Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It also supports isolated testing of individual parts of the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

One of the advantages of the library is the separation of testing macros into assertions and errors, which can make debugging easier.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Scope of application


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The language is widely used in the development of operating systems, at the level of the application interface of operating systems, in embedded systems, as well as for creating high-performance or critical code error handling plan.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

One of the reasons for the widespread use for low-level programming is the ability to write cross-platform code that can be processed differently on different hardware and on different operating systems.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The ability to write high-performance code is ensured by the programmer's complete freedom of action and the lack of strict control by the compiler.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, the first implementations of Java, Python, Perl, and PHP were written in C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, in many programs, the most resource-demanding parts are usually written in C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Programs like Mathematica and MATLAB are partly or entirely written in C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C is also sometimes used as an intermediate language when compiling higher-level languages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, the first implementations of the C++, Objective-C and Go languages worked on this principle — code written in these languages was translated into an intermediate representation in C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Of the modern languages that work on the same principle, it is worth noting the Vala language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Descendant languages


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C language has been and remains one of the most widely used programming languages for more than forty years.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Naturally, its influence can be traced to one degree or another in many later languages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, among languages that have reached a certain distribution, Xi has few direct descendants.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Some descendant languages build C with additional tools and mechanisms that add support for new programming paradigms (OOP, functional programming, generalized programming and etc.).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

These languages include, first of all, C++ and Objective-C, and indirectly their descendants Swift and D. There are also attempts to improve C by correcting its most significant shortcomings, but preserving it attractive features.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Among them, we can mention the research language Cyclone (and its descendant Rust).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Sometimes both directions of development are combined in one language, an example is Go.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Separately, it is necessary to mention a whole group of languages that to a greater or lesser extent inherited the basic C syntax (using curly braces as code block limiters, description variables, characteristic forms of for, while, if, switch operators with parameters in brackets, combined operations ++, —, +=, -=, etc.), which is why programs in these languages have a characteristic appearance , which is associated specifically with Xi.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

These are languages such as Java, JavaScript, PHP, Perl, AWK, C#.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In fact, the structure and semantics of these languages are very different from C, and are usually intended for applications where the original C has never been used.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C++


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C++ programming language was created from C and inherited its syntax, adding new constructions in the spirit of Simula-67, Smalltalk, Modula-2, Ada, Mesa and Clu [41].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The main additions were support for OOP (class description, multiple inheritance, polymorphism based on virtual functions) and generalized programming (template mechanism).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

But in addition, many different additions have been made to the language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the moment, C++ is one of the most widely used programming languages in the world.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It is positioned as a universal language designed mainly for the development of large software systems.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Initially, C++ maintained compatibility with C, which was claimed as one of the advantages of the new language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The first C++ implementations simply translated new constructs into pure C, after which the code was processed by a regular C compiler.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

To maintain compatibility, the creators of C++ refused to exclude some of the often criticized features of C from it, instead creating new, “parallel” mechanisms that are recommended for use when developing new C++ code (templates instead of macro definitions, explicit type conversion instead of automatic, standard library containers instead of manual dynamic memory allocation, etc.) further).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, in the future, languages developed independently, and now C and C++ of the latest released standards are only partially compatible: the successful compilation of a C program by the C+ compiler is not guaranteed +, and if successful, there is no guarantee that the compiled program will work correctly.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Particularly unpleasant are some subtle semantic differences that can lead to different behavior of the same code that is syntactically correct for both languages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, character constants (characters enclosed in single quotes) are of type int in C and char in C++, so the amount of memory occupied by such constants varies from language to language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[42] If a program is sensitive to the size of a character constant, it will work differently when compiled by C and C++ translators.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Such differences make it difficult to write programs and libraries that could compile and work the same way in both C and C++, which, of course, confuses those who program in both languages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Among developers and users of both C and C++, there are supporters of reducing differences between languages as much as possible, which would objectively bring tangible benefits.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

There is, however, an opposite view that compatibility is not particularly important, although useful, and efforts to reduce incompatibilities should not hinder the improvement of each language separately.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Objective-C


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Another option for extending C by object means is the Objective-C language, created in 1983.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The object subsystem was borrowed from Smalltalk, and all elements associated with this subsystem are implemented in its own syntax, which is quite different from the C syntax (up to that in the description of classes, the syntax for declaring fields is the opposite of the syntax for describing variables in C: first you write the field name, then its type).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unlike C++, Objective-C is a superset of classic C, that is, it remains compatible with the source language; the correct C program is the correct Objective-C program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Another significant difference from the C++ ideology is that Objective-C implements the interaction of objects through the exchange of full-fledged messages, while C++ implements the concept of “sending a message as a method call.”


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Full message processing is much more flexible, and it is also naturally combined with parallel computing.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Objective-C, as well as its direct descendant Swift, are among the most popular on Apple-supported platforms.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Challenges and criticism


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C language is unique from the point of view that it became the first high-level language to seriously supplant assembler in the development of system software.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It remains a language implemented on the maximum number of hardware platforms and one of the most popular programming languages, especially in the free software world [43].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Nevertheless, the language has many drawbacks, and since its inception it has been criticized by many specialists.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

General criticism


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Not only critics, but also adherents of Xi admit that the language is very complex and filled with dangerous elements that are very easy to misuse.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

With its structure and rules, it does not support programming aimed at creating reliable and maintainable program code, on the contrary, it was born in the era of direct programming for different processors, the language contributes to writing unsafe and confusing code.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Many professional programmers tend to believe that the C language is a powerful tool for creating elegant programs, but at the same time it can be used to create extremely low-quality solutions [44] [45] .


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Due to different assumptions in the language, programs can compile with multiple errors, which often leads to unpredictable program behavior.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Modern compilers provide options for static code analysis [46] [47], but even they are not able to detect all possible errors.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The result of illiterate C programming can be software vulnerabilities, which can affect the safety of its use.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C has a fairly high entry threshold, which makes it difficult to use it in learning as the first programming language [43].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Finally, for more than 40 years of its existence, the language has become somewhat outdated, and it is quite problematic to use many modern programming techniques and paradigms in it.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Disadvantages of individual language elements


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Primitive support for modularity


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C language does not have the concept of module and corresponding mechanisms.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Individual files and libraries can act as modules.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

To use data from another file or library, you must declare a function prototype or export a variable, and a description of the structures and data types of the other file, if required, is necessary duplicate within the calling file.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It is customary to place such exported data in separate header files.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Connecting header files via #include macro substitution allows you to simulate modular mechanisms.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, if the exported data is mistakenly different from what is used in the attached files or libraries, you may experience errors in the build phase, as well as all kinds of errors runtime: from stack and heap corruption to segmentation errors.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Since the #include directive only inserts the text of one file into another, the inclusion of a large number of header files leads to the fact that the actual amount of code that falls into to compile, which is the reason for the relatively low speed of C compilers.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The need to reconcile descriptions in the main module and header files makes it difficult to maintain the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Warnings instead of errors


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The language standard gives the programmer greater freedom of action, as well as a high chance of making mistakes.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Much of what a programmer cannot be allowed to do is allowed by the default language, and error correction is transferred to the programmer's shoulders using a warning system.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Despite the fact that modern compilers allow you to translate all warnings into an error class, by default they only issue warnings, without helping the programmer in writing high-quality and safe code, as warnings can be ignored if the program is running satisfactorily.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, an attempt to use the malloc function without attaching the stdlib.h header file to the C99 standard could lead to stack corruption, since calling a function without specifying its prototype was interpreted as a call to a function that returned int instead of void *, but only issued a warning, while the type sizes might differ.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

High entry threshold


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The language specification takes up more than 500 pages of text that you need to read in order to fully master the language and know its full capabilities.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, in practice, only a small part of these opportunities will be used by a programmer every day


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, you need to know some things that are not at all obvious in order to write error-free and high-quality code.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Thus, automatic conversion of operands of integer expressions to int type can lead in some cases to difficult to predict results, for example, when using:unsigned char binary operators x = 0xFF;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

unsigned char y = (~x | 0x1) >> 1;//Intuitively expected here 0x00


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

printf (“y = 0x%HHx\ n”, y);//0x80 will be output if sizeof (int) > sizeof (char)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The language itself is quite complex, which makes it quite difficult for inexperienced programmers to write high-quality code.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Combined with the fact that the language gives more freedom of action and allows you to compile programs with errors, issuing only warnings, the complexity of the language can lead to numerous errors and vulnerabilities.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Lack of control over variable initialization


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Automatically and dynamically created objects are not initialized by default and, after creation, contain values left in memory from objects that were previously there.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This value is completely unpredictable, changing from one machine to another, from start to run, from function call to call.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If the program uses this value due to accidental skipping of initialization, the result will be unpredictable and may not appear immediately.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Modern compilers try to diagnose this problem by static analysis of the source code, although in general, static analysis is extremely difficult to solve this problem.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Additional tools can be used to identify these problems at the testing stage during program execution: Valgrind and MemorySanitizer [48].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Lack of control over address arithmetic


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The source of dangerous situations is the compatibility of pointers with numeric types and the possibility of using address arithmetic without strict control at the compilation and execution stages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This makes it possible to get a pointer to any object, including executable code, and access this pointer, unless the system's memory protection mechanism prevents it from doing so.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Improper use of pointers can lead to undefined behavior of the program and lead to serious consequences.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, a pointer can be uninitialized or, as a result of incorrect arithmetic operations, point to an arbitrary memory location.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

On some platforms, working with such a pointer can force the program to stop, on others it can lead to corruption of arbitrary data in memory; the last error is dangerous because it the consequences are unpredictable and can occur at an arbitrary point in time, including much later than the moment of the actual erroneous action.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Access to arrays in C is also implemented using address arithmetic and does not imply means of checking the correctness of accessing array elements by index.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, expressions a [i] and i [a] are identical and are simply translated to* (a+ i), and there is no check for going beyond the boundaries of the array.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Referring to an index that exceeds the upper bound of the array results in accessing the data placed in memory after the array.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A special case of such an error is called a buffer overflow error.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

When this happens incorrectly, it can lead to unpredictable behavior of the program, and on some architectures, even to the crash of the operating system.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This feature is often used in exploits used to illegally access the memory of another application or kernel memory of the operating system.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Dynamically allocated memory


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Dynamic memory system functions (malloc (), calloc (), realloc (), free ()) give the developer full control over the memory used, but do not provide control over the correctness and timeliness of allocation and release.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Compliance with the correct procedure for working with dynamic memory is entirely the responsibility of the programmer.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Its errors, accordingly, can lead to access to incorrect addresses, for example, to areas of prematurely released memory, or to a memory leak when memory is not released, but a pointer to it is lost, and the memory cannot be freed or used until the program finishes running.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This is possible, for example, if the developer forgot to call free () (or the free () function) when required.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Also, functions for working with memory are presented in such a way that they encourage erroneous use.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

One of the common mistakes is the lack of NULL checks for the result of memory allocation functions (malloc (), calloc (), etc.), while memory may not be allocated if it is not enough, or if too much volume was requested.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A request for too much memory, for example, can occur due to the conversion of the number -1, obtained as a result of some erroneous mathematical operations, to the unfamiliar type size_t, with subsequent operations on it.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Another problem with memory functions is the undefined behavior when requesting memory allocation of zero memory size.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Memory allocation functions can return both NULL and the actual pointer value, depending on the specific implementation [49].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Some specific implementations and third-party libraries provide tools such as link counting and weak links [50], smart pointers, and limited forms of garbage collection, but all these tools are not standard, which naturally limits their use.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Inconvenient and insecure null-terminated strings


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For the language, null-terminated strings are standard, so all standard functions work with them, but this format was created in an era when compactness was more important performance.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Meanwhile, this format is no longer relevant, since it is easier to store the size together with the string.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Null-terminated strings are a common source of errors [51], since some language functions may not add a terminating zero at the end of the line [52], or the programmer himself may not add it by mistake add [53], and some functions do not have checks for the size of the target buffer at all [51].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Storing the size together with the string allows you to get line slices and work with them as with regular strings, which in case of text processing can lead to simplification of the program code due to the lack of the need to add a terminating zero to the end of substrings (for example, the strtok_r () function would be simplified).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Also, passing a string from function to function can lead to either frequent calls to the strlen () function to allocate memory, or periodic realloc () calls to increase the buffer size, which can also impact performance.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, string concatenation may involve allocating memory for a new line, and calculating the size of the final row requires knowing the size of the original strings.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, the language standard does not provide for the type of data where the size would be stored, nor functions for working with such strings.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unsafe implementation of functions with variable number of arguments


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Supporting functions with a variable number of arguments, C does not contain any means for determining the number and types of actual parameters passed to such a function, nor a mechanism for safe access to them.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It is the responsibility of the programmer to inform the function about the composition of the actual parameters, and to access their values, it is necessary to count the correct number of bytes from the address of the last fixed parameter in stack either manually or by using the va_arg macro set from the stdarg.h header file.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the operation of the mechanism of automatic implicit type conversion when calling functions [54], according to which integer types of arguments smaller than int are reduced to int (or unsigned int), and float is reduced to double.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

An error in calling or working with parameters inside a function will appear only during program execution, leading to unpredictable consequences, from reading incorrect data to corrupting the stack.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, this unsafe mechanism is widely used by the printf () and scanf () family of functions, which cannot recognize whether the programmer passed arguments correctly in accordance with the string format.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Many modern compilers check the list of arguments for each call, generating warnings when the argument list does not match the format string.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, in general, such a check is not possible, since each function with a variable number of arguments receives information about the list of arguments and processes this list of arguments in its own way.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It is impossible to statically control even all printf () function calls, since a format string can be created dynamically in the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Lack of unified error handling


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C language does not have any built-in error control mechanism.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The standard library contains only primitive tools:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

errno variable from the errno.h header file (in the case of POSIX, a macro)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

functions for displaying or receiving error messages according to errno codes.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Most standard library functions return a -1 marker instead of an error code, and the code itself needs to be retrieved from errno.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This approach does not provide any advantages when handling errors and forces you to write a lot of code of the same type.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The POSIX standard tried to fix this inconvenience, in whose functions it is customary to return an error code directly.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

But the result is several different ways to return the error code, which increases the risk of errors when writing programs as a result of the human factor.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The standard library also has a set of functions in which an error can occur, but the return value does not uniquely determine whether the error was returned or the correct value was returned.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Such functions set errno in case of an error, so you need to reset errno to 0 before executing them, otherwise errno may contain the error code from the execution of the previous one features.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, it is often necessary to analyze both the value returned by the function and the errno code itself, which significantly complicates the code [55].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In the standard library, errno codes are denoted through macro definitions and can store the same values, which makes it impossible to analyze error codes through the switch statement.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, the language uses int type as a data type for both storing the error code and the error flag, there is no special data type for storing the error code in the mandatory part of the standard .


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A separate errno_t type for storing error code appeared only in the K extension of the C11 standard and may not be supported by compilers [31].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Another problem with the C language is that setting errno in many functions, such as fopen (), fread (), and fwrite (), is not standardized and is entrusted to specific implementations of the standard library, which does not allow you to make fully cross-platform code by language alone.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The solution to this problem can be to create applications that are oriented to the POSIX standard, which explicitly states that functions should set errno by mistake, as well as specify some of the possible options mistakes.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Ways to overcome language flaws


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The shortcomings of C have long been well known, and since the beginning of the language, many attempts have been made to improve the quality and security of C code without sacrificing its capabilities.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Compilers, as a rule, use additional compilation options to perform limited static code analysis and issue warnings when they detect potential errors.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Some modern compilers support options for embedding additional checks into the code: going beyond the array, protecting the stack when calling functions, protecting against going beyond the allocated dynamic memory, protection from reading uninitialized variables, detection of cases of undefined behavior, etc. However, additional checks may affect the performance of the final application.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

There are special software tools for static analysis of C code to detect non-syntax errors.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Their use does not guarantee the infallibility of programs, but it allows you to identify a significant part of typical errors and potential vulnerabilities.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The maximum effect of these tools is achieved not with occasional use, but when used as part of a proven system of constant code quality control, for example, in systems of continuous integration and deployment.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

However, static analyzers can produce false results, so sometimes it may be necessary to annotate the code with special comments to prevent false positives from the system on certain code fragments that formally fall under the criteria of erroneous ones.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Secure programming standards


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

A significant number of studies have been published on correct C programming, from small articles to voluminous books.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

To maintain C code quality, corporate or industry regulations and standards are adopted.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Thus, the MISRA C standard, originally developed by the Motor Industry Software Reliability Association for the use of C in creating software for embedded vehicle systems, is known.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

MISRA C is now used in many industries, including military, medical and aerospace.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The 2013 edition contains 16 directives and 143 rules that include code requirements and restrictions on the use of certain language tools.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

For example, MISRA C prohibits the use of functions with a variable number of parameters.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

There are about a dozen MISRA C code validation tools on the market and several C compilers that check the limitations of this standard at the compilation stage.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

There is also a CERT C Coding Standard for secure C programming developed by the CERT coordination center.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The standard is aimed at improving the safety and reliability of computer systems [56].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

It provides rules and guidelines for developers, including examples of incorrect and correct code on a case-by-case basis.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

POSIX standard


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Another approach to addressing some of the language's shortcomings was the POSIX standard.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

This standard standardizes errno installation with many functions, allowing you to handle errors that occur, for example, in file functions, and also introduces thread-safe analogues of some functions of the standard library, safe versions of which are present in the language standard only in the K extension [57].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

See also


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

C++


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

C—


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Cyclone programming language


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

C Standard Library


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

C memory model


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Notes


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Literature


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

References


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

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Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

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Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Gabrielle Bonheur (Coco) Chanel (French: Gabrielle Bonheur “Coco” Chanel; August 19, 1883 — January 10, 1971) was a French fashion designer who founded the Chanel fashion house and provided significant influence on European fashion of the 20th century.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel's style, which contributed to the simplification of women's suit, is characterized by borrowing elements of the traditional men's wardrobe and following the principle of “luxurious simplicity” (le luxe de la simplicité).


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

She brought a fitted jacket and a little black dress to women's fashion; the most famous accessories were a chain bag and large jewelry, primarily camellia brooches and artificial pearls.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Her company's Chanel No. 5 perfume became a bestseller of the 20th century.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Biography


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

She was born in Saumur, France in 1883, although she claimed that she was born ten years later in the Auvergne region of France.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

When Gabriel was twelve, her mother died of tuberculosis, and her father left the children and went to work.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The children were then in the care of relatives and spent some time in the orphanage.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

At the age of 18, Gabriel got a job as a saleswoman in a clothing store and sang in a cabaret in her spare time.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

She performed the songs “Ko Ko Ri Ko” and “Qui qu'a vu Coco”, thanks to which she received her nickname, “Coco”.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

During one of these speeches, Gabriel noticed officer Etienne Balsan - she moved to live with him in Paris, but soon went to the English industrialist Arthur Capel, known among his friends in nicknamed “Fight”.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 1910, Chanel opened a hat shop in Paris, and within a year it moved to building No. 31 on rue Cambon, located opposite the Ritz Hotel, where it is still located today.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel and her friend Misia Sert were the last to visit Diaghilev on the eve of his death on August 19, 1929.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

They also paid for the funeral on the island of San Michele, because neither the deceased nor his former Lifar had money with him.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Wartime


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 1939, when the war broke out, Chanel closed the fashion house and all its stores.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In June 1940, her nephew Andre Palace was captured by Germany.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Trying to rescue him, Chanel turned to her old friend, attaché of the German embassy, Baron Hans Gunther von Dinklage.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

As a result, Andre Palace was released, and Chanel, 56, entered into contact with von Dinklage.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

According to a dossier kept in Vincennes, Chanel was “the mistress and agent of Baron Hans Gunther von Dinklage” from 1942 to 1943.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Hal Vaughan, in his book “In Bed with the Enemy: Coco Chanel's Secret War”, claims that Chanel collaborated with the German government during World War II.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

According to the historian, she not only supplied the Germans with insider information from France, but was also officially listed in German intelligence, having more than a dozen successfully completed espionage missions [1].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In November 1943, Chanel sought a meeting with Winston Churchill to convince him to agree to the principles of secret Anglo-German negotiations.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Gabriel discussed this issue with Theodor Momm, responsible for the textile industry in occupied France, whom she met thanks to von Dinklage.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Momm submitted the proposal to Berlin, the head of the Sixth Directorate, which controlled the foreign intelligence service, Walter Schellenberg.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

He found the proposal interesting: Operation Modelhut () made it possible to travel unhindered to Madrid (where Chanel intended to meet with Churchill, who was staying there on his way from Tehran conference) with a pass valid for several days.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel and Dinklage left for Madrid in late December 1943 and early January 1944.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

A passport for travel to Spain was issued to Chanel on December 17, 1943 on the personal order of the SS chief in Paris.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In Madrid, Chanel was accompanied by her friend Vera Lombardi (arrested in Rome on November 12, 1943 and sent to the Bagno a Ripoli concentration camp, 10 days later she was released through mediation Schellenberg).


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The trip was sponsored by the German side - SS guardsturmfuhrer Walter Kuchman was instructed to transport a large sum of money for Chanel to Marid.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

After staying at Ritz, Chanel met Sir Samuel Gore at the British embassy, but she could not see Churchill, who was sick, and Vera told the British that her satellites are German spies.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel returned to Paris with nothing — she was only able to hand Churchill a letter through the embassy asking for help to Vera, as her Italian passport contained a German visa that discredited her.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

At the end of the war, Chanel recalled all her contacts with the Germans.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

She was labeled an accomplice of the Nazis, accused of collaborationism and arrested.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 1944, on Churchill's advice, she was released, but on the condition that she left France.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel had to go to Switzerland, where she lived until 1953.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Back to fashion


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 1954, 71-year-old Gabriel returned to the world of haute couture with her new collection.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

She achieved her former fame and respect only three seasons later; rich and famous women became regular visitors to her shows.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The Chanel tweed suit — a tight skirt and a braided collarless jacket with golden buttons and patch pockets — has gained popularity and has become a symbol of its owner's success.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In the 1950s and 1960s, Chanel collaborated with various Hollywood studios, dressing stars such as Audrey Hepburn and Elizabeth Taylor.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Her clients included First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In addition, Chanel was a philanthropist.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

It provided financial support to Salvador Dali and Pablo Picasso.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Death


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

On January 10, 1971, at the age of 87, Gabriel died of a heart attack at the Ritz Hotel, where she lived for a long time.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

She was buried in the Bois de Vaux cemetery in Lausanne (Switzerland) [2]; the upper part of the tombstone is decorated with a bas-relief depicting five lion heads [3].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Creativity


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

At the theater


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Diaghilev's Russian Ballet


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

— costumes for Darius Milhaud's ballet “”, sets by Henri Laurent, curtain by Pablo Picasso, production by Bronislava Nijinskaya.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

— costumes for Igor Stravinsky's ballet “”, sets, production by George Balanchine.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Perfume


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 1921, the Chanel Nº 5 perfume appeared.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

They were authored by perfumer Ernest Beau, who worked at the Chanel Perfume Hotel [4].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Beau invited Chanel to choose a fragrance from two series of numbered samples (from 1 to 5 and from 20 to 24); she liked the composition in bottle No. 5 — under such a laconic name it was launched on sale [5].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Now these, perhaps the most famous perfumes, are included in the list of the most expensive liquids in the world, $6,878 per liter.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The fragrance consists of about 80 ingredients, the most expensive of which is the capital rose.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 2016, an updated version of Chanel N°5 L'Eau was released.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Lily-Rose Melody Depp became the face of the novelty.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Little black dress


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel made a strict black dress popular, which could be worn throughout the day and evening depending on how it was complemented with accessories — while the secular rules of the time required change for lunch and dinner.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

It was rumored that his black color was intended to remind Chanel of her lover Arthur Capele, who died in a car accident [6]: society did not approve of mourning for a person with whom she was not a marriage is registered.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 1926, the American magazine Vogue equated the “little black dress” with a Ford T in terms of versatility and popularity [7].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Bag 2.55


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

“I'm tired of carrying reticules in my hands, and I always lose them,” Chanel said in 1954.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In February 1955, she introduced a small handbag in the shape of a rectangle on a long chain.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Women were able to carry the bag comfortably: just hang it on their shoulder and completely forget about it.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Heritage


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

After Coco's death, the Chanel fashion house was going through difficult times.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Its revival began in 1983, when fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld took over the management of the house [8].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

In 2008, in honor of Chanel's 125th birthday, he presented the design of a 5 euro commemorative coin with its image.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The gold coin, issued in a circulation of 99 pieces, is valued at 5,900 euros, and one of the 11,000 silver coins can be purchased for 45 euros [9].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

quotes


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Two rules of a woman: shoes — one size larger, bra — one size smaller.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

It's all in our hands, so we can't put them down


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

You won't get a second chance to make a first impression.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

There is a time to work and there is a time to love.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

There's no other time left.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The best thing about love is doing


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

If you were born without wings, don't stop them from growing.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

People don't know how to live.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

They're not taught that.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

I don't care what you think of me.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

I don't think about you at all.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

True happiness is inexpensive: if you have to pay a high price for it, then it is a fake.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

A man who is capable of doing things is doomed to be loved.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

A woman is worried about her future until she gets married.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

A man doesn't worry about the future until he gets married.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

I don't know why women demand everything men have.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

After all, women, among other things, have men.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Women tend to choose a nightgown much more carefully than a husband.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Women don't have friends.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

They either love them or they don't!


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Coquetry is the victory of reason over feelings.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

To be irreplaceable, you have to change all the time.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Image in culture and art


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Theatre


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

— “” is a Broadway musical by Andre Previn to a libretto.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Chanel was played by Catherine Hepburn, the only actress role in the musical in her career.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Cinematography


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Coco Chanel is the first episode of the television series Woman, Age (France, 1978).


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Lonely Coco Chanel is a film produced in the United States, France and Great Britain that premiered on October 16, 1981.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Starring Marie-France Pizier, Timothy Dalton and Rutger Hauer.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Coco Chanel is a television film produced in Italy, France and the United Kingdom that premiered on September 13, 2008 on Lifetime Television [10]).


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Coco Chanel is a biopic feature film that premiered in October 2008.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Director: Christian Dughet


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Screenwriters: James Carrington, Carla Julia Casalini, Jeffrey Hatcher


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Starring Shirley McLean.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

The role of Coco in her youth was played by Barbora Bobulova.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Coco do Chanel is a French film starring Audrey Tautou that was released on April 22, 2009 and grossed more than $50 million [11].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Coco Chanel and Igor Stravinsky is a French feature film by Jan Kunen, based on the novel “” and tells about the relationship between Coco Chanel and Igor Stravinsky.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

It was released on May 24, 2009 [12].


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

“Outstanding Women of the 20th Century — Coco Chanel” (English: Extraordinary Women. Coco Chanel is a BBC film released in 2011.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Director: Joanna Gibbon


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

N 5 - Fragrance of Eternity (N°5 un parfum d'éternité) is a French documentary film, 2011.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Directors: Laura Fronti/Laura Fronty, Alexander Fronti/Alexandre Fronty


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

War for No. 5 (La guerre du N°5) is a French documentary, 2017.


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Director: Stefan Benamou/Stéphane Benhamou


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Notes


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

comments


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Sources


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Literature


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Russian-language editions


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

(General Director's Library. The path to success; Digest to vol. 9)


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Publications in other languages


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

References


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Unknown parameter |description= ignored (help)


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Category:Hatters


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Category:Founders of haute couture houses


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Category:Set designers from the Diaghilev Ballet Russe


Question: When did Coco Chanel die?

Coco Chanel

Category:French collaborators


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The simplified taxation system (USN) is a special tax regime aimed at reducing the tax burden on small businesses, as well as facilitating and simplifying tax accounting and accounting.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The simplified tax system was introduced by Federal Law No. 104-FZ of July 24, 2002.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

number 43


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The procedure for calculating the tax base


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Article 346.20 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation establishes the following tax rates for the tax levied in connection with the application of the Simplified Taxation System (USN):


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

6%, if the object of taxation is the income of the organization,


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

from 5 to 15%, if the object of taxation is income reduced by the amount of expenses.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Taxes, Fees and Fees


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Individual entrepreneurs pay contributions under the system of compulsory pension insurance and compulsory medical insurance to federal and territorial funds calculated from minimum wage, regardless of income.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Since 2014, if income exceeds 300 thousand rubles per year, contributions to the pension fund of Russia have been paid in the amount of 1% of income minus 300 thousand rubles.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Since 2012, contributions to the territorial fund of compulsory medical insurance have been canceled.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Insurance premiums for compulsory pension insurance.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Insurance premiums for compulsory health insurance.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Insurance premiums for compulsory social insurance against accidents and occupational diseases.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Voluntary insurance contributions for social insurance of employees in case of temporary disability (individual entrepreneurs do not pay) from income taxed at tax rates provided for in Art.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

284 Clauses 3 and 4 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Personal income tax (PIT) (paid only by individual entrepreneurs) on income taxed at tax rates provided for in Art.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

224 item 2, item 4 and p. Tax Code of the Russian Federation.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Under the simplified taxation system, personal income tax is paid by entrepreneurs only as tax agents for employees.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Excise taxes:


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

import of excisable goods into the customs territory of the Russian Federation;


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

acquisition of petroleum products;


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

sale by organizations from excise warehouses of alcohol products purchased from taxpayers — producers of these products, or from excise warehouses of other organizations;


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

sale of confiscated or ownerless excisable goods;


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

sale of excisable goods (with the exception of petroleum products) originating from the territory of Belarus and imported into the territory of the Russian Federation from the territory of Belarus.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

State duty.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Customs duty.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Transport tax.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Land tax.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Fees for the use of wildlife objects and for the use of objects of aquatic biological resources.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Water tax.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Taxes paid as a tax agent:


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

PERSONAL INCOME TAX;


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

corporate income tax — payment of dividends to legal entities;


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Calculation of the single tax by type of taxable object


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Revenues


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The tax is calculated in two stages:


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

% of the total income of the organization is taken.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the company is not at a loss at the end of the period, the profit received is reduced by insurance premiums and sick leave (issued at the expense of the organization).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Moreover, the reduction should not exceed 50% of the amount of tax payable, if there are employees, if there are no employees, then 100% of the amount of tax payable.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

From January 1, 2013, the maximum amount of income should not exceed 60 million rubles for the reporting (tax) period.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

From January 1, 2017, the maximum amount of income should not exceed 150 million rubles for the reporting (tax) period.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Revenues minus expenses for the reporting period


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Tax base to be determined = the amount of income taken into account — the amount of expenses taken into account for the reporting period.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the tax base is > 0, the initial tax amount = tax base × 15% (or preferential rate).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the tax base is <= 0, no tax is paid.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The amount of tax actually paid for previous reporting periods is determined.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The amount of tax payable to the budget is determined = the initial amount of tax (clause 1.1) — the amount of tax actually paid for previous reporting periods


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the amount of tax payable to the budget is > 0, the tax is paid.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the amount of tax payable to the budget is < 0, the tax is not paid.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Revenues minus expenses during the tax period


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The tax base is determined = the amount of income taken into account — the amount of expenses taken into account for the tax period.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The minimum tax amount is determined = income × 1%.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the tax base is < 0, the minimum tax amount is payable to the budget.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the tax base is > 0, then:


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The initial tax amount is determined = tax base × 15%.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the amount of the minimum tax is > the initial amount of tax, the amount of the minimum tax is payable to the budget (clause 2).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

(The amount of advance payments actually paid for previous reporting periods is subject to offset against the payment of the minimum tax at the request of the payer).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the minimum tax amount is < the initial tax amount, then the tax amount = the initial tax amount (item 3).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The amount of tax payable to the budget is determined = the initial amount of tax — the amount of tax actually paid for previous reporting periods.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation may establish differentiated tax rates ranging from 5% to 15%, depending on the categories of taxpayers.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

For example, for St. Petersburg, a rate of 7% is set for organizations and individual entrepreneurs.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Reporting of individual entrepreneurs applying the simplified taxation system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Individual entrepreneurs without employees provide the following reports:


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Declaration on the simplified tax system (submitted annually to the tax inspectorate);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Report to the State Statistics Committee (Form 1-IP is submitted annually according to the sample, for 2015 everyone submits the “1-Entrepreneur” form);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

VAT return (if the individual entrepreneur acted as an agent, it is submitted quarterly to the tax inspectorate);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The register of received and issued invoices (when issuing and (or) receiving invoices in the interests of another person, is submitted quarterly to the tax inspectorate);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

When carrying out trading activities at trade facilities, the individual entrepreneur provides a notification as a payer of fees (introduced by regional law).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Individual entrepreneurs with employees provide the following reports:


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

SZV-M form (monthly, starting from the 2nd quarter of 2016);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Form 4-FSS (submitted quarterly to the Social Insurance Fund);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

RSV-1 form (submitted quarterly to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

6-NDFL (submitted quarterly to the tax inspectorate);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Average headcount (submitted annually to the tax inspectorate);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Reporting on 2-NDFL (submitted annually to the tax inspectorate);


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Reporting of an organization applying the simplified taxation system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Reports submitted to the Social Insurance Fund


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The payroll for the funds of the Social Insurance Fund in form 4-FSS.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Form 4a-FSS: required for voluntary payment of insurance premiums.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Confirmation of the type of activity: “Application for confirmation of the main activity”, “Certificate of confirmation of the main activity”, sometimes a copy of the annual declaration under the simplified tax system with a tax mark inspections.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

If the entrepreneur does not have employees, these reports are not submitted


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Reports submitted based on the results of reporting periods


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Calculation of advance payments for insurance premiums for compulsory pension insurance.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

VAT return, if the organization is a VAT agent.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Journal of received and issued invoices, if the organization (or entrepreneur) is a commission agent or agent.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Tax calculation for advance payments for land, property and transport taxes (only for taxpayers of land, property and transport taxes).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Since 2009, the declaration on the single tax on the simplified tax system, transport and land taxes has not been submitted for 3, 6 and 9 months.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Only based on the results of the tax period, that is, a calendar year.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Reports submitted based on the results of the tax period (year)


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Information on the average number of employees (since 2014 not provided by entrepreneurs who do not have employees).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Individual information to the Pension Fund: a statement of payment of insurance contributions for compulsory pension insurance in the form ADV-6-2, ADV-6-3, the SZV-4-2 payroll form and the SZV-4-1 form.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Single tax declaration under the simplified tax system.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Information on the income of individuals on the form 2-NDFL.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Land tax declaration (only for land tax payers).


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Transport tax declaration.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Accounting and submission of financial statements


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Currently, there is legal uncertainty about the procedure for maintaining full accounting records.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Formally, organizations that are on the simplified tax system may not conduct accounting.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

With the exception of accounting for fixed assets and intangible assets.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

However, this benefit often does not apply.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Payers combining the simplified tax system with UTII, joint-stock companies and enterprises engaged in activities subject to licensing and (or) paying dividends must definitely keep and submit reports .


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

From January 1, 2013, all “simplified” organizations must maintain accounting records.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

For small businesses, a simplified version of accounting is provided.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Simplified taxation system based on a patent


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

It is not possible for individual entrepreneurs to pay tax under the simplified taxation system by redemption of a patent.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The procedure for paying a patent under the simplified tax system actually borrows the legal mechanism of a single tax on imputed income, since the patent price will be determined on the basis of potential income, the amount of which will establish constituent entities of the Russian Federation.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The procedure for determining potential income in Chapter 26.2 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation provides for the possibility of increasing the basic profitability indicators determined for the single tax on imputed income by no more than 30 times.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The decision on the possibility of applying a simplified taxation system based on a patent by individual entrepreneurs in the territories of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is made by


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Since January 1, 2009, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation have lost the right to choose specific lists of types of entrepreneurial activity, and now, if the law on the patent simplified tax system is adopted, listed in Art.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

346.25.1 NK RF.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

In some entities, the law on the simplified tax system on the basis of a patent has not been adopted.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Since December 1, 2012, the patent system becomes a separate special regime and ceases to be part of the simplified taxation system.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Since January 1, 2013, patents are issued under new rules.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Patents issued in 2012 and expiring after January 1, 2013 are valid until December 31, 2012 inclusive.


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

See also


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

The tax system of Russia


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Compulsory medical insurance in the Russian Federation


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Compulsory social insurance in Russia


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Pension Fund of the Russian Federation


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Federal Mandatory Health Insurance Fund


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Notes


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Literature


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

References


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

— “Simplishchenka” magazine


Question: In what year did Russia introduce a tax system?

Simplified tax system

Category:Special Tax Regimes


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Swifts [1] [2], or crested swifts [3] (Latin: Hemiprocne), are a genus of birds that are the only bird in the family of crested swifts [4] [3] [5] [6] [6] [1] [6] [1] [2] (Hemiprocnidae) from row swift.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Birds with a body length of 16 cm of eared cleho to 33 cm in a mustachioed tree swift and weighing up to 90 g.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

There is a small tuft on the head.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

The legs are small, 4 tenacious toes pointing forward.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Swifts build a small nest from leaves, feathers and pieces of bark glued together with saliva.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

The only egg in the nest is also fixed with saliva; both parents incubate, sitting on a branch and warming the egg with the back of the abdomen.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

The basis of nutrition is insects, such as flies, small beetles, ants, etc.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

, which birds catch by rushing from the perch.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Grading


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

As of November 2018, 4 species are included in the genus [9]:


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

habitat


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Three species are distributed in South and Southeast Asia.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Crested Kleho is located in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, China, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Eared Kleho is located on the territory of Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Brunei.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

A brilliant cleho is found in Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Brunei.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

The mustachioed tree swift lives to the east — in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Illustrations


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Hemiprocne comata


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Hemiprocne coronata


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Hemiprocne mystacea


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Notes


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Literature


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Category:Birds


Question: What is the body length of a tree swift?

Wood swifts

Category:Bird families


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

Volga Bulgaria (Volga-Kama Bulgaria [1], Silver Bulgaria; Tatar: Idel Bolgar, Chuvash: Atlçi Pylkhar) [2] is a historical state in the Middle Volga region and the Kama basin, which existed from X to 13th century.


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

History


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

Before the Mongol invasion


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

In the second half of the 7th century, one of the hordes, consisting mainly of the Kutrigur tribes, under the command of Kotrag moved from the territory of Great Bulgaria to the north and settled in the area of the Middle Volga and Kama , scattered among predominantly Finno-Ugric tribes.


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

As a result, in the Middle Volga region in the 8th century, the Bulgarian Union of Tribes arose, which was later transformed into the state of Volga Bulgaria.


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

In 922, Baltawar Almush, in search of military support against the Khazars, whose rulers professed Judaism, invited an embassy from Baghdad, officially declared Hanafi Islam as state religion and takes the title of Emir and the name Jafar ibn Abdullah [3].


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

However, the “people” (subordinate tribe, clan) Savan [4] led by “Tsar Virag” probably expressed dissatisfaction with this (“refused”), as a result, the aristocracy of the Bulgarians was divided into two parties (the second was headed by “Tsar Askal”).


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

After threats from Almush (to strike with a sword), the first batch also obeyed.


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

Obviously, “Tsar” Virag with the title Savan was the second person (the second step below the hakan) in Volga Bulgaria after the baltavar Almush (the first step below the hakan).


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

In addition, it is known that the “king Almush” with his tribe had “four subordinate kings” with his subordinate tribes, which corresponds to the structure of the state and one of the theories of the formation of the name” Bulgars” — “five parts” [5].


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

These events and facts were described in the notes of Ahmed Ibn Fadlan, a member of the Baghdad embassy on the Volga [6].


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

After Almush was ruled by his son Mikail ibn Jagfar, and then grandson Abdullah ibn Mikail.


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

In 965, after the fall of the Khazar Khaganate, the previously vassal Bulgaria became completely independent, but suffered from the eastern campaign of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich in those years (964-969).


Question: What was the religion of the Bulgars?

Volga Bulgaria

In 985, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich of Kiev, in alliance with the Torks, conducted a military campaign against Bulgaria and concluded a peace treaty with it [~ 1].


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 986, Kiev visited the embassy from Volga Bulgaria with a proposal to accept the Muslim faith from the Bulgars by the Kievans led by Prince Vladimir.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1006, a trade agreement was concluded between Rus and Volga Bulgaria: Bulgarian merchants could freely trade on the Volga and Oka, and merchants of Russia - in Bulgaria.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1088, the Kama Bulgars briefly captured Murom.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1107, the Volga Bulgars besieged and took Suzdal.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1120, Yuri Dolgoruky and the Polovtsy, on behalf of his father, organized a military campaign against Volga Bulgaria.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In the summer of 1164, Andrei Bogolyubsky, together with Prince Yuri Vladimirovich of Murom, went to Bulgaria: the city of Bryakhimov was captured.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1172, Bogolyubsky went to the Kama Bulgars.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1184, Vsevolod the Big Nest and Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich fought with the Volga Bulgars.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1186, Vsevolod the Big Nest again sent troops to the Kama Bulgars.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1217-1219, the Bulgars captured Unzha and Ustyug.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In response, Rostov, Suzdal and Murom regiments under the command of the brother of Vladimir Prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich took, plundered and burned the large city of Oshel.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1221, in Gorodets, a truce was signed between the Principality of Vladimir and Volga Bulgaria for six years, and in 1229 in Korenev - for another six years.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Mongol invasion


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1223, after the Battle of Kalka, Mongolian troops went east through the lands of the Volga Bulgars and were completely defeated by the Bulgarian troops [8].


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

This defeat, as well as the defeat at Pervan in 1221, was an exception against the background of the success of the Mongolian army during the conquest period until the defeat at Ain Jalut in 1260.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1229, the Bulgars and Polovtsy were defeated by the Mongols near the Yaik River (Ural).


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1232, the Mongols reached the place where the Zhukot River flows into the Kama River.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Finally, in 1236, the Mongolian army led by Subedei ravaged the entire Volga-Kama Bulgaria [~ 2].


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

According to M. G. Khudyakov, the looting of the city of Bulgar by Russian ushkuiniks, Novgorod detachments engaged in robberies, put an end to hopes for the restoration of former Bulgaria [9].


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In the 1220s and 1240s, after a stubborn struggle, Volga Bulgaria was conquered by the Mongol-Tatars and, having retained some autonomy, was included in the Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde), the first capital of which (in the 13th century), the city of Bolgar was the political and trade and craft center.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Bulgarian culture has become the most important component of the Golden Horde culture.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

The Bulgarian princes expanded their territory mainly in the areas of the Vyatka and Kama rivers.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries, the main population moved from Zakamye to Predkamye.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Within Volga Bulgaria, Kazan, Bulgarian, Zhukotinskoye and other principalities stood out.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

After the formation of the Golden Horde, Volga Bulgarians (Bulgars) became one of the main components in the ethnogenesis of modern Kazan Tatars and Chuvash.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

The economic and political rise of Volga Bulgaria in the 14th century was suspended by raids on the Bulgarian cities of the Khans of the Golden Horde during internal strife, campaigns of Russian princes (since 1360), the invasion Timur (probably in the middle of the 1390s), attacks by ushkuiniks.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In 1438, the Kazan Khanate was formed on the territory of Volga Bulgaria.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Subsequently, the Bulgars actually restored their state with the last capital in Iska-Kazan.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In the 15th century, Kazan became the single cultural and political center of the Volga Bulgars and the moved capital, and the Kazan Khanate became the new name of the former state.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Territory and administrative structure


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Territory


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Arab and Persian geographers considered the country of the Bulgars to be the northernmost in the Islamic world.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Persian scientist Ibn Ruste, in his encyclopedia “Expensive Values”, compiled around 903-913, gives the following information about its location: “Bulgarian land is adjacent to the land of the Burtas. Bulgarians live on the bank of the river, which flows into the Khazar (Caspian) Sea and is called Itil (Volgograd)” [10].


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

The Arab geographer Al-Istakhri and later authors give more specific information about the southeastern border of Bulgaria, bringing it to the Ural River [11].


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Some Muslim geographers of the 10th-11th centuries report that Bulgaria is located east of the lands inhabited by the Slavs.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

There is no accurate information about the northern and southern borders of the country, some authors, for example, al-Garnati (XII century), write that the Bulgars live on the Lower Volga.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

From medieval written sources, it is difficult to determine what the authors mean when describing the boundaries of Volga Bulgaria.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

It is not clear whether the sources refer exclusively to the territory of direct residence of the Bulgars or, determining the limits of the Bulgarian land, the authors describe the nomadic territories of the semi-sedentary part of the population or lands within the sphere of economic and political influence of Bulgaria.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

The location of archaeological sites allows us to present in general terms the territory of Volga Bulgaria.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

A lot of work in this direction was done by the Soviet archaeologist R. G. Fakhrutdinov, who in the 1960-70s began to identify and map archaeological sites of the Bulgarian period.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

The main monuments of the Bulgarian era are located on the territory of modern Tatarstan, Ulyanovsk, Samara, Penza regions and Chuvashia.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Currently, more than 2 thousand Bulgarian monuments of the 10th—14th centuries have been identified. Among them, about 190 settlements and more than 900 settlements.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Most of them date back to the pre-Mongol period — 170 settlements and more than 700 settlements.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

The main part of the monuments of the Bulgarian period is located on the territory of Tatarstan.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

In other regions, there are significantly fewer such monuments: in the Ulyanovsk Region — about 200, in the Samara Region — about 160, in Chuvashia — about 70, in the Penza Region — about 70.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Based on written and archaeological sources, different authors define the boundaries of Volga Bulgaria in different ways.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

Traditionally, it is believed that the territory of Volga Bulgaria included part of the territories of the Middle Volga region: Predkamye, Zakamye and the Volga region.


Question: What religion did the Bulgars have?

Volga Bulgaria

A. X.