Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

At first, Semiradsky expected to settle in Florence, where he had already rented a studio, but after reading in the newspapers about the beginning of the eruption of Vesuvius, he went to Naples.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

After seeing the mountain (the eruption was short), the ruins of Pompeii and the island of Capri, the artist arrived in Rome on his way back to Florence.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It turned out that it was easy to rent a studio in Rome, after which the artist decided to settle there and later repeatedly stated that he could live and work only in this city [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It is Roman monuments and residents that will become the source of the artist's aesthetic impressions, it was in Rome that his aesthetic concept took shape and came into the system.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

According to T. L. Karpova: Rome <... > will give his works monumentality and nobility of great style, cultivate a sense of decorativism in him; the air and nature of southern Italy will purify its color from the “museum” brownish tones ... [7]


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Arriving in Rome in May 1872, Semiradsky rented a studio on Via Margutta 53, near the Spanish Steps, where artists traditionally settled, as well as potential models and models gathered [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

He worked in this workshop until 1883.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

An additional factor was that there was a flower market nearby, which Semiradsky admired more than once, describing it in letters to his parents [5].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky was in the center of a large colony of Russian and Polish artists, his entourage in Rome included sculptors M. Antokolsky, M. Chizhov, Piy Velionsky, V. Brodsky, Poles Sveshevsky and Stankevich.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Their permanent meeting place was “”, which now contains Semiradsky's drawing on a biblical theme [13].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

“The Sinner”


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The first painting completed by Semiradsky in Rome was “The Sinner”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It was written by order of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, a friend of the President of the Academy of Arts (and its future president), the plot is the poem “The Sinner” by A. K. Tolstoy — was asked by the customer back in Munich [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The poem and painting are created on the basis of the apocrypha, this plot is absent in the canonical Gospels: under the influence of the power of the personality of Christ, the spiritual rebirth of the beautiful harlot takes place.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The composition of the painting is clearly divided into two parts: on the left is Christ and the apostles in strict white robes, on the right is a discharged courtesan with a crowd of idle men and women.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky tried not to deviate from Tolstoy's text, writing out the main character and telling her an excessive “abundance of beauty” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In the correspondence of A. K. Tolstoy and I. S. Aksakov, long before the creation of Semiradsky's canvas, the theme of the aesthetic proximity of the poem's images with the art of academicism surfaced, and the poet was inspired by Veronese's images.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The influence of Veronese and Tiepolo on Semiradsky is also certain; whether the artist and the poet communicated is unknown [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

With the painting “The Sinner”, Semiradsky opened in his work the theme of the confrontation between Christianity and paganism, and the drama of his main canvases is based on this conflict.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In “The Sinner” Semiradsky deliberately did not make a choice in favor of Christianity, showing his beauty among representatives of both worlds [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Also, for the first time in Russian painting, he combined the scale of the historical plot and plein air effects [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1873, the painting was shown in Vienna, where it was awarded the Gold Medal at the World Exhibition — this was Semiradsky's first foreign exhibition.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Then the painting was transported to an academic exhibition in St. Petersburg, where it was expected to be a noisy success; the canvas was purchased by the Tsarevich for 10,000 rubles. Semiradsky was awarded the title of academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

At the same time, Semiradsky faced rejection and criticism.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Kramskoy wrote poisonously in a private letter:... Since the time of Bryullov, they say, there has been no such picture.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Meanwhile, Christ is such an insignificant person that no sinner will repent for him, and the sinner herself is not one of those who give up a merry life.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

And meanwhile, the painting makes you crazy... No, we're still barbarians.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

We like a shiny and noisy toy more than real human pleasure [14].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

IN. IN. Stasov, in an article specifically dedicated to “The Sinner”, repeatedly repeated the terms that will then accompany the description of Semiradsky's work: “effects” and “virtuosity”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

By doing so, he emphasized that external effects are secondary, and Semiradsky's painting is devoid of genuine psychologism and depth.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In the article “Twenty-five Years of Russian Art”, Stasov called the sinner “Offenbach's modern Parisian cocotte”, and also stated that “Christ and the apostles consist of the same costume.”


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

AND. E.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Repin openly called Semiradsky a “charlatan” and said that “The Sinner” is “a lightweight, landscape thing, albeit huge in size” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Thus, in the vocabulary of the Wanderers, Semiradsky's name became a household name, and his work became a kind of “scarecrow”, as the main striking force of the slanting Academy, to which, however, due to a misunderstanding belong to the tastes of the general public; it should have been fought uncompromisingly [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The contrast was the approval of the Austrian critic Lehmann, who wrote: “His (Semiradsky) way of interpreting biblical material in all respects is new and, perhaps, the only suitable for European paintings” [15].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It is characteristic that Semiradsky himself did not get involved in these disputes [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The success of “The Sinner” led to a conflict between Semiradsky and Repin: they were simultaneously nominated for the title of academician of painting (Repin for the painting “Haulers on the Volga”).


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The position of the former rector of the Academy F. Bruni, who called the painting by Ilya Efimovich “a great profanation of painting”, and Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, who ordered Semiradsky a copy of “The Sinner” with sepia.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Although I. E.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Repin was awarded the gold medal “For Expression”, he fell ill out of grief and since then he has invariably opposed the “truth” in painting to its “beauty”, criticizing Semiradsky [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Getting married.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Works from 1873 to 1876


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1873, in Warsaw, 30-year-old Siemiradski married his 18-year-old cousin Maria Pruszyńska.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

She grew up in the boondocks of the then Minsk province, but was able to quickly adapt to her husband's artistic environment, mastered Italian and took a “worthy place” in his life [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Later, the couple had three sons — Boleslav (born 1874), Leon (born 1875), Casimir (born 1876, died at the age of one year) — and daughter Wanda (born 1878) [5].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

After his marriage, the artist planned a long trip to Austria, Belgium and France, but soon interrupted the trip and returned to Rome.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

He explained the reasons in a letter to the Academy's Conference Secretary P. F. Iseev in September 1873: having conceived a new large work on an ancient plot, he needed museums, ruins and even people of Italy, who, according to him, “are extremely close in type to ancient Roman ones” [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1873, Semiradsky became close in Rome to battle player Pavel Kovalevsky, the son of the famous Polish orientalist, who was on a pensioner trip.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

He left some memories, including the creative method of Heinrich Semiradsky: during evening walks along Pincio, he could stop in a place that attracted him and throw him on the pavement marble, colored shred or metal trinket that he carried with him.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

After that, he recorded on the sketch the effects of evening lighting and how the sunset light falls on objects [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

To the annual exhibition of the Academy in 1874, Semiradsky sent from Rome the canvas “Persecutors of Christians at the Entrance to the Catacombs”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The painting was commissioned by St. Petersburg collector A. A. Ivashev, and the plot under the contract remained at the artist's discretion.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

P. P. Chistyakov, who saw “Persecutors” at the exhibition, wrote V. D. Polenov: “Cleverly, bright, dirty, crooked, obliquely and stupid, stupid exorbitant...” [16] The audience and critics were not ready to accept the expressive artistic manner in a large canvas.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It also seemed unusual to transfer the center of gravity of the composition to the landscape, which in the future would become permanent for Semiradsky and would give his canvases vital authenticity.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Academician Semiradsky received an official reprimand from the Academy Council for the picture, which greatly hurt him.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

According to P. YU.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Klimov, “Semiradsky was one of the first to embark on the path of destroying the old academic system, introducing a spontaneous, picturesque beginning into the analytical, “main” Russian art” [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It is not surprising that after 1874 traces of the painting are lost, and until 2001 it was considered lost, until it appeared in one of the antique salons in Moscow [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Nevertheless, soon the Academy Council announced gratitude to Semiradsky for the painting “The Seller of Amulets” and petitioned for the award of the Order of St.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Stanislav of the 3rd degree, which he received in August 1875 [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

“The Lights of Christianity”


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's new major work was based on the plot set out in Tacitus's Annals: Emperor Nero accused the first Christians of the great fire of Rome and bought them for a painful execution.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

This work was called “The Lights of Christianity (Torches of Nero)”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky, however, did not want illustrative, but placed Tacitus's plot in a broad philosophical and historical context.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

This was reflected in the fact that the depicted staircase of the Golden Palace of Nero is perpendicular to the strings of pillars with Christian martyrs tied up, forming the compositional center of the picture — the cross.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The cross, among other things, symbolizes the intersection of two paths of development of the world — the old pagan, mired in vice, and in the torments of the emerging Christendom.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The optical axis, on which the figures of Nero and the encirclement are located, rests on a row of sacrificial pillars, forming a dead end.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

There are 13 pillars in painting, they directly symbolize the number of apostles and Christ [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky performed in his usual role as an artist-historian and scholar.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The educated audience in the painting was also attracted by accurate archaeological details; the artist was based on Luigi Canin's monograph Buildings of Ancient Rome (1848—1856), as well as his own impressions of the excavations Pompey.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's emotional perception of the era could be influenced by I. Kraszewski's “Rome under Nero”, published in 1866 in Krakow.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The artist wrote to his relatives, asking him to send him Krashevsky's books to Rome, and at the beginning of work on the painting he even went to Dresden to meet with the writer living there [6].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

As a result, the work on the monumental canvas required four years of work.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

During this time, a large series of graphic sketches and at least three sketches of the main composition were created, which were exhibited at an exhibition in Warsaw in 1939 [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The painting became known in Rome even before its completion, Semiradsky proudly wrote to St. Petersburg that in 1876 he was visited by Alma Tadema, and, in addition, he was elected to the jury of the annual exhibition of Rome Academy of Painting of St.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Luke [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

At the Academy of Rome, the Lights of Christianity were first presented even before they were sent to St. Petersburg.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Students of the Academy crowned Semiradsky with a laurel wreath, and the King of Italy awarded him the Order of the Crown.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It is estimated that 5,000 people saw the painting on the last day of the exhibition alone [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

On the way to St. Petersburg, the painting was exhibited in Munich and Vienna, and in 1878 it was sent to Paris for the World Exhibition, where Semiradsky was awarded the Gold Medal, and the government awarded him Chevalier of the Legion of Honor [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky was elected an honorary member of the Academies of Painting in Berlin, Stockholm and Rome, and the Uffizi Gallery ordered the artist his self-portrait, which is considered a special honor [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The success of the “Lights of Christianity” greatly complicated Semiradsky's relations with the Imperial Academy of Arts.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The pensioner violated the rule according to which artists sent to Europe did not have the right to participate in foreign exhibitions [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In St. Petersburg, the film was exhibited in a separate hall, and it again caused fierce disputes between the public and critics.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Negative reviews were written by V. IN. Stasov and V. M. Garshin.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

P. P. Chistyakov, who dreamed of painting a picture on the same plot, lamented that Semiradsky “spoiled” him.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Polish critics were even more ruthless, for example, S. Vitkevich accused Semiradsky that the tragic story appeared under his brush as almost a holiday [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Nevertheless, the Council of the Academy awarded Semiradsky the title of professor and officially stated that “his activities bring honor to the Academy and Russian art” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

“The Lights of Christianity” served as a starting point and source for writing the novel by G. Senkevich “Quo Vadis?”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1890, while in Rome, the writer stayed at Semiradsky's house, and he served as a guide, showing him, in particular, the Domine quo vadis church.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Konstantin Makovsky created his painting “The Death of Petronius” based on Semiradsky's work.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Already at the beginning of the 21st century, Jerzy Kavalerovich, when staging a film based on the novel, used Semiradsky's paintings to build mise-en-scenes and frame composition.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The makeup of Michal Bayor, who played the role of Nero, accurately reproduced the type of the emperor in Semiradsky's later canvas Christian Dircei in the Circus of Nero [15].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky set a price of 40,000 rubles for the painting “Lights of Christianity”, but the opposition of the leader of the Wanderers I. N. Kramskoy prevented the imperial court from acquiring it [7] [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Since the painting had not been sold by 1879, Semiradsky presented it to Krakow, where the opening of the Polish National Art Museum was being prepared, timed to coincide with the 50th anniversary of I. Krashevsky.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, in 1879, the painting went on an international tour, exhibited in Lviv, Poznan, Prague, Zurich, London, Dresden, Stockholm and Amsterdam, and arrived in Krakow only in 1881 [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Since the painting left Russia, the famous philanthropist D. P. Botkin ordered Semiradsky a smaller author's copy, which had been in a private collection in Moscow for a long time [7], and in 1921 was taken to Berlin and repeatedly resold.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 2004, it was sold at Bonhams auction in London for 292,650 pounds [17].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Murals of Christ the Savior Cathedral


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1877—1878, the artist received an order for four compositions from the life of St. Alexander Nevsky in the northern part of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, and after the death of T. Neffa is an altarpiece of the Last Supper for the same temple [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The orders were enthusiastically received by Semiradsky, as they made it possible to experiment, “paint paintings without sparing money and not particularly counting on their sale” [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The cardboards painted by the artist were approved in March 1877, in April he arrived in Moscow and began work.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

According to preliminary sketches, Semiradsky completed the work in the church in just 15 days [7], but already in 1900, the fresco painted with oil paints on plaster was badly damaged by dampness.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The author proposed to rewrite the damaged works on a metal sheet, but the approvals took a long time, and nothing was done until the artist's death in 1902 [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1931, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was blown up by the Soviet authorities, and Semiradsky's paintings can be judged by the surviving photographs and preparatory sketches.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The artistic intelligentsia of Russia reacted extremely negatively to Semiradsky's paintings, the sharpest criticism was caused by the plot “Alexander Nevsky Accepts Papal Legates”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The newspaper Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti of October 31, 1877 condemned the absence of religious content in the picture.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The artist himself, working on temple paintings, was based on the Italian tradition of the Renaissance, so from the point of view of the Orthodox canon, he allowed many liberties, but managed to insist on his [ 10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Despite the criticism, E.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Zorina recognizes The Last Supper as one of Semiradsky's best works.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

He divided the composition into two visually equal parts — a semi-dome with a deep window niche at the top and the lower part with a throne table, behind which the action takes place.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

“Semiradsky found a middle ground between classical tranquility and strong movement” [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The work continued in 1878, when in spring and summer Semiradsky prepared sketches for “The Baptism of the Lord” and “The Entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem” for the horn windows of the northern and southern chapels of the church.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In “Baptism”, an important role was played by the landscape, designed in brown-greenish tones.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The architectonics of the composition was determined by the arched form, which allowed the artist to show the fusion of heavenly and earthly forces.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In the “Entrance”, the arched design made it possible to express the idea of the unity of the Messiah with the people through the rhythmic repetition of the ascending and descending lines.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It also uses an intense light-air environment, as in “The Sinner”, when the foreground is darkened and the background is very light.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

These compositions delighted even Repin, who called them, despite his “Italian”, “the only oasis in the Church of the Savior” [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The creativity of the 1880—1890s


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The struggle of opinions around the “Lights of Christianity”, sharp criticism from the democratic intelligentsia and fellow artists led to the fact that Semiradsky in the early 1880s made a final decision to settle in Rome.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Nevertheless, he did not renounce citizenship of the Russian Empire, regularly sent his works to academic exhibitions in St. Petersburg, and constantly came to his homeland in Poland.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Since 1879, the artist began to spend the summer with his family on the Strzalkowo estate near Novo Radomski near Czestochowa, which he bought in 1884 [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, he felt more organic in the European academic environment, while in Russia his work, with the almost unconditional approval of the Academy of Arts, was constantly criticized democratic intelligentsia [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1880, the artist began building his own house in Rome on Via Gaeta, which wanted to be a kind of refuge, but it was immediately included in Rome's guidebooks as a landmark [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky received guests only on Wednesdays and Sundays and, as B.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Bilinsky: “he put himself above his era and related issues, sought freedom of creativity, but lost touch with real life” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The architect was F. Azuri, but the artist took an active part in the design and design of the villa (as the owner called it).


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The building was two-story, and the artist's studio was divided into a front part, where ready-made works of art and props for paintings were stored (visitors were also received here), and a working one.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The working studio on the second floor itself was equipped with lifts for moving large canvases.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The house was faced with Carrara marble and decorated with Ionic pilasters; it was surrounded by a spacious garden with a variety of exotic plants [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1938, it was demolished, and in its place is the building of the Directorate of Pirelli and partially the Russian Embassy [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1882, Semiradsky received an order for the Historical Museum in Moscow - the paintings “Funeral of Russ in Bulgar” and “The Feast of Svyatoslav's Vigilantes after the Battle of Dorostol”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

They were intended for the hall of the 10th century and were supposed to clearly show the cruelty of morals before the adoption of Christianity in Russia.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The subjects were proposed to the artist by Count A. S. Uvarov, who developed the ideology of the exposition [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Their correspondence has been preserved, in which Semiradsky insisted on the introduction of the figure of a blind rhapsod in the center of the composition, and also defended three figures of mourners on the right [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky took his work seriously — sketches of weapons, jewelry, ornaments and costumes were sent to Rome; in addition, the artist built a model to coordinate the size and composition of the paintings with the scale and design of the hall.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

This again caused the discontent of Russian artists: the “cosmopolitan Pole” was allegedly unable to feel the spirit of Russian history and convey it on canvas [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In parallel with his giant multi-figure compositions, Semiradsky worked extensively with chamber canvases, mainly on subjects from ancient life, such works were popular with his contemporaries.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

A vivid example of such work is the 1878 painting “Woman or a Vase?”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The plot of this work is edifying: an elderly patrician will have to choose between a beautiful slave and a Chinese vase.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The rich Roman is in thought, he is fed up with all sorts of pleasures.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Patricia's son, depicted next to him, looks enthusiastically at the body of the slave, not sharing his father's difficulties with choice.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Thus, the picture is an allegory of youth and old age, and the topic of values and priorities is brought to the fore here.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It is noteworthy that behind Patricia's back, the artist depicted a centaur from the collection of the Roman Capitoline Museum, which in itself is an allegory of old age [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

According to E.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Nesterova, this picture shows that “For Semiradsky, people and objects are equally inanimate or, more precisely, animated in the same way” [15].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The painting was shown in Russia at Semiradsky's solo exhibition in 1890 [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In the future, Semiradsky will transfer the action of his ancient paintings to the open air, placing the characters in a landscape environment [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

This technique became the basis for his author's interpretation of the genre of “ancient idyll”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, the artist lived and formed in the era of realism, so his ancient fantasies had a completely rational foundation.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Thus, the painting “Dance among Swords” combines the landscape image of the Italian South and motifs probably inspired by the ballet Don Quixote staged by M. Petipa, which Semiradsky saw in both editions of 1869 and 1871.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It is noteworthy that the pose of the dancer in the painting almost exactly repeats the ancient fresco of Pompeian's Villa of Mysteries, which was discovered only after the artist's death.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Probably, he could find similar motifs in ancient vase-painting [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The mirror pair for Dance Among Swords is the 1881 painting Orgy of the Times of Tiberius on Capri of exactly the same format and with the same frame shape [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Antiquity appeared in Semiradsky as a Nietzschean opposition of two principles — solar Apollonian and night Dionysian [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Night scenes in Semiradsky's legacy also occupied a significant place because the artist was seriously fond of occultism and held seances at home, which did not prevent him from being a believer a Catholic who regularly visits the church [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's sunny idyls were a form of compensation, which hid constant depression and doubts about the significance of his own talent.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

They also caused mystical sentiments [5] [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The public did not like Semiradsky's night paintings and often found it difficult to find buyers.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For example, Isavria Pirates Selling Loot was awarded the Gold Medal at the Melbourne World's Fair in 1880, but according to photographs, it was still in the workshop in the 1890s artist.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Today it is kept in the Kharkov Art Museum [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1886, Semiradsky completed the painting Christ at Martha and Mary, intended for an academic exhibition in Berlin.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Traditionally, the artist first exhibited it at the Academy of St.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Luke, which was visited by Queen Margarita [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1887, the painting was presented at the Academic Exhibition in St. Petersburg, simultaneously with Polenov's Christ and the Sinner, shown at the Traveling Exhibition.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Reviewers immediately began to consider both paintings as a whole, Semiradsky received positive reviews for his landscape and architectural entourage and lyricism [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The Russian government bought the painting for the museum of the Imperial Academy of Arts [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's historical and genre works of 1880—1890s


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The funeral of a noble Russ in Bulgar.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Moscow.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

State Historical Museum


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

A woman or a vase?


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

(Difficult choice).


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Faberge Museum in Saint Petersburg


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Isavria pirates selling loot.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Kharkiv Art Museum


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Martha and Mary have Christ.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Saint Petersburg, State Russian Museum


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

“Frina at the Poseidon Festival in Elefsina”


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

At the turn of the 1880s and 1890s, Semiradsky had the highest peak of popularity, who invariably received awards at academic exhibitions in St. Petersburg.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In Semiradsky's painting, the public appreciated the fascination and entertaining nature of the subjects.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Even the names of the paintings, in the words of E.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Nesterova, “sound like the titles of ladies' novels, beat for sure and amaze the hearts of adventurous ordinary people” [15].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

During this period, one of his most famous works was created, Frina at the Poseidon Festival in Elefsina [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The idea of the gigantic canvas (390 × 763.5 cm) dates back to 1886, when Semiradsky thought about participating in the future World Exhibition in Paris in 1889.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

At the same time he turned to the work of J.-L.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Jerome “Frina before the Judges” (1861), whom the public accused of savoring nudity.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky wanted to create a sensual work, which, however, being erotic, will remain within the bounds of decency [15].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

To paint the landscape, Semiradsky specially went to Greece — to Elefsina (Eleusis), where ancient mysteries were once held [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The painting became the main exhibit of Semiradsky's exhibition at the Academy of Arts in 1889; it was visited by about 30,000 people [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For the greatest effectiveness, Semiradsky ordered to darken the exhibition hall, and the picture was illuminated by Yablochkov's electric lamps [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Right from the solo exhibition, Frina was bought by Emperor Alexander III, and for the first time the Tsar announced his intention to create a museum of Russian art in St. Petersburg.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

G. G. At the same time, Myasoedov indignantly wrote to Stasov: “Is this a Russian painting?” — and called Semiradsky “thistle” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Experts assess the purchase of Frina as an element of imperial propaganda of the priority of the state over the national one, as well as the introduction of classical education in Russia — “pedagogical classicism” [7 ].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The European expositions of Frina added awards to Semiradsky: he became a member of the Turin Academy and a corresponding member of the French Academy of Fine Arts [18].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Late period


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's ancient works are combined with the creative heritage of artists such as F. A. Bronnikov S. IN. Bakalovich V. S. Smirnov, brothers P. A. and A. A. Svedomsky, in a special direction of academic classicism is the “neo-Greek” style.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, Semiradsky stands out for its thematic and genre diversity, for example, he has a chamber cycle dedicated to Italian monasteries.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Late ancient idyls of the 1890s indicate that Semiradsky tried to partially adapt the achievements of French impressionism, which is noticeable in the painting “The Mystery” (1896, private collection).


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

There was no organic synthesis — the background landscape with splashes of red flower dots, close to the decisions of Claude Monet and Renoir, is perceived as incompleteness [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For Semiradsky, some genres were rather auxiliary and even performed the functions of a “creative laboratory”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

These are his portraits, which made it possible to practice new techniques, and also served as a source for fundamental works.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For example, the Portrait of a Young Roman Woman in 1889 was used in the composition “Frins” — the model is placed in the shade in the central part of the painting [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For portraits, Semiradsky liked to choose a background with a floral pattern.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The range of models was not limited to “Greek women” and “Romans” — the artist created in the 1880s and 1890s a number of portraits of his contemporaries, including his parents and sons.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

They are marked by psychologism, attention to the character, age, inner world of the depicted [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The drama genre, however, was not available to Semiradsky.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

According to T. Karpova, solving the contradiction between “beautiful and terrible” is generally an insoluble problem for academic art [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's characteristic attention to detail, in particular, historical props, balance of the composition suppresses the emotional impact of the picture and neutralizes the psychology of the main characters.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Painted in 1885, The Martyrdom of St. Timothy and his wife Moors” on the plot of one of the most dramatic hagiographies of early Christianity — during the persecution of Christians, the spouses were crucified opposite each other — turned out to be extremely unsuccessful,” turned into a fake theater stage” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In the 1890s, in parallel with easel compositions, Semiradsky undertook the design of decorative panels for interiors.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

He painted a plafond for the Palace of Counts Zawisz in Warsaw, as well as the painting “The Apotheosis of Copernicus” for the library of the University of Warsaw (lost).


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In the early 1900s, he painted the side walls of the stage of the Warsaw Philharmonic, and also signed an agreement for painting the Hall of Antiquity of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow — a frieze depicting the ruins of Rome, but no longer managed to perform it [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 1894 and 1900, the artist painted curtains — curtains of the Krakow and Lviv theaters [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In these works, Semiradsky refers to broad generalizations, in particular, introducing allegories of Light and Darkness.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The curtains caused a mixed assessment, since in the Art Nouveau age they seemed archaic in style.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The curtain of the theater in Lviv caused the following reaction of the critic: “... the curtain of Mr. Semiradsky is the ghost of the blissful memory of academic art that rose from the coffin” [19].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

This curtain has been preserved and is now a landmark of Lviv, which is rarely used [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky's last major composition, Christian Dirtsei in the Circus of Nero, which began in 1885, was completed in 1897 and was shown at an academic exhibition in St. Petersburg and Moscow in 1898.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Critics and the audience received it coldly, and during the artist's lifetime it was never sold.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The film lacked the plein air effects and phenomena of southern nature familiar to Semiradsky, and the nudity of a crucified between the horns of a Christian bull also seemed inappropriate.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The composition of the painting seemed to fall apart and looked “tortured”, although the image of Nero was attributed to the artist's success [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Critics even said that the painting is an illustration to the novel by G. Senkevich “Quo Vadis?” , which extremely upset Semiradsky, he was forced to give explanations in the press [4].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Since the fall of 1901, Semiradsky suffered from an extremely painful disease — cancer of the tongue [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The summer of 1902 turned out to be hot in Rome, and it was decided to transport the sick artist to his homeland in Poland.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

On August 20, 1902, his will was dated, in which he left his wife the Strzalkowo estate, a house in the vicinity of Warsaw and a house in Rome with all his property and works of art (the artist's entire fortune was estimated at 400 thousand rubles [11]), and each of the children received 60,000 rubles [7] He died on August 23, 1902 at the Strzalkowo estate and was buried in Warsaw near the graves of his father and mother.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, on September 26, 1903, his ashes were transferred to Krakow, to the Crypt of the Honored in the Church of St. Stanislaus [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Heritage


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The obituary, published in the newspaper “Peterburgsky Listok”, was entitled “The Great Classic”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The anonymous author of the article called Semiradsky the “Great Pan”, playing both the artist's love for subjects from ancient history and his Polish origin [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

According to T. L. Karpova, Semiradsky's obituaries were unanimous that “the last classic of Russian art died” [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Specifically, she writes:


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In Russian art, which is not at all rich in brilliant salon painters, Semiradsky remained a kind of outlandish “rarity”, a virtuoso magician, a high-standard craftsman, whose works before still have the ability to captivate and delight [7]


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

At the beginning of the 20th century, Semiradsky's name enjoyed much more respect among Art Nouveau artists than among Wanderers.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

M. A. Vrubel was recognized in Russian art only by A. A. Ivanova, A. AND. Kuindzhi and Semiradsky [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Lev Bakst, while giving lectures to his colleagues in the World of Art, chose Semiradsky's work as the topic for the first of them.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For Miriskusniki, Semiradsky, with his panaesthetics and attention to form, embodied a call for the perception of the aesthetics of form and at the same time attention to the formal properties of art [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Alexander Benois wrote in his monograph “Russian School of Painting” (1904) that in some respects Semiradsky “could pass for an innovator”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, in general, the negative attitude towards the artist triumphed.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

This was partly due to the cosmopolitan nature of the artist and his neglect of the problems of our time: in an era concerned about the national idea, he was perceived as a stranger as in a Russian national school, both Polish and Polish.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

So, P. M. In principle, Tretyakov did not buy Semiradsky's paintings, denying him the right to be called a Russian artist [11].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

With all the enthusiastic attention of a number of contemporaries, Semiradsky was alien to the Polish national environment, and even his works in Krakow and Lviv for minimal fees did not change the attitude towards him [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The only painting by Semiradsky on the Polish theme is the painting “Chopin at Prince Radziwill” (1887) [20].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

However, there are also opinions that Semiradsky's work is rooted in the Polish national liberation movement:


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It was in Russia that “Persecutors of Christians at the Entrance to the Catacombs” and “Torches of Nero” were perceived as something beautiful and antique in the spirit of Lawrence Alma Tadema.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

While the Polish patriots understood perfectly well how close Henryk Semiradsky was to Henryk Sienkiewicz with his Quo Vadis, and identified themselves with the Christian martyrs of the Nero Empire, and believed that the omnipotence of the Russian Empire does not last forever [21].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

During the heyday of the avant-garde, Semiradsky was forgotten.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Museums stopped buying the remaining works from him, many things were lost or scattered in private collections in Germany, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Semiradsky annoyed the avant-garde artists not with cosmopolitanism, but by the lack of manifestation of the author's “I” and dispassion [7].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

For many years, the only work about him remained the monograph of his friend, sculptor S. Lewandowski, published in Polish in Warsaw in 1904 [22].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The attitude towards Semiradsky, and to academic and salon art in general, began to change only in the last quarter of the 20th century.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 2002, scientific conferences dedicated to his work were held in Ukraine in honor of the 100th anniversary of the artist's death, at the same time, a monument sculpted by S. Gurbanov [10].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In October 2004, the Tretyakov Gallery opened the exhibition “Prisoners of Beauty. Russian Academic and Salon Art of the 1830s — 1910s”, where Frina and some other works by Semiradsky were presented [23].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 2004, a monograph by E.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

IN. Nesterova on salon and academic art, four works dedicated directly to Semiradsky were published in 1997-2006.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 2008, the album catalog of T. L. Karpova, curator of the exhibition “Prisoners of Beauty”.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

From December 20, 2017 to April 2, 2018, the Benois Building of the State Russian Museum hosted an encyclopedic exhibition “Henry Semiradsky and the Colony of Russian Artists in Rome”, timed to coincide with the 175th anniversary of the academician's birth [24].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

After the revival of interest in salon and academic art, Semiradsky's works are appreciated in the antique market.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In 2011, the author's copy of Dance Among Swords was sold at Sotheby's auction in New York for $2 million 098 thousand (with an initial estimate of $600-800 thousand) — a record auction price for Semiradsky's paintings [25].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

In October 2015, at Kharkiv University, a memorial plaque to G. Semiradsky.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

The memorial sign was sculpted by sculptor Alexander Ridny.


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

It was also reported that in honor of Semiradsky, an art gallery was opened in the university building [26] [27] [28].


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Notes


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Literature


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

References


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category:Kharkiv University alumni


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category: 19th century Russian artists


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category:Polish artists


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category:Pensioners of the Imperial Academy of Arts


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category:Academicians of the Imperial Academy of Arts


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category: Burials in Krakow


Question: Who was Semiradsky's drawing teacher?

Genrikh Semiradsky

Category:Academic artists


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

C4 photosynthesis


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

C4 photosynthesis, or the Hatch-Slack cycle, is a carbon sequestration pathway characteristic of higher plants, the first product of which is tetracarbon oxaloacetic acid, and not tricarbon 3- phosphoglyceric acid, as in most plants with conventional C3 photosynthesis.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

At its core, C4 photosynthesis is a modification of conventional C3 photosynthesis and appeared in the process of evolution much later than the latter.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In the Hatch-Slack cycle, plants carry out primary carbon fixation in mesophyll cells through carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate (FEP) with the participation of the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (FEP- carboxylase).


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The oxaloacetate formed as a result of the reaction is converted to malate or aspartate and in this form is transported to the cells of the conducting beam lining, where, as a result of decarboxylation, it is released CO2 entering the reduction pentose phosphate cycle [1].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In the Calvin cycle, C4 plants, like C3 plants, convert CO2 into triatomic sugar, which is used to synthesize sucrose.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The transport of CO2 from mesophyll cells to the lining cells in the form of intermediate fixation products makes it possible to significantly increase its concentration at the site of Rubisco's localization and thus significantly increase its effectiveness, avoiding an adverse reaction with oxygen and, as a result, completely getting rid of photorespiration.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Thanks to a more effective method of fixing CO2, there is no need to keep the stomata open all the time to ensure active gas exchange, which means that water losses during transpiration are reduced.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

For this reason, C4 plants are able to grow in drier habitats, at high temperatures, under conditions of salinization and lack of CO2.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

However, additional steps to fix carbon in the C4 path require additional energy costs in the form of ATP.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

If we assume that in the Calvin cycle in C4 plants, as well as in C3 plants, 3 ATP molecules and 2 NADPH molecules are used to fix one CO2 molecule, then to regenerate the carbon acceptor in the cycle Hatch-Slack, that is, the conversion of pyruvate to FEP, requires an additional 2 ATP molecules.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

As a result, 5 ATP molecules and 2 NADPH molecules are consumed per CO2 molecule in the C4 path [1].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

For this reason, C4 plants need a higher level of insolation for optimal growth.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Discovery history


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The first mention that sugar cane may have dicarboxylic tetracarbonic acid as the first product of photosynthesis appeared in 1954 as a short note without reference and was published in the annual report of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Experimental Station.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In more detail, this work appeared in the form of a short message authored by H.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

P. Korchak, K. E.


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C4 photosynthesis

Hartt and G. O. Burra.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

A full article by this group of researchers was published only in 1965 [2].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

This long delay is due to the discrepancy between the results obtained and data obtained at Melvin Calvin's laboratory, with which the Hawaiian group had close contact at the time [3].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Soviet scientists obtained similar results at about the same time.


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C4 photosynthesis

In the works of L. A. Nezgovorova (1956—1957), it was found that with short exposures of corn leaves in light, 14C out of 14CO2 is found in aspartic acid [4].


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C4 photosynthesis

Around the same time, in 1960, the Russian scientist Yu.


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C4 photosynthesis

S. Karpilov published data demonstrating that malic and aspartic acids are the first to form in corn during radioactive labeling [5].


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C4 photosynthesis

In 1963, Yu.


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C4 photosynthesis

S. Karpilov together with his colleague I. A. Tarchevsky published a second article, which considered the effect of the procedure for killing leaves on radioactive labeling of photosynthesis products.


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C4 photosynthesis

Karpilov published his next article on this topic only in 1969.


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C4 photosynthesis

Needless to say, neither Soviet nor Hawaiian scientists knew about each other's achievements until 1969 [3].


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C4 photosynthesis

Scientists Marshal Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack, who worked at the Australian company's laboratory in Brisbane at the time, knew about the results of the Hawaiian group since the 1960s.


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C4 photosynthesis

So in 1965, when a full-fledged article was published, they decided to double-check this data.


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C4 photosynthesis

After repeating the results of the Hawaiian group on the radioactive labeling of sugarcane photosynthesis products, they identified oxaloacetate as the first carbon acceptor, using a special killing technique [3] .


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C4 photosynthesis

Based on their data, they compiled a simple working model and in 1966 published an article in which they first described this biochemical pathway as a new type of photosynthesis, fundamentally different from Calvin cycle [6] [3].


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C4 photosynthesis

Over the next four years, Hatch and Slack did a lot of work to decipher the C4 pathway: they postulated and confirmed the role of FEP carboxylase in the primary fixation of CO2, they discovered plant pyruvate phosphate dikinase, somewhat previously found in bacteria, as well as previously unknown NADP-dependent malate dehydrogenase.


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C4 photosynthesis

In addition, they studied the localization of these, as well as many other enzymes, in mesophyll cells and the bundle lining.


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C4 photosynthesis

At that time, it was assumed that quadricarbon dicarboxylic acids should transfer one carbon atom to a precursor to form triosophosphate in the recarboxylation reaction.


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C4 photosynthesis

However, later, when it was discovered that the decarboxylating NADP-malik enzyme was localized in large quantities in the lining cells, it became clear that CO2 would enter the Calvin cycle as a result of repeated fixation, and this hypothesis fell away.


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C4 photosynthesis

In 1970, Hatch and Slack at an international meeting in Canberra presented a detailed scheme of C4 photosynthesis of the NADP-malate dehydrogenase type, where the audience suggested that this path serves for the concentration of CO2 in the cells of the conductive beam lining, which was soon confirmed.


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C4 photosynthesis

The importance of this injection mechanism for suppressing Rubisco's oxygenase activity and photorespiration became clear only over the next few years [3]


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C4 photosynthesis

Initially, Hatch and Slack named the type of photosynthesis they described the C4 photosynthetic pathway of dicarboxylic acids [3], a name that was later abbreviated to C4 photosynthesis.


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C4 photosynthesis

Subsequently, in the literature, this process was also called the cycle, or the path of Hatch-Slack.


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C4 photosynthesis

In Russian literature, there is sometimes a designation of the path of Hatch — Slack — Karpilov, emphasizing the contribution of a Soviet researcher.


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C4 photosynthesis

Leaf anatomy


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C4 plants are characterized by a special leaf structure, the so-called fender anatomy (German: Kranz - crown, crown).


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C4 photosynthesis

For the first time, this type of leaf structure was described in 1884 by the German botanist Gottlieb Gaberlandt [7].


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C4 photosynthesis

The conductive bundles in such plants are surrounded by two layers of green cells of the assimilation parenchyma.


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C4 photosynthesis

The outer layer is formed by mesophyll cells that are not differentiated into spongy and palisade parenchyma, and the inner layer is formed by cells of the vascular bundle lining.


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C4 photosynthesis

The lining cells are connected to mesophyll cells by a variety of plasmodesms, due to which an active exchange of metabolites is possible between them.


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C4 photosynthesis

A feature of the structure of the leaf of C4 plants is the presence of no more than 2-3 layers of mesophyll cells, which makes it easy to exchange photosynthesis products through plasmodesms.


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C4 photosynthesis

Mesophyll cells and conductive bundle lining cells differ structurally and functionally.


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C4 photosynthesis

Mesophyll cells are small, loose, chloroplasts always have grains in them and they rarely contain starch.


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxylase is located in these cells, which attaches CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate to form oxaloacetate.


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C4 photosynthesis

The lining cells are larger, with a thickened, often suberinized, cell wall, fit snugly against the vessels of the leaf, chloroplasts in them may not have grain and often contain starch grains.


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C4 photosynthesis

Here the Rubisco enzyme is localized and the normal Calvin cycle takes place [8].


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C4 photosynthesis

Some C4 plants are also characterized by chloroplast dimorphism, when chloroplasts of mesophyll cells have numerous grains, and in the lining cells, the faces are rudimentary and almost completely are missing [8].


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C4 photosynthesis

However, such dimorphism is not necessary for C4 photosynthesis and is found only among plants with a certain biochemical type [9].


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C4 photosynthesis

Not all C4 plant species have a suberine layer, but all of them strive to prevent the diffusion of CO2 from the lining cells, so the position of chloroplasts in these cells becomes especially important.


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C4 photosynthesis

In species with a suberin layer, chloroplasts are located centrifugally, that is, at the maximum distance from the conducting beam and closer to the mesophyll.


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C4 photosynthesis

In species without a suberine layer, chloroplasts are located centripetally, close to the cell wall, as close as possible to the conducting beam and away from the mesophyll.


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C4 photosynthesis

This distribution of chloroplasts lengthens the diffusion path of CO2 and reduces leakage into mesophyll cells [10].


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C4 photosynthesis

Biochemistry


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C4 photosynthesis

In C3 plants, dark photosynthesis reactions begin with the fixation of CO2 by the Rubisco enzyme on the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate acceptor to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate.


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C4 photosynthesis

However, due to the double (carboxylase and oxygenase) activity of Rubisco, part of the substrate for fixing CO2 reacts with oxygen and oxidizes, which leads to a loss of substrate and energy, as well as entails additional costs for the disposal of the resulting dicarbon compound, 2-phosphoglycolate.


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C4 photosynthesis

The sum of these processes is called photorespiration and makes a significant contribution to reducing the overall efficiency of photosynthesis.


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C4 photosynthesis

To overcome the limitations associated with Rubisco's adverse reaction in conditions of low CO2 and high O2 in the modern atmosphere, C4 plants have developed an effective mechanism for concentrating CO2 at the site of Rubisco localization, creating favorable conditions for the work of this enzyme.


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C4 photosynthesis

Instead of directly fixing Rubisco in the Calvin cycle, CO2 is assimilated into mesophyll cells in the form of tetracarbonic organic acid, which is then transported to the cells of the lining of the vascular bundles, where it is decarboxylated to release CO2.


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C4 photosynthesis

The anatomical prerequisite for CO2 injection is a larger number of mesophyll cells (approximately 5-7 per cell of the lining).


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C4 photosynthesis

Thus, CO2, previously recorded in five cells, falls into one [11].


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C4 photosynthesis

In the cells of the lining, CO2 enters the normal Calvin cycle, where Rubisco is fixed a second time and is used for the synthesis of carbohydrates.


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C4 photosynthesis

Due to the constant gradient of metabolites, as well as the CO2-impermeable cell wall of the lining, the CO2 concentration in the Rubisco carboxylation site, even with closed stomata, increases 14 times compared to the equilibrium concentration of CO2 in water (from 5 μmol/L to 70 μmol/L, respectively) [11].


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C4 photosynthesis

At such high concentrations of CO2 in the carboxylation site, the oxygenase reaction is largely suppressed, the efficiency of photosynthesis increases, and energy losses for photorespiration decrease.


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C4 photosynthesis

The primary fixation of CO2 in C4 plants is carried out by the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase or FEP carboxylase located in mesophyll cells.


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C4 photosynthesis

Unlike Rubisco, it fixes carbon dioxide in the form of a bicarbonate ion HCO3−, and not CO2.


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C4 photosynthesis

Since a charged molecule is used as a substrate, an adverse reaction with an uncharged molecule like O2, which also differs from bicarbonate in terms of spatial structure.


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C4 photosynthesis

The effectiveness of the mechanism for pre-fixing CO2 with FEP carboxylase does not lie in the high affinity of the enzyme to the substrate (Km (HCO3−) = 0.2—0.4 mmol/L for FEP carboxylase [11] versus Km (CO2) = 10-15 μmol/l for Rubisco [11]), and in the fact that in the cytosol at normal temperature and pH 8, the ratio of HCO3−:CO2 is approximately 50:1.


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C4 photosynthesis

Thus, FEP carboxylase, unlike Rubisco, can attach the dominant form of carbon dioxide in this equilibrium reaction and effectively fix CO2, even if semi-closed in stomata, the concentration of CO2 dissolved in water will fall below the level acceptable for Rubisco [8].


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C4 photosynthesis

The formation of HCO3− from CO2 occurs with the participation of the zinc-containing carbonic anhydrase enzyme, which is also localized in the cytosol of mesophyll cells and accelerates the establishment of balance between the two forms carbon dioxide:


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C4 photosynthesis

C


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O


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C4 photosynthesis


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H


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C4 photosynthesis


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C4 photosynthesis

O


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C4 photosynthesis


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C4 photosynthesis

H


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C


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C4 photosynthesis

O


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C4 photosynthesis


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C4 photosynthesis


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C4 photosynthesis


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C4 photosynthesis

H


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{\ displaystyle\ mathrm {CO_ {2} +H_ {2} O\ rightleftharpoons HCO_ {3} ^ {-} +H^ {+}}}


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxylase catalyzes the irreversible condensation of FEP and HCO3− molecules to form oxaloacetate.


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxylase has a very high affinity for FEP.


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C4 photosynthesis

Oxaloacetate is converted to malate or aspartate and in this form is transported to the lining cells, where it again becomes malate and undergoes oxidative decarboxylation:


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C4 photosynthesis

HCO3− Fn


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C4 photosynthesis

FEPCPhosphoenol pyruvate (FEP) Oxaloacetate


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C4 photosynthesis

As a result of oxidative decarboxylation, CO2 and pyruvate are formed from malate, which in one form or another returns to mesophyll cells, where it is again converted to FEP using enzyme chloroplasts.


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C4 photosynthesis

The enzyme-catalyzed reaction is quite unusual, the name “dikinase” refers to an enzyme that catalyzes double phosphorylation.


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C4 photosynthesis

At the first, reversible stage of the reaction, one phosphate residue is transferred from ATP to inorganic phosphate to form pyrophosphate, and the second (Fβ) is attached to pyruvate.


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C4 photosynthesis

Chloroplasts localized in the stroma instantly hydrolyzes the resulting pyrophosphate, which makes the reaction irreversible [12].


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C4 photosynthesis

Thus, the carbon dioxide acceptor is regenerated and the cycle is closed.


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C4 photosynthesis

ATP+FN AMP+FFN


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C4 photosynthesis

PFDCpyruvatPhosphoenolpyruvate


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C4 photosynthesis

An effective carbon dioxide concentration mechanism allows C4 plants to create such a diffuse current to ensure sufficient carbon dioxide supply even with increased stomatal resistance.


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C4 photosynthesis

It is this effect that makes it possible to spend almost half as much water on fixing one CO2 molecule as C3 plants, because with a decrease in the width of the stomatal gap, water losses also decrease proportionally [11].


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C4 photosynthesis

Three types of C4 photosynthesis


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C4 photosynthesis

According to the type of C4 acid that carries carbon dioxide to the lining cells (malate or aspartate), a C3 product that returns to mesophyll cells for regeneration (pyruvate or alanine), as well as with the nature of decarboxylating reactions in the lining cells, three variants of the C4 photosynthesis pathway are distinguished [1]:


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NADP+-malate dehydrogenase type: Malate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation in chloroplasts under the action of NADP-dependent decarboxylating malate dehydrogenase (NADP-dependent malik enzyme) with formation of NADPH and CO2 molecules.


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C4 photosynthesis

NAD+-malate dehydrogenase type: Malate is decarboxylated in mitochondria using NAD-dependent decarboxylating malate dehydrogenase (NAD-dependent malik enzyme) to form one NADH molecule.


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C4 photosynthesis

The released carbon dioxide diffuses into chloroplasts.


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP-carboxykinase type: Malate is decarboxylated in mitochondria according to the NAD-malate dehydrogenase type, but in addition, there is direct decarboxylation of oxaloacetate in the cytoplasm with FEP carboxykinase with the consumption of one ATP molecule and the formation of FEP.


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxykinase (FEPCA) has been found in corn, a typical NADP-MDH plant, which allows it to transport carbon dioxide in the form of aspartate (about 25%); many dicotyledonous C4 plants also contain FEPCA in addition to the main decarboxylating enzyme.


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C4 photosynthesis

The coexistence of different types of C4 photosynthesis, for example, NADP-MDH and FEPKK or NAD-MDH and FEPKK, provides the plant with additional flexibility and the ability to transport other types of C4 acids and products, which return to mesophyll cells for regeneration.


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C4 photosynthesis

Moreover, some plants without FEPKK activity are still able to transport several metabolites, such as aspartate and malate, as is the case with grain sorghum.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Each of the mixed types of C4 photosynthesis, as well as the “pure” NADP- and NAD-malate decarboxylase pathways, has its own specific environmental advantages.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In this sense, the division into three independent biochemical types should be considered relatively conditional [13].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The FEP-carboxykinase type is never found in its pure form, and even in plants traditionally classified as this type, FEP carboxykinase provides, albeit more, but never all decarboxylating activity.


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C4 photosynthesis

Among other things, FEP carboxykinase is widely used as an auxiliary decarboxylase by plants with NADP- and NAD-MDH types.


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C4 photosynthesis

For this reason, it was proposed to divide C4 photosynthesis only into NADP- and NAD-malate dehydrogenase types, which clearly differ in decarboxylating enzyme and structural plan, and FEP carboxylase the type is considered as an auxiliary, which is used to varying degrees by different plants [13].


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C4 photosynthesis

NADP-malate dehydrogenase type (NADP-MDH)


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C4 photosynthesis

NADP-malate dehydrogenase type (NADP-MDH) [11] or NADP-malicenzyme type (NADP-ME) [14] has historically been the first biochemical type of C4 photosynthesis studied.


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C4 photosynthesis

Important crops such as corn, sorghum, dewdrop and sugar cane are photosynthesized along this path [8].


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C4 photosynthesis

Malate and pyruvate are used as transport products.


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C4 photosynthesis

Oxaloacetate, which is formed as a result of carboxylation of FEP, is transported by means of a specific carrier to chloroplasts, where it is reduced by NADP-malate dehydrogenase to malate.


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C4 photosynthesis

The resulting malate is carried into the cytosol and diffuses from mesophyll cells into the lining cells through plasmodesms.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The malik enzyme, which is localized in the chloroplasts of the lining cells, catalyzes the conversion of malate to pyruvate with the release of CO2, which is fixed by Rubisco.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The resulting pyruvate with the participation of a specific carrier is exported from chloroplasts of the lining cells and diffuses through plasmodesms into mesophyll cells, where it enters the mesophyll cells with the help of another carrier chloroplasts, where the pyruvate phosphate dikinase enzyme converts it back to FEP [11].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Since chloroplasts of the lining cells, unlike chloroplasts of mesophyll cells, do not contain carbonic anhydrase, the diffusion of CO2 in the stroma of the lining cells is slower than in mesophyll cells.


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C4 photosynthesis

The suberine layer between the lining and mesophyll cells in some plants probably also makes it difficult for CO2 to leak through cell walls, so that only the possibility of leakage through plasmodesms remains.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The proportion of CO2, which was concentrated in the lining cells, but diffused back into mesophyll cells due to leakage, is estimated as 10—30% for different species [11].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Plants with this type of C4 photosynthesis are characterized by the presence of chloroplast dimorphism.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Chloroplasts of mesophyll cells have many grains, while chloroplasts of lining cells contain mainly stromal lamellas and a small number of granal stacks with low photosystem activity II, which makes it possible to reduce the oxygen content in the Rubisco activity site.


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C4 photosynthesis

There is a gradation in the number of chloroplast grains of the lining cells, from rudimentary grains in corn and dewdrop to their complete absence in sorghum and sugar cane [15].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Agricultural chloroplasts of the lining cells perform cyclic phosphorylation with the participation of photosystem I and synthesize only ATP.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

All the recovery equivalents necessary for the Calvin cycle are provided by mesophyll cells due to non-cyclic electron transport.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Oxidation in the cells of the malate lining provides no more than a third of the NADPH necessary for the Calvin cycle.


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C4 photosynthesis

The remaining part of the required NADPH together with ATP is supplied from chloroplasts of mesophyll cells to chloroplasts of the lining cells using the triosophosphate-3-phosphoglycerate shuttle mechanism, through triosophosphate carrier of the inner membrane of the corresponding chloroplasts [16].


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C4 photosynthesis

NAD-malate dehydrogenase type (NAD-MDH)


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C4 photosynthesis

NAD-malate dehydrogenase type (NAD-MDH) [11] or NAD-malate enzyme type (NAD-ME) [14] has been found in most species, including millet, amaranth, purslane [1], willow tea and marsh [7].


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C4 photosynthesis

Chloroplasts of both mesophyll cells and lining cells have facets and an active photosystem II [17].


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C4 photosynthesis

The lining cells contain many large mitochondria with well-developed crista [18].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Aspartate and alanine are used as transport products.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In this case, oxaloacetate, which is formed in the FEP carboxylase reaction, is converted to aspartate by reamination, which catalyzes glutamate-aspartate aminotransferase.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Since the concentration of glutamate in the cell is high, it is convenient for maintaining the diffusion current between the cells of the mesophyll and the lining.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

As a result of transamination, the concentration of aspartate becomes 5 times higher than the concentration of oxaloacetate, which creates a strong diffusion current.


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C4 photosynthesis

After diffusion into the lining cells, aspartate is transported to the mitochondria.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The mitochondrial isoenzyme form of glutamate-aspartate aminotransferase catalyzes the conversion of aspartate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced by NAD-malate dehydrogenase to malate.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Malate is decarboxylated by NAD-Malik enzyme to form pyruvate, and NAD+ formed in the oxaloacetate reduction reaction is again reduced to NADH.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The CO2 formed during the reaction diffuses into chloroplasts, where it is assimilated with the participation of Rubisco.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Pyruvate leaves the mitochondria and in the cytosol is converted to alanine with the participation of alanine-glutamate aminotransferase.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Since this reaction is equilibrium and the concentration of alanine is much higher than pyruvate, an intense diffusion flow of alanine into mesophyll cells occurs.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In mesophyll cells, alanine is converted to pyruvate involving the same aminotransferase mentioned above.


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C4 photosynthesis

Pyruvate is transported to chloroplasts, where it is converted to FEP with the participation of pyruvate phosphate dikinase in the same way as in the case of NADP-MDH type [17].


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxykinase type (FEPCC)


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C4 photosynthesis

FEP-carboxykinase type (FEPKK or FEP-KK) [11] has been found in several fast-growing tropical cereals that are used as fodder crops.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

This pathway of photosynthesis is used by some members of the genus millet (), [8] and eggplant [7].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Aspartate, alanine, malate and phosphoenol pyruvate are used as transport products.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

As in the NAD-MDH type C4 metabolism, oxaloacetate is converted to aspartate in mesophyll cells.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Aspartate diffuses into the cells of the lining, where oxaloacetate is regenerated with the participation of aminotransferase localized in the cytosol.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In cytosol, under the action of the FEP carboxykinase enzyme, oxaloacetate is converted to FEP with ATP consumption.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The CO2 released in the reaction diffuses into chloroplasts, and FEP diffuses back into mesophyll cells.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In plants of this type, ATP costs for pumping CO2 into the lining cells are mainly associated with the consumption of ATP by FEP carboxykinase.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Mitochondria provide this reaction with the necessary amount of ATP by oxidizing malate with the participation of the NAD-malik enzyme.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The source of malate, as in the case of NADP-malate dehydrogenase type, is mesophyll cells.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Thus, in C4-FEP-carboxykinase metabolism, only a small part of CO2 is released in mitochondria, and most of it is released in the cytosol [11].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Regulation


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

C4 photosynthesis is regulated by three main enzymes, each of which is activated by light, so that the C4 pathway is active only during daylight hours.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxylase is regulated in two ways: through phosphorylation and allosterically.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The main allosteric inhibitors of FEP carboxylase are carboxylic acids, such as malate and aspartate [19] [20].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Since malate is formed at the next step of the CAM and C4 cycles, immediately after FEP carboxylase catalyzes the condensation of CO2 and FEP into oxaloacetate, feedback is formed.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Both aspartate and oxaloacetate are easily converted into each other by the transamination mechanism; thus, high concentrations of aspartate inhibit FEP carboxylase by feedback.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The main allosteric activators of FEP carboxylase in plants are triosophosphates [21] and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate [22].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Both molecules are indicators of active glycolysis and signal the need to produce oxaloacetate in order to increase the flow of the substance through the tricarboxylic acid cycle.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In addition, an increase in glycolysis means an increased supply of FEP and, therefore, a larger acceptor to fix CO2 and transport it to the Calvin cycle.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

When the leaf is in the dark, the activity of FEP carboxylase is low.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In this case, the enzyme's affinity for the substrate, FEP, is very low; the process is also inhibited by low malate concentrations.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Therefore, at night, the enzyme in the leaf is practically inactive.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

When the leaf is illuminated in an unknown way, the FEP carboxylase kinase is activated, which phosphorylates the hydroxyl group of the serine residue in the FEP carboxylase protein.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxylase kinase breaks down rapidly, so the amount of enzyme in the cell is determined by the intensity of gene transcription.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

FEP carboxylase can be inactivated again if the phosphate group is removed by a specific phosphatase.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The activated (phosphorylated) enzyme is also inhibited by malate, but in this case, higher concentrations of malate are required to achieve the effect.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Both kinase and phosphatase are regulated at the transcription level.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

It is also believed that malate provides feedback in this process, reducing the level of kinase expression and increasing the expression of phosphatase [20].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PFDC) is also a light-dependent enzyme.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

It is inactivated in the dark due to phosphorylation on the threonine residue.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

This reaction is carried out by an unusual bifunctional PFDK-regulating protein (PFDK-RP or PDRP).


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

It has both kinase and phosphatase activity.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Phosphorylation is quite unusual, since ADP rather than ATP is used as a donor of the phosphate group.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The dephosphorylation reaction is also unusual: instead of a water molecule, PFRP transfers the cleavage phosphate group to free inorganic phosphate (Fn) to form pyrophosphate (FFN).


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The activity of PDRP depends on the level of ADP in the chloroplast stroma.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

ADP is a substrate for kinase activity and at the same time a strong competitive phosphatase inhibitor.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In the dark, the level of ADP increases significantly, as a result of which phosphatase activity is suppressed.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In the light, due to photophosphorylation, the concentration of ADP decreases sharply, there is no substrate left for the kinase reaction, and phosphatase ceases to be suppressed.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

As a result, PDRP cleaves phosphate from pyruvate phosphate dikinase and activates it [23].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

NADP-malate depadrogenase is activated by light due to the operation of the ferredoxin-thioredoxin system.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

During photosynthesis light reactions, light energy feeds the transport of electrons from water to ferredoxin.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase enzyme uses reduced ferredoxin to reduce the thioredoxin disulfide bond from disulfide to dithiol.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Reduced thioredoxin restores the cysteine-cysteine disulfide bond in NADP-malate depadrogenase, which converts the enzyme into its active form [11].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Isotope discrimination


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

A convenient method for identifying C4 plants is based on determining the ratio of carbon isotopes 13C/12C.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The method is based on the fact that plants absorb natural carbon isotopes in different amounts during photosynthesis (atmospheric CO2 contains 98.89% 12C and 1.11% 13C).


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

In general, plants prefer 12CO2, less absorb 13CO2 and even less 14CO2.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Fractionation of 13CO2 is more pronounced when Rubisco works, since the reaction catalyzed by this enzyme is slower, and the lighter isotope 12CO2 is fixed by the enzyme much more willingly than slowly diffusing 13CO2.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Faster FEP carboxidase does not distinguish between isotopes, and since Rubisco sells almost all CO2 previously fixed by FEP carboxylase in C4 plants, the percentage of 13C in C4- the plant corresponds to the product of the FEP-carboxylase reaction, while in the C3 plant it is determined by the isotope ratio characteristic of Rubisco.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

Accordingly, C4 plants contain a relatively higher percentage of 13C, carbohydrates isolated from C4 plants are heavier than sugars from C3 plants [8].


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The ratio of 13C/12C is determined by mass spectrometric methods and is expressed by the value Δ13c, which is the deviation of the isotopic composition of the test sample (13C/12C) from the isotopic the composition of the standard (13C/12C) art.


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

The standard (PDB or Chicago Standard) is the ratio of isotopes in the calcite of the Belemnitella americana fossil of the Cretaceous period; Δ13c in the test sample is usually expressed in ppm as follows way [14]:


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis

δ


Question: Where was the Hatch Slack cycle opened?

C4 photosynthesis