlike PWR, the formation of steam supplied to the turbines occurs directly in the reactor;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

FBR (fast breeder reactor) is a fast breeder reactor that does not require a moderator;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

GCR (gas-cooled reactor) is a gas-cooled reactor.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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As a rule, graphite is used as a retarder;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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LWGR (light water graphite reactor) is a graphite-water reactor, for example, RBMK;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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PHWR (pressed heavy water reactor) — heavy water reactor;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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HTGR (high-temperature gas-cooled) — high-temperature gas-cooled reactor;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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HWGCR (heavy-water-moderated, gas-cooled reactor) is a gas-cooled reactor with a heavy-water moderator;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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HWLWR (heavy-water-moderated, boiling light-water-cooled reactor) is a boiling reactor with a heavy water moderator;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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— modular reactor with ball fuel elements;


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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SGHWR (Steam-Generating Heavy-Water Reactor) is a boiling heavy water reactor.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The most common in the world are water-water (about 62%) and boiling (20%) reactors.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Reactor materials


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The materials from which the reactors are built operate at high temperatures in the field of neutrons, γ-quanta and fission fragments.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Therefore, not all materials used in other branches of technology are suitable for reactor construction.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

When selecting reactor materials, their radiation resistance, chemical inertness, absorption cross-section and other properties are taken into account.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Fuel element shells, channels, retarders (reflectors) are made of materials with small absorption sections.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The use of materials that poorly absorb neutrons reduces the unproductive consumption of neutrons, reduces the load of nuclear fuel and increases the reproduction factor of HF. On the contrary, materials with a large absorption cross-section are suitable for absorbing rods.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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This significantly reduces the number of rods required to control the reactor.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Fast neutrons, γ-quanta and fission fragments damage the structure of matter.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Thus, in a solid matter, fast neutrons knock atoms out of the crystal lattice or move them off.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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As a result, the plastic properties and thermal conductivity of materials deteriorate.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Complex molecules under the influence of radiation break down into simpler molecules or composite atoms.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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For example, water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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This phenomenon is known as radiolysis of water.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Radiation instability of materials is less affected at high temperatures.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The mobility of atoms becomes so high that the probability of atoms knocked out of the crystal lattice returning to their place or the recombination of hydrogen and oxygen into the water molecule is noticeable is increasing.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Thus, radiolysis of water is insignificant in power non-boiling reactors (for example, VVER), while a significant amount of explosive mixture is released in powerful research reactors.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Nuclear power plants have special systems for burning it.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Reactor materials are in contact with each other (fuel element shell with coolant and nuclear fuel, fuel cassettes with coolant and moderator, etc.).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Naturally, the contacting materials must be chemically inert (compatible).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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An example of incompatibility is uranium and hot water, which react chemically.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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For most materials, the strength properties deteriorate sharply with increasing temperature.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In power reactors, structural materials operate at high temperatures.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This limits the choice of structural materials, especially for those parts of the power reactor that must withstand high pressure.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Burnout and reproduction of nuclear fuel


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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During the operation of a nuclear reactor, due to the accumulation of fission fragments in the fuel, its isotopic and chemical composition changes, and transuranic elements, mainly Pu isotopes, are formed.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The effect of fission fragments on the reactivity of a nuclear reactor is called poisoning (for radioactive fragments) and slagging (for stable isotopes).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The main cause of reactor poisoning is 135Xe, which has the largest neutron absorption cross section (2.6 × 106 barn).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Half-life 135Xe T1/2 = 9.2 h; fission yield is 6-7%.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The main part of 135Xe is formed as a result of the decay of 135I (T1/2 = 6.8 h).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

When poisoned, the Kef changes by 1-3%.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The large absorption cross section of 135Xe and the presence of an intermediate isotope 135I lead to two important phenomena:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

To an increase in the concentration of 135Xe and, consequently, to a decrease in the reactivity of the reactor after its shutdown or decrease in power (“iodine pit”), which makes short-term shutdowns and oscillations impossible output power.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This effect is overcome by introducing a reactivity reserve in regulatory bodies.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The depth and duration of the iodine well depend on the neutron flux F: at F = 5 × 1018 neutron/ (cm²·sec), the duration of the iodine well is 30 hours, and the depth is 2 times higher than the stationary change in Kef, caused by 135Xe poisoning.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Due to poisoning, spatio-temporal oscillations of the neutron flux F, and, consequently, the reactor power, can occur.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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These oscillations occur at F > 1018 neutrons/ (cm²·sec) and large reactor sizes.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Oscillation periods 10 h.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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When nuclei fission, a large number of stable fragments appear, which differ in absorption cross-sections compared to the absorption cross section of the fissile isotope.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The concentration of fragments with a large absorption cross-section reaches saturation during the first few days of reactor operation.


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Nuclear reactor

This is mainly 149Sm, which changes the Kef by 1%).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The concentration of fragments with a small absorption cross-section value and the negative reactivity introduced by them increase linearly in time.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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The formation of transuranic elements in a nuclear reactor occurs according to the following schemes:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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235U + n → 236U + n → 237U → (7 day) → 237Np+ n → 238Np → (2.1 day) → 238Pu


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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238U + n → 239U → (23 min) → 239Np → (2.3 day) → 239Pu (+ fragments) + n → 240Pu+n → 241Pu (+ fragments) + n → 242Pu + n → 243Pu → (5 h) → 243Am + n → 244Am → (26 min) → 244Cm


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The time between the arrows indicates the half-life, “+n” denotes the absorption of the neutron.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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At the beginning of the reactor operation, a linear accumulation of 239Pu occurs, and the faster (with a fixed burnout of 235U), the less uranium enrichment.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Further, the concentration of 239Pu tends to a constant value, which does not depend on the degree of enrichment, but is determined by the ratio of the neutron capture cross sections 238U and 239Pu.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The characteristic time for establishing the equilibrium concentration of 239Pu is ~ 3/F years (F in units 1013 neutrons/cm²×sec).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Isotopes 240Pu, 241Pu reach equilibrium concentration only when fuel is re-burned in a nuclear reactor after the regeneration of nuclear fuel.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Burnout of nuclear fuel is characterized by the total energy released in the reactor per 1 ton of fuel.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This value is:


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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10 GW·day/t heavy water reactors


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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20-30 GW·day/t — weakly enriched uranium reactors (2—3% 235U);


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up to 100 GW·day/t — fast neutron reactors.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Burnout of 1 GW·day/t corresponds to the combustion of 0.1% of nuclear fuel.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

As the fuel burns out, the reactor reactivity decreases.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Burnt fuel is replaced immediately from the entire core or gradually, leaving fuel rods of different “ages” in operation.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In case of complete fuel replacement, the reactor has excess reactivity, which must be compensated, while in the second case compensation is required only at the first start of the reactor.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Continuous overload makes it possible to increase the burnout depth, since the reactivity of the reactor is determined by the average concentrations of fissile isotopes.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The mass of the loaded fuel exceeds the mass of the unloaded fuel due to the “weight” of the released energy.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

After stopping the reactor, first mainly due to fission by delayed neutrons, and then, after 1-2 minutes, due to β- and γ-radiation of fission fragments and transuranic elements, in the fuel the release of energy continues.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

If the reactor worked long enough before the shutdown, then 2 minutes after the shutdown, the energy release is about 3%, after 1 hour — 1%, after a day — 0.4%, after a year — 0.05% of the initial capacity.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The ratio of the number of fissile Pu isotopes formed in a nuclear reactor to the amount of burnt out 235U is called the KK conversion coefficient.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The KK value increases with a decrease in enrichment and burnout.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

For a heavy water natural uranium reactor, with a burnout of 10 GW·day/t KK = 0.55, and for small burnouts (in this case KK is called the initial plutonium coefficient) KK = 0.8.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

If a nuclear reactor burns and produces the same isotopes (breeder reactor), then the ratio of the reproduction rate to the burnout rate is called the HF reproduction coefficient. In thermal neutron nuclear reactors KV < 1, and for fast neutron reactors, HF can reach 1.4-1.5.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The growth of HF for fast neutron reactors is mainly due to the fact that, especially in the case of 239Pu, for fast neutrons g increases and falls.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

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Nuclear reactor control


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Control of a nuclear reactor is possible only due to the fact that part of the neutrons during fission fly out of fragments with a delay that can range from a few milliseconds to several minutes.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

To control the reactor, absorbing rods are used, introduced into the core, made of materials that strongly absorb neutrons (mainly B, Cd, etc.) and/or a solution of boric acid, in a certain concentration added to the coolant (boron regulation).


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

The movement of the rods is controlled by special mechanisms, drives operating on signals from the operator or equipment for automatic control of the neutron flux.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Nuclear reactors are designed so that at any time the fission process is in stable equilibrium with respect to small changes in parameters affecting reactivity.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Thus, a random change in the rate of a nuclear reaction is extinguished, and caused by the movement of control rods or a slow change in other parameters leads to a quasi-stationary change reactor capacity


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

In case of various emergency situations, each reactor provides for an emergency cessation of the chain reaction, carried out by dropping all absorbing rods into the core - an emergency system protection.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Residual heat dissipation


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

An important issue directly related to nuclear safety is residual heat generation.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This is a specific feature of nuclear fuel, which consists in the fact that, after the cessation of the fission chain reaction and the thermal inertia usual for any energy source, the release of heat in the reactor continues for a long time, which creates a number of technically complex problems.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Residual heat generation is a consequence of β- and γ- decomposition of fission products that have accumulated in the fuel during the reactor operation.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Due to decay, the nuclei of fission products go into a more stable or completely stable state with the release of significant energy.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

Although the residual heat generation capacity quickly drops to values that are small compared to stationary values, in high-power power reactors it is significant in absolute values.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

For this reason, residual heat generation entails the need to provide heat removal from the reactor core for a long time after it is stopped.


Question: When was the world's first nuclear reactor launched?

Nuclear reactor

This task requires the presence in the design of the reactor installation of cooling systems with reliable power supply, and also necessitates long-term (within 3-4 years) storage of the spent nuclear fuel in storage facilities with a special temperature regime — storage pools, which are usually located in the immediate vicinity of the reactor [9] [10] [11] [12].