Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ left ({\ frac {da} {dt}}\ right) ^ {2} =G {\ frac {8\ pi\ rho _ {0} a_ {0} ^ {3}} {3a}} -a_ {0} ^ {2} H_ {0}\ left (\ rho _ {0} - {\ frac {3H_ {0} ^ {2}} {8\ pi G}}\ right).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

, then the expansion continues indefinitely, at the limit with an asymptotically tending speed to zero.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If the density is greater than critical, then the expansion of the universe is slowed down and replaced by compression.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If less, it expands indefinitely with a non-zero limit


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

, the universe expands monotonously, but unlike the case with


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

at high values


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

the expansion rate is increasing [7]:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

, so the universe is static.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ Lambda >\ Lambda _ {c}}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

the expansion rate decreases to a certain point, and then begins to increase indefinitely.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

, the expansion rate has remained almost unchanged for some time.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In case


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

it all depends on the initial value


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

R


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle R}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

, from which the expansion began.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Depending on this value, the universe will either expand to some size and then shrink, or expand indefinitely.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The Big Bang Theory (Hot Universe Model)


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The Big Bang theory is the theory of primary nucleosynthesis.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It answers the question of how chemical elements were formed and why their prevalence is exactly the same as it is now observed.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It is based on extrapolation of the laws of nuclear and quantum physics, assuming that when moving into the past, the average energy of particles (temperature) increases [8].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The limit of applicability is the area of high energies, above which the laws studied cease to work.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the same time, there is no substance as such, but there is almost pure energy.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If we extrapolate Hubble's law at that time, it turns out that the visible region of the universe is located in a small volume.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Small volume and high energy are the characteristic state of matter after the explosion, hence the name of the theory — the Big Bang Theory.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the same time, the answer to the question: “What caused this explosion and what is its nature?”


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The Big Bang theory also predicted and explained the origin of CMB radiation — a legacy of the moment when all matter was still ionized and could not resist the pressure of light.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In other words, the relic background is the remnant of the “photosphere of the universe”.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The entropy of the universe


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The main argument that supports the theory of the hot universe is the significance of its specific entropy.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It is equal to the ratio of the concentration of equilibrium photons nγ to the concentration of baryons nb with accuracy to the numerical coefficient.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Let us express nb in terms of the critical density and proportion of baryons [4]:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

b


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

ρ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

c


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

r


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

m


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Ω


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

b


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

h


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle n_ {b} = {\ frac {\ rho _ {c} r} {m_ {p}}} =1 {,} 124\ cdot 10^ {-5}\ Omega _ {b} h_ {100} ^ {2},}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

where h100 is the current Hubble value, expressed in units of 100 km/ (c Mpc), and taking into account that for CMB radiation with T = 2.73 K


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

γ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

z


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle n_ {\ gamma}\ approve 420 (1+z) ^ {3}}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

we get:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

η


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

b


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

γ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Ω


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

b


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

h


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ eta\ simeq n_ {b} /n_ {\ gamma}\ approach 2 {,} 7\ cdot 10^ {-8}\ Omega _ {b} h_ {100} ^ {2}\ sim 10^ {-9}.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The reciprocal is the value of specific entropy.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The first three minutes.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Primary nucleosynthesis


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Presumably, from the beginning of birth (or at least from the end of the inflationary stage) and as long as the temperature remains at least 1016 GeV (10-10s), all known elementary particles, all of which have no mass.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This period is called the period of Great Unification, when electroweak and strong interactions are united [9].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the moment, it is impossible to say which particles are present at that moment, but something is still known.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The η value is not only an indicator of specific entropy, but also characterizes the excess of particles over antiparticles [10]:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

n


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle {\ frac {n_ {p} -n_ {\ bar {p}}} {n_ {p}} =10^ {-9}.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the moment when the temperature drops below 1015 GeV, the X- and Y-bosons with the corresponding masses are probably released.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The era of the Great Unification is replaced by the era of electroweak unification, when electromagnetic and weak interactions represent a single whole.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In this era, the X- and Y-bosons are being annihilated.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the moment when the temperature drops to 100 GeV, the era of electroweak unification ends, quarks, leptons and intermediate bosons are formed.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The hadron era is coming, the era of active birth and annihilation of hadrons and leptons.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In this era, the moment of the quark-hadron transition or the moment of confinement of quarks, when it became possible to merge quarks into hadrons, is noteworthy.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At this point, the temperature is 300—1000 MeV, and the time from the birth of the universe is 10−6 s.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The era of the hadron era is inherited by the lepton era - at a time when the temperature drops to 100 MeV, and on the clock 10-4 s. In this era, the composition of the Universe begins to resemble the modern one; the main particles are photons, in addition to them there are only electrons and neutrinos with their antiparticles, as well as protons and neutrons.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

During this period, one important event occurs: the substance becomes transparent to neutrinos.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

There is something like a relict background, but for neutrinos.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

But since the separation of neutrinos occurred before the separation of photons, when some types of particles had not yet proannihilated, giving their energy to the rest, they cooled down more.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

By now, the neutrino gas should have cooled to 1.9 K if the neutrinos have no mass (or their masses are negligible).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At a temperature of T≈0.7 MeV, the thermodynamic equilibrium between protons and neutrons that existed before is disturbed and the ratio of the concentration of neutrons and protons freezes at 0.19.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The synthesis of deuterium, helium, lithium nuclei begins.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

~200 seconds after the birth of the Universe, the temperature drops to values at which nucleosynthesis is no longer possible, and the chemical composition of the substance remains unchanged until the birth of the first stars [9].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Problems of the Big Bang Theory


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Despite significant advances, the theory of the hot universe faces a number of difficulties.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If the Big Bang caused the expansion of the universe, then in general, there could be a strong heterogeneous distribution of matter, which is not observed.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The Big Bang theory also does not explain the expansion of the universe, it takes it as a fact [11].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The theory also suggests that the ratio of the number of particles and antiparticles at the initial stage was such that the result was the modern predominance of matter over antimatter.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It can be assumed that at first the universe was symmetrical — there was the same amount of matter and antimatter, but then, to explain baryonic asymmetry, some mechanism of baryogenesis is needed, which should lead to the possibility of proton decay, which is also not observed [3].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Various theories of the Great Unification suggest the birth in the early Universe of a large number of magnetic monopoles, which have not yet been discovered [12].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Inflationary model


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The task of inflation theory is to answer the questions left behind by expansion theory and the Big Bang theory: “Why is the universe expanding? And what is the Big Bang?” To do this, the expansion is extrapolated to point zero in time and the entire mass of the Universe is at one point, forming a cosmological singularity, often called the Big Bang.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Apparently, general relativity is no longer applicable at that time, which leads to numerous, but so far, alas, only purely speculative attempts to develop a more general theory (or even” new physics”), which solves this problem of cosmological singularity.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The main idea of the inflationary stage is if we introduce a scalar field called inflanton, the impact of which is great at the initial stages (starting from about 10−42s), but rapidly decreases over time, then it is possible to explain the plane geometry of space, while Hubble expansion becomes inertial motion due to the large kinetic energy accumulated during inflation, and the origin from a small the initially causal region explains the homogeneity and isotropy of the universe [13].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

However, there are a lot of ways to set an inflaton, which in turn gives rise to a whole variety of models.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

But most are based on the assumption of a slow slide: the inflanton potential slowly decreases to zero.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The specific type of potential and the way to set the initial values depends on the chosen theory.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Inflation theories are also divided into infinite and finite in time.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In theory, with infinite inflation, there are areas of space — domains — that have begun to expand, but due to quantum fluctuations have returned to their original state, in which conditions arise for re-inflation.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Such theories include any theory with infinite potential and Linde's chaotic theory of inflation [13].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The hybrid model belongs to theories with the finite time of inflation.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

There are two types of field in it: the first is responsible for large energies (and therefore for the speed of expansion), and the second for small ones, which determine the moment of completion of inflation.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In this case, quantum fluctuations can affect only the first field, but not the second, which means that the inflation process itself is finite.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Unresolved problems of inflation include temperature jumps in a very large range, at some point it drops to almost absolute zero.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the end of inflation, the substance is reheated to high temperatures.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

A “parametric resonance” is proposed for the role of a possible explanation for such a strange behavior [14].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The multiverse


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

“Multiverse”, “Great Universe”, “Multiverse”, “Hyperuniverse”, “Superuniverse”, “Multilinear”, “Omniverse” are various translations of the English term multiverse.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It appeared during the development of the theory of inflation [15].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Regions of the universe separated by distances larger than the particle horizon evolve independently of each other.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Any observer sees only those processes that occur in a domain equal in volume to a sphere with a radius that is the distance to the particle horizon.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In an era of inflation, two areas of expansion, separated by distance of the order of the horizon, do not intersect.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Such domains can be thought of as separate universes like ours: they are just as homogeneous and isotropic on a large scale.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The conglomerate of such formations is the Multiverse.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The chaotic theory of inflation assumes an infinite variety of Universes, each of which can have different physical constants from other Universes [16].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In another theory, universes differ in their quantum dimension [17].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

By definition, these assumptions cannot be tested experimentally.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Alternatives to inflation theory


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The cosmic inflation model is quite successful, but it is not necessary for considering cosmology.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

She has opponents, including Roger Penrose.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Their argument is that the solutions offered by the inflationary model leave behind missing details.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

For example, there is no fundamental justification that density perturbations at the pre-inflationary stage should be just so small that after inflation there is an observed degree of homogeneity, this theory doesn't suggest.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The situation is similar with spatial curvature: it decreases very much with inflation, but nothing prevented it from being so important before inflation that it still manifests itself in the modern stage of development of the universe.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In other words, the problem of initial values is not solved, but only skillfully draped.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Alternatively, theories such as string theory and bran theory, as well as cyclic theory, are proposed.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The main idea behind these theories is that all the necessary initial values are formed before the Big Bang.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

String theory requires that ordinary four-dimensional space-time be supplemented with a few more dimensions that would play a role early in the universe, but are now in a compactified state.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

To the inevitable question of why these measurements are compactified, the following answer is offered: superstrings have a T duality, so the string is “wound” on additional dimensions, limiting their size [18].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Within the framework of the bran theory (M-theory), it all starts with a cold, static five-dimensional space-time.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The four spatial dimensions are limited to three-dimensional walls or tri-brans; one of these walls is the space we live in, while the other brana is hidden from perception.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

There is another tri-brana, “lost” somewhere between two boundary brans in four-dimensional space.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

According to the theory, when this brana collides with ours, a large amount of energy is released and thereby conditions are created for the Big Bang to occur [19].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Cyclic theories postulate that the Big Bang is not unique in its kind, but implies the transition of the Universe from one state to another.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Cyclic theories were first proposed in the 1930s.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The stumbling block of such theories was the second law of thermodynamics, according to which entropy can only increase.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This means that the previous cycles would be much shorter and the substance in them would be much hotter than at the time of the last Big Bang, which is unlikely.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the moment, there are two cyclic theories that have managed to solve the problem of ever-increasing entropy: the Steinhardt-Turok theory and the Baum-Frampton theory [20] [21].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Theory of evolution of large-scale structures


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

As the data on the relict background show, at the time of separation of radiation from matter, the universe was actually homogeneous, the fluctuations of matter were extremely small, and this is a significant problem.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The second problem is the cellular structure of galaxy superclusters and, at the same time, the sphere-like structure in smaller clusters.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Any theory that attempts to explain the origin of the large-scale structure of the universe must necessarily solve these two problems (as well as correctly model the morphology of galaxies).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The modern theory of the formation of a large-scale structure, as well as individual galaxies, is called the “hierarchical theory”.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The theory goes as follows: at first, galaxies were small in size (about the Magellanic Cloud), but over time they merge to form larger galaxies.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Recently, the accuracy of the theory has been questioned and downsizing has contributed to this to a large extent.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

However, in theoretical studies, this theory is dominant.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The most striking example of such a study is Millennium simulation (Millennium run) [22].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

General provisions


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The classical theory of the emergence and evolution of fluctuations in the early Universe is Jeans's theory against the background of the expansion of a homogeneous isotropic universe [23]:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Φ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ vartriangle\ Phi =4\ pi G\ rho\ delta,}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle {\ frac {\ partial\ delta} {\ partial t}} +Hx\ triangledown\ delta +\ triangledown v=0,}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle {\ frac {\ partial v} {\ partial t}} +Hv+H (x\ triangledown) v=-u_ {s} ^ {2}\ triangledown\ delta -\ triangledown\ Phi.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

where us is the speed of sound in the medium, G is the gravitational constant, and ρ is the density of the unperturbed medium,


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

δ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ delta = {\ frac {\ delta\ rho} {\ rho}}.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

is the value of the relative fluctuation, Φ is the gravitational potential created by the medium, v is the velocity of the medium, p (x, t) is the local density of the medium and consideration takes place in the concomitant coordinate system.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The above system of equations can be reduced to one describing the evolution of inhomogeneities:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

π


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle {\ frac {\ partial ^ {2}\ delta} {\ partial t^ {2}}} +2H {\ frac {\ partial\ delta} {\ partial t}} +\ left ({\ frac {k^ {2}}} {a^ {2}} u_ {s} ^ {2} -u_ {s} ^ {2} -4\ pi G\ rho\ right)\ delta =0,}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

where a is the scale factor and k is the wave vector.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It follows from it, in particular, that fluctuations are unstable, the size of which exceeds:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

λ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

s


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Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

G


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

ρ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ lambda >\ lambda _ {J} = {\ sqrt {\ frac {u_ {s} ^ {2}\ pi} {G\ rho}}}.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the same time, the disturbance increases linearly or weaker, depending on the evolution of the Hubble parameter and energy density.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This model adequately describes the collapse of disturbances in a non-relativistic medium, if their size is much smaller than the current event horizon (including for dark matter during radiation-dominated stages).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

For the opposite cases, it is necessary to consider exact relativistic equations.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The energy-momentum tensor of an ideal fluid taking into account small density perturbations


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

T


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

ν


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

ρ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

p


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle T_ {\ nu} ^ {\ mu} = (\ rho +\ delta\ rho +p+\ delta p) u^ {\ mu} u_ {\ nu} -\ delta _ {\ nu} ^ {\ mu} (p+\ delta p)}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

covariantly preserved, from which the hydrodynamics equations generalized for the relativistic case follow.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Together with GR equations, they represent the initial system of equations that determine the evolution of fluctuations in cosmology against the background of Friedman's solution [23].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The era before recombination


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The moment of hydrogen recombination can be considered an isolated moment in the evolution of the large-scale structure of the Universe.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Up to this point, some mechanisms operate, and then completely different ones [24].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The initial density waves are larger than the event horizon and are frozen — do not affect the density of matter in the universe.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

But as it expands, the horizon is compared to the wavelength of the disturbance, as they say, “the wave is coming out of the horizon” or “entering the horizon.”


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

After that, the density begins to fluctuate - the sound wave propagates against the expanding background.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In the era of recombination, waves with a wavelength of no more than 790 Mpc at the current era enter the horizon.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The waves that are important for the formation of galaxies and their clusters enter at the very beginning of this stage.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At this time, the substance is a multicomponent plasma, in which there are many different effective mechanisms for the attenuation of all sound disturbances.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Perhaps the most effective among them in cosmology is the Silk decay.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

After all sound disturbances have been suppressed, only adiabatic disturbances remain.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

For some time, the evolution of ordinary and dark matter is synchronous, but due to the interaction with radiation, the temperature of ordinary matter drops more slowly.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

There is a kinematic and thermal separation of dark matter and baryonic matter.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It is assumed that this moment occurs when z=105.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The behavior of the baryon-photon component after separation and until the end of the radiation stage is described by equation [24]:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Φ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

η


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Φ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ Phi “+ {\ frac {4} {\ eta}}\ Phi '+u_ {s} ^ {2} k^ {2}\ Phi =0,}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

where k is the wave vector of the wave under consideration, and the derivatives are taken from η — conformal time.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It follows from its solution that at that time the amplitude of perturbations in the density of the baryonic component did not increase or decrease, but experienced acoustic oscillations:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

δ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models


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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ delta _ {rad}\ propto -cos (u_ {s} k\ eta).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

At the same time, dark matter did not experience such oscillations, since neither the pressure of light nor the pressure of baryons and electrons affect it.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Moreover, the amplitude of its perturbations is increasing:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

δ


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

C


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

D


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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{\ displaystyle\ delta _ {CDM}\ propto ln (k\ eta).


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Cosmological models

After recombination


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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After recombination, the pressure of photons and neutrinos on the substance is already negligible.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Therefore, the systems of equations describing the perturbations of dark and baryonic matter are similar:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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{\ displaystyle v'+ {\ frac {2} {\ eta}} v=-\ Phi.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

From the similarity of the type of equations, we can assume and then prove that the difference in fluctuations between dark and baryonic matter tends to a constant.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In other words, ordinary matter slides into potential pits formed by dark matter.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The growth of disturbances immediately after recombination is determined by


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

{\ displaystyle\ delta =C_ {1} + {\ frac {\ Omega _ {B}} {\ omega _ {CDM}}} C_ {2} {\ frac {1} {\ eta}} + {\ frac {C_ {3}} {\ eta ^ {3}}} +C_ {4}\ eta ^ {2},}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

where Ci is a constant that depends on the initial values.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

As can be seen from the above, at long times, density fluctuations increase in proportion to the scale factor:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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{\ displaystyle\ delta\ propto\ eta ^ {2}\ propto a (\ eta).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

All the perturbation growth rates given in this paragraph and in the previous paragraph increase with a wave number k, therefore, with the initial flat spectrum of perturbations, disturbances enter the collapse stage earlier of the smallest spatial scale, that is, features with a lower mass are formed first.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Objects with a mass of ~105Mare of interest for astronomy.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The fact is that when dark matter collapses, a protohalo is formed.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Hydrogen and helium, tending to its center, begin to radiate, and at masses less than 105M, this radiation throws the gas back to the outskirts of the protostructure.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

With larger masses, the process of forming the first stars starts.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

An important consequence of the initial collapse is that there are large mass stars that radiate in the hard part of the spectrum.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The emitted hard quanta, in turn, meet neutral hydrogen and ionize it.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Thus, immediately after the first outbreak of star formation, secondary ionization of hydrogen occurs [24].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Dark Energy Dominance Stage


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Suppose that the pressure and density of dark energy does not change over time, that is, it is described by a cosmological constant.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Then, from the general equations for fluctuations in cosmology, it follows that the perturbations evolve as follows:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

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{\ displaystyle\ delta _ {M}\ propto a^ {3} {\ frac {k^ {2}} {a^ {2}}}\ Phi.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Given that the potential at the same time is inversely proportional to the scale factor a, this means that the growth of disturbances does not occur and their size is unchanged.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This means that hierarchical theory does not allow structures larger than those currently observed.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In the era of dominance of dark energy, the last two important events for large-scale structures take place: the appearance of galaxies like the Milky Way — this happens on z~2, and a little later — formation of galaxy clusters and superclusters [24].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Theoretical problems


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Hierarchical theory, which logically follows from modern, proven ideas about the formation of stars and uses a large arsenal of mathematical tools, has recently encountered a number of problems, both theoretical and, more importantly, observational in nature [22]:


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The biggest theoretical problem lies in the place where thermodynamics and mechanics intersect: without the introduction of additional non-physical forces, it is impossible to force two dark matter halos to merge.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Voids are formed closer to our time than to recombination, but not so long ago discovered absolutely empty spaces measuring 300 Mpk come into dissonance with this statement.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Giant galaxies are also born at the wrong time, their number per unit volume on large z is much larger than what theory predicts.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Moreover, it remains the same when, in theory, it should grow very quickly.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Data on the oldest globular clusters do not want to put up with a flash of star formation weighing about 100M and prefer stars like our Sun.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

And this is only part of the problems that the theory faces.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The problems of modern models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If you extrapolate Hubble's law back in time, you end up with a point, a gravitational singularity called a cosmological singularity.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This is a big problem, as the entire analytical apparatus of physics becomes useless.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Although, following Gamow's path proposed in 1946, it is possible to reliably extrapolate to the point as long as modern laws of physics are operational, it is possible to accurately determine this moment of the onset of the “new physics” is not yet possible.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

It is assumed that it is equal in magnitude to Planck time,


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Cosmological models

₂


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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{\ displaystyle\ sim 10^ {-43}}


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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s.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The question of the shape of the universe is an important open question of cosmology


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

In mathematical terms, we are faced with the problem of finding a three-dimensional topology of the spatial section of the Universe, that is, the figure that best represents the spatial aspect The universe.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

General relativity as a local theory cannot give a complete answer to this question, although it also introduces some restrictions.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

First, it is not known whether the universe is globally spatially flat, that is, whether the laws of Euclidean geometry apply at the largest scales.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Currently, most cosmologists believe that the observed universe is very close to spatially flat with local folds, where massive objects distort space-time.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This opinion was confirmed by the latest WMAP data, which consider “acoustic oscillations” in temperature deviations of CMB radiation.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Secondly, it is not known whether the universe is single-connected or multiply connected.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

According to the standard expansion model, the universe has no spatial boundaries, but can be spatially finite.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This can be understood by the example of a two-dimensional analogy: the surface of a sphere has no boundaries, but has a limited area, and the curvature of the sphere is constant.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

If the universe is really spatially limited, then in some of its models, moving in a straight line in any direction, you can get to the starting point of the journey (in some cases this impossible due to the evolution of space-time [25]).


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Third, there are assumptions that the universe was originally born rotating.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

The classic idea of origin is the idea of the isotropy of the Big Bang, that is, the spread of energy in the same way in all directions.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

However, there are some indications of large-scale rotation: a team of researchers from the University of Michigan, led by Physics Professor Michael Longo (Michael Longo), found that counterclockwise spiral arms of galaxies are 7% more common than “opposite orientation” galaxies, which may indicate the presence of an initial moment of rotation The universe.


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

This hypothesis should also be tested by observations in the Southern Hemisphere [26].


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

comments


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

References


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

//Popular Mechanics #12, December 2012


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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Notes


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

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Category:Cosmology


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Category:Riemannian (and pseudo-Riemannian) geometry


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models

Category:Unsolved problems of modern physics


Question: What theories are used to build a Cosmological model?

Cosmological models


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] (other sources also: Vardanyan [8] [9]; February 17, 1924, Rostov-on-Don — January 10, 2012, Moscow) was a Soviet colonel, employee of the First Chief Directorate (PSU) of the State Security Committee of the USSR (foreign intelligence), participant of the Great Patriotic War, Hero of the Soviet Union.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The illegal intelligence activities of Gevorg Vartanyan and his wife Gohar (born January 25, 1926, Leninakan) continued in dozens of countries around the world on different continents for about 45 years and remains largely to the least classified.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The operation carried out by a group of 19-year-old Vartanyan in 1943 to disrupt the attempt of Hitler's special agency on the Big Three — Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran is widely covered.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The events of the post-war intelligence activities of the Vartanyan spouses in Italy, Germany, France, Greece, India and the United States also gained some fame in open sources.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Working against NATO, the Vartanyans specialized in military-political intelligence, to a lesser extent — in scientific and technical intelligence [10] [11].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

During the entire period of illegal work, the Vartanyans changed all their personal data three times, including citizenship [12].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Despite the fact that in 1986 the Vartanyan couple finally completed their intelligence work abroad and returned to the USSR, a number of politicians, military personnel and diplomats with whom they contacted in the West, continue to remain public figures after their resignation and engage in social and political activities in their countries.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

According to Gevorg and Gohar's colleagues in illegal intelligence, “what the Vartanyanov duo committed is so diverse and comprehensive that it will never be declassified” [13] [14].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Biography


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Family and adolescence


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Born on February 17, 1924 in Rostov-on-Don into an Armenian family.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Father — Andrey Vasilyevich Vartanyan (born in 1888), mother — Maria Savelyevna (born in 1900) [15].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Andrey Vartanyan was an Iranian citizen, director of an oil mill located in the village of Stepnoy [16].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

In 1930, when Gevorg Vartanyan was six years old, his family left for Iran.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

His father was associated with Soviet foreign intelligence and left the USSR on its instructions.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

After living in Tabriz for six years, the family moved to Tehran.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The position of Vartanyan's father, a man with connections and a solid position in society, the owner of a confectionery factory known throughout Iran for its sweets, was a reliable cover for him.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Using it, Andrei Vasilyevich conducted active intelligence and intelligence work: recruiting, maintaining contact with illegal immigrants.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

He almost never used the financial resources of the Center, managed the money he earned himself.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

During the Great Patriotic War, Andrey Vartanyan collected a significant amount of money, which was transferred to the Center for the construction of a tank [16].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

In 1953, Andrei Vartanyan returned from Tehran to Yerevan, having worked in Iran for Soviet intelligence for 23 years.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

He was a patriot of the USSR and raised his children in the same spirit.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

It was under the influence of his father that Gevorg became a scout.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

He later recalled: [6]


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

My father and famous intelligence officer Ivan Ivanovich Agayants made me a real intelligence officer.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Honor and praise to them!


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Service in Iran


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Following in his father's footsteps, Gevorg Vartanyan linked his life to intelligence activities.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

On February 4, 1940, he established contact with the Tehran residency of Soviet intelligence represented by Ivan Aghayants.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Later, recalling that meeting, he said: [16]


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

I went to a meeting with a Soviet resident.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

It was later that I found out that Ivan Ivanovich Agayants was a legendary Soviet intelligence officer.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

He was a strict man and at the same time kind and warm.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

I worked with him for a long time, until the end of the war, and he made me a scout.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

I was busy, but he met me, taught me, trained me.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

After a meeting with resident, Gevorg Andreevich, who was given the operational pseudonym “Amir”, was instructed to create a group of several reliable guys to help senior colleagues.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

By that time, a significant part of the Iranian population took a pro-Soviet position.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Therefore, Amir quickly coped with his first task, gathering a group of like-minded people of about the same age, there were Armenians, Lezgins, Assyrians.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

All of them come from the USSR.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Their parents were either expelled from the Soviet Union after 1937, or they were forced to leave themselves.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

All members of Amira's group were united by love for the Motherland.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

There were seven like-minded friends who were ready to fight Nazism.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The guys did not have any operational training: they learned both methods of conducting external surveillance and other professional tricks on the go.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The group moved around the city on bicycles, for which Ivan Aghayants jokingly called the band “Light Cavalry” [6], and it went down in history under this name.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Two years later, Gohar, the sister of one of the active members of the Hovhannes residency, appeared in the group, who will later become Gevorg Vartanyan's life partner.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

In 1941, two members of Vartanyan's group were identified by the Iranian police, and they urgently had to be transported to the USSR.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Since Vartanyan had contact with them, he was detained.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Vartanyan pretended to cooperate and went around the city with the police, showing the places where two members of his group and the people with whom they allegedly communicated had been.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

In fact, these were people who prevented the work of Soviet intelligence.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

They were arrested and held in prison for about six months.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Gevorg Vartanyan himself spent three months in prison.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

In the early 1940s, in Iran, due to the strategic (mainly due to the large oil reserve) and geographical importance of the region, the interests of the world's leading powers of that time crossed.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

By the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, there were about 20 thousand German citizens in Iran - military instructors and agents under the guise of merchants, bankers, engineers; the head of the German residency in Iran was Franz Meyer.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Vartanyan's group identified about 400 agents among Iranians who worked for Germany.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

After the Soviet-British occupation of Iran in August 1941, they were arrested and mostly converted to work for the USSR and Great Britain.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

In 1942, the British opened an intelligence school in Iran, where they trained agents to be thrown into the territory of the USSR.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Vartanyan managed to enter this school and identify the students, which helped to detain them after being thrown into the USSR.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

After the protest of the Soviet side, the intelligence school was closed; at the same time, Vartanyan himself, according to him, acquired valuable intelligence skills at the school [17] [18].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Tehran conference


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

It is difficult to overestimate the historical significance of the Conference — it was the first meeting of the Big Three, at which the fate of millions of people and the future of the world were decided.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The leadership of the Third Reich also understood this, which instructed the Abwehr to organize an attempt on the leaders of the USSR, the United States and Great Britain in Tehran.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The secret operation codenamed “Long Leap” was developed by the head of the SS secret service in the VI department of the main department of imperial security, Hitler's special agent on special assignments , Obersturmbanfuhrer Otto Skorzeny.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Skorzeny's track record included such well-known sabotage operations as the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dolfus in 1934, the arrests in 1938 of Austrian President Miklas and Chancellor Schuschnig [6], after which The Wehrmacht occupied Austria, as well as the release of Benito Mussolini from captivity in 1943, which caused a stir in the press.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Later, in 1966, Skorzeny confirmed that he had Hitler's instructions to kill Stalin, Churchill, Roosevelt or steal them in Tehran by entering the British Embassy from the Armenian cemetery [6 ] [7].


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

At the end of the summer of 1943, the Germans threw a team of six radio operators into the area of Kum Lake near the city of Qom (70 km from Tehran).


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

At that time, the Nazis had powerful agents with good cover there.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The Germans changed into local clothes, repainted with henna, someone even portrayed a mullah.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Soviet special services did not have access here.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

On ten camels, the Germans carried a walkie-talkie, weapons and equipment with them.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Ten days later, they were near Tehran, where they took a truck and reached the city.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Their safe house was located on one of the central streets, not far from the embassies of the USSR and Great Britain.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

From a villa prepared specifically for this purpose by local agents, a group of radio operators established radio contact with Berlin in order to prepare a bridgehead for the landing of saboteurs led by Skorzeny.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

Intelligence officer Nikolai Kuznetsov reported information about the impending terrorist attack to Moscow from the Ukrainian forests, and in the spring of 1943, a radiogram came from the center, which said that Germany was planning carry out a sabotage in Tehran during a conference with the participation of the leaders of the USSR, the United States and Great Britain.


Question: In what year did Gevorg Andreevich Vartanyan die?

Gevorg Vartanyan

The purpose of the sabotage was the physical elimination or kidnapping of the main participants