Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

During the romance, Paul's wife Jeanne received part of Maria's letters to her husband, and she began to blackmail both.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Paul's wife's brother-in-law, editor of a Parisian newspaper, published these letters.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

When the scandal broke out, Maria was at a conference in Belgium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Upon returning in front of her house, Curie found an angry crowd, so she and her daughters had to urgently hide with her friend, writer Camilla Marbeau.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The newspaper persecution of Curie began.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Some newspapers wrote that she was Jewish, others that she was Russian or German, and she was accused of atheism.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Langevin summoned one of the journalists to a duel, which took place on November 25, 1911 and ended in nothing (both refused to shoot) [57] [58].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Eva Curie hid these facts of her mother's biography in her book, which is why she was criticized by reviewers [49].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At this time, Albert Einstein wrote Curie a letter of encouragement:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

If this mob bothers you, just stop reading this nonsense.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Leave it to the vipers for whom this story was fabricated.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

—A.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Einstein [4]


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1911, Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for outstanding services in the development of chemistry: the discovery of the elements of radium and polonium, the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this wonderful element” [59].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie became the first — and today the only woman in the world — to win twice the Nobel Prize.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In her report in Stockholm, she stressed that the discovery of new elements was made by her together with her husband:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

First, I would like to remind you that the discovery of radium was made by Pierre Curie together with me.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

We also owe Pierre Curie for his fundamental experiments in radioactivity.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

My own work was chemical research on the release of radium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie contributed to raising the authority of the Nobel Prize as a whole.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Prior to the awarding of the Curie and Becquerel spouses in 1903, the press covered the merits of only Nobel Peace Prizes and Prizes in the Field of Medicine.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the difficult living conditions in which the Curie couple worked and made their discoveries, and in Marie's novel with Langevin, the press saw a sharp plot, which added to the fame of the scientist.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The press was also attracted by the unusual properties of radium discovered by the spouses, which was considered a potential cure for cancer [11].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

However, even Maria's second Nobel Prize in the fall did not stop the discussion in the press of her personal life.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Moreover, the famous Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius wrote two letters to Maria, in the first of which he persuaded her to come, and in the second, changing her mind, assured that her appearance at the ceremony was undesirable [4 ].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Despite this, Maria went to the ceremony accompanied by her daughter Irene and made a report on her works, which she dedicated to the memory of her husband, believing that the prize belongs to him [60].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After being awarded in December 1911, Maria suffered from kidney disease and another severe depression.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She underwent surgery and was treated in a private clinic under a false name [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Not wanting to return to France, Maria accepted the invitation of physicist Hertha Ayrton to live for some time in England, where she arrived under the name Sklodowska.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Hertha was almost the only scientist who helped her [60].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Langevin eventually reconciled with his wife, but maintained scientific and friendly relations with Maria until her death [45].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Radium institutes


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, in 1909, the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute established the Radium Institute in Paris to study radioactivity [61].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The initiative to create the institute came from Emile Roux, who then headed the Pasteur Institute [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Radium Institute was divided into two departments — basic research on radioactivity and research on the use of radiation for the treatment of diseases [62].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Organizational work was completed in July 1914, and Marie Curie was appointed Director of the Department for Basic Research on Radioactivity [9] [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the war, she returned to the institute [59], which became one of the four largest laboratories in the world for the study of radioactivity, along with the Cavendish Laboratory led by Ernest Rutherford, led by and led by Otto Gan and Lisa Meitner [63].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Much later, in 1925, Marie Curie visited Poland to participate in a groundbreaking ceremony for the Warsaw Radium Institute, which began to be built before the war and opened in 1932.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Bronislava, Maria's sister [64] [65] [33], took the position of director, and Curie herself became Honorary Director [59].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Public events distracted Maria from her scientific work and caused her discomfort, but provided resources for her work [65].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Similar institutes for the study of radioactivity (radium institutes) were opened in Leningrad.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

World War I


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On August 1, 1914, France announced a general mobilization, and on September 2, two bombs fell on Paris.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Realizing the approach of the German army to the capital, Maria took the valuable radium in a lead case to Bordeaux, where the French government had moved, and returned to Paris [60] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Immediately after the outbreak of active hostilities on the fronts of the First World War, Maria Sklodowska-Curie, appointed Director of the Radiology Service of the Red Cross [55], took up equipment and maintenance X-ray portable machines to scan the wounded, attracting government support, donations from manufacturers and wealthy acquaintances, and training and guiding the work of numerous volunteers [ 2].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie also invested almost all of her personal funds from both Nobel Prizes in military loans.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Mobile X-ray stations, powered by a dynamo attached to a car engine, traveled around hospitals, helping surgeons perform operations; at the front, these points were nicknamed” little Curie.”


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The first installations were ready by the end of October, and they traveled on November 1, 1914.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria trained military doctors in the use of radiology, for example, the detection of shrapnel bullets in the body of a wounded person using X-rays.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

During the war, Maria and Irene and the people they trained took more than a million X-rays of wounded soldiers [4] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria did not receive any official recognition from the French state authorities, which did not forgive her for “tarnishing” her husband's name [65] [55].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the Curie Institute, training was organized for radiologist assistants, for whom Maria taught courses since the beginning of 1916 [66].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the frontline zone, Curie helped create radiological units and supply first aid points with portable X-ray machines.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

By the end of the war, there were about 200 stationary posts and 20 mobile X-ray units [9] [17] (according to other sources, 18 units [67]).


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She summarized the accumulated experience in the monograph “Radiology and War” in 1920 [6] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Post-war years


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1920, the French government established a scholarship for Marie Curie, the previous recipient of which was Louis Pasteur [64].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She continued to teach at the Radium Institute, where she supervised the work of students and actively promoted the use of radiology in medicine, and wrote a biography of Pierre Curie, published in 1923 [68] .


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

From time to time, Sklodowska-Curie traveled to Poland, which gained independence at the end of the war.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

There she consulted Polish researchers [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the spring of 1920, in a Paris laboratory, an American journalist arranged with Marie Curie for her first visit to the United States to give lectures [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria's interest in this trip was the possibility of obtaining additional radium for her works.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The cost of 1 gram of radium at that time was $100,000 [69].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maloney promised Mary to raise the necessary funds through the Marie Curie Radium Foundation she created in less than 1 year [70].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In May 1921, she and her daughters Sklodowska-Curie visited the United States, crossing the Atlantic for the first time by steamer.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On May 20, she received 1 gram of radium as a gift from President Harding on behalf of American women to continue her experiments [6] [70] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the ceremony, not the radium sample itself was presented, but the container key and the quality certificate [71] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

A sample of radium was made in a laboratory in Pittsburgh, which Maria visited during her visit [70].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

During the trip, her hand was injured by numerous strong handshakes, so Irene won some of the awards without the participation of her mother [17] [65] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

During her first trip to the United States, Maria visited New York, Washington, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Buffalo, Boston, visited the Grand Canyon and Niagara Falls.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She has received honorary degrees from Columbia University, University of Pennsylvania, University of Pittsburgh, Yale University, Wellesley College, Northwestern University and College Smith [69].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

During her second visit to the United States (1929), she received a donation for which she purchased another gram of radium for therapeutic use in a hospital in Warsaw.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On October 30, 1929, President Herbert Hoover presented her with a check for $50,000 at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The halving of the cost of 1 gram of radium in 8 years was due to the start of its commercial production at the fields in Katanga in the Belgian Congo [72].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Before the meeting, Hoover was embarrassed that Maria did not have official awards from France.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The French government, having learned that the award would be presented by the President of the United States, offered to award her the Order of the Legion of Honor for the second time, but Maria refused [16] [65] [73].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1922, the first woman, she was elected a member of the Paris Medical Academy for her contribution to the development of medical radiology [64] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the same year, the French government awarded Maria an annual prize of 40,000 francs [69].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the same time, she traveled to other countries, published and lectured in Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Czechoslovakia [74].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In August 1922, on the advice of Einstein, Marie Curie became a member of the newly created International Committee for Intellectual Cooperation at the League of Nations [6] [75] [76].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She sat on the Committee until 1934 along with such well-known researchers as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorenz and Henri Bergson, and contributed to the coordination of scientific research, the unification of scientific terminology and the creation of a single format for scientific publications [17] [77] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1930, she was elected to where she worked until her death [78].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Recent years


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

As a result of many years of work with radium, Marie Curie's health began to deteriorate markedly.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She developed cataracts and developed kidney problems again [45].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the spring of 1934, Maria made a car trip with her sister Bronislava, during which she caught a bad cold.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The temperature lasted an unusually long time, doctors thought it was the flu, and sent her for treatment to a sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On the way, Maria lost consciousness several times.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The tests performed showed negative changes in blood composition over time, indicating a deterioration in health [69] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie died on July 4, 1934 near Sansellmoz [6] [33] [69].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On July 6, 1934, she was buried in the cemetery in Sault in the grave of her husband Pierre Curie [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She just over a year did not live to see the Nobel Prize awarded to her daughter Irene and son-in-law Frederic Joliot for their discovery of artificial radioactivity [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1934, Einstein wrote in an obituary published in the New York Times:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

To my great happiness, for twenty years we have been associated with Madame Curie with a sublime and cloudless friendship.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

My admiration for her human greatness was constantly growing.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The strength of her character, purity of thoughts, self-demand, objectivity, integrity of judgments — all these qualities are rarely combined in one person.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At any moment, she felt that she was serving society, and her great modesty left no room for narcissism.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She was constantly depressed by society's sense of cruelty and injustice.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

This is what gave it the appearance of an external rigor, so easily misunderstood by those who were not close to it—a strange rigor that was not mitigated by any artificial effort.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The most outstanding feat of her life — proof of the existence of radioactive elements and their receipt — owes its fulfillment not only to bold intuition, but also to dedication, perseverance in doing work under the most incredible difficulties, which is not often found in the history of experimental science.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

—A.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Einstein [79]


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On April 20, 1995, by decision of French President Francois Mitterrand, the ashes of Pierre and Marie Curie were transferred to the Paris Pantheon during a solemn ceremony in the presence of Polish President Lech Walesa [76] [33].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Scientific activity


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Discovery of radioactivity


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the end of 1897, Marie Curie completed her research on magnetism and began looking for a topic for her dissertation.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At this time, the Curie couple met physicist Henri Becquerel, who discovered that uranium compounds emit deeply penetrating radiation.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

According to Becquerel, it was an internal property of uranium, in contrast to X-rays generated by external influences [10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria became interested in the topic and began working on her doctoral dissertation on the study of this phenomenon [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

By the end of the 19th century, researchers working with uranium salts knew that photographic plates placed near them were exposed for some unknown reason.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Henri Becquerel set out to study this phenomenon, considering it a kind of phosphorescence, which he was well acquainted with from the works of his father [80] [46].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

To support this assumption, Becquerel used the sun as a natural light source to excite phosphorescence and a photographic plate to record it.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the end of February 1896, he prepared uranium salts on a substrate in the form of a silver emulsion covered with black paper to prevent the plates from being exposed to sunlight.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

But on February 26 and 27, it was cloudy in Paris, and Becquerel left a record with salts in the box.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Despite the fact that there was no sun on the following days, on March 1, he decided to develop a record that had been lying for several days without exposure to sunlight.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

It turned out that, contrary to expectations, the image on the photographic plate was clear [10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The scientist repeated the experiment and made sure that the radiation did not depend on external irradiation, and found that the uranyl potassium sulfate salt continued to emit even after lying in the dark for several days, which seemed contrary to the first law of thermodynamics [80].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On March 23, 1896, Becquerel demonstrated the results of experiments at a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences, suggesting that he had discovered a type of phosphorescence, but not ordinary, but “invisible and long-term” [ 46] [81].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Becquerel then found out that all uranium compounds available to researchers have this property, and the radiation intensity does not depend on temperature [81].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In addition, it turned out that the radiation he called “uranium rays” at a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences on November 23 [46], like X-rays, leads to ionization of air [80] [46].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the same year, Becquerel was convinced that the radiation he discovered was not phosphorescence, but did not want to accept this fact for a long time [46] [17] [44].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1897, he made only one report, in which he summarized the results of his work, in particular, announced the discharge of the electroscope with uranium rays.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After that, Becquerel returned to the study of phosphorescence, leaving the theory of “uranium rays” in its infancy [46] [45].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Becquerel's research became the foundation for the work of Pierre and Marie Curie [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie prompted Pierre to compare uranium compounds obtained from different deposits by the intensity of their radiation: uranium salts (for example, uranium tar ore, or nasturane) at that time were used to produce colored glass.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Charles Gariel, the new director of the School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry, allowed Maria to work in the school building.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

For the experiments, a glazed wooden shed was used, which previously served as a warehouse and engine room [47].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Later, in the introduction to her dissertation, Maria thanked the school leaders for the opportunity to conduct research [59].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

From 1898 to 1902, the Curie couple processed eight tons of nasturan [82].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

To quantify the ionization effect, Maria, with the help of Pierre, invented and designed a device consisting of piezoelectric scales developed by Pierre and his brother Jacques [4] [6] [83], a quadrant electrometer and an ionization chamber connected to the battery.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The radioactive substance was placed in an ionization chamber, where the rays emitted by it ionized the air.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Ions, moving to the poles of the battery, generated current, which led to a deviation of the electrometer needle.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Then the charge of the electrometer was compensated by an equal charge that the quartz piezoelectric element gave when deformed under the weight of weights on the scales [84] [80] [10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

It turned out that natural chalcolite (a mineral consisting of copper and uranium phosphate) is 2 times more active than uranium, and the artificially prepared mixture of these salts is half as active as compared to uranium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

This indicated the presence of a very active component in the composition of natural chalcolite, which was different from uranium and thorium and which was isolated [84] [10] [44].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Curie couple tried to establish the effect of the chemical composition of the test substance on the radiation intensity.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Their method consisted in determining the activity of the test drug, chemical separation and determining the activities of the products obtained in order to determine where the radioactive substance had passed [10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

This experiment in 1898 suggested that in addition to uranium, there is another radioactive substance in the samples.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Studying the fractions of uranium ore isolated by various chemical methods (dissolution in acids, precipitation, sublimation), Curie identified one that had 400 times stronger radioactivity than pure uranium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

This led the couple to think about the presence in uranium tar of an unknown element that gives intense radiation [84] [84] [85] [86].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In April 1898, Gabriel Lippman presented the preliminary results of the experiments on behalf of Maria at a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie began to measure the activity of all pure elements known at that time, as well as alloys that were in the laboratory of the School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry [46].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

One of the first elements was phosphorus, followed by pure uranium provided by Henri Moissant, rare and rare earth metals provided by Eugène Demarcé, finally all the minerals of the Museum of Natural stories of France, provided by geologist Alfred Lacroix, who was responsible for the collection [46].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The values of the ionization currents obtained were as follows [84] [10]:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

As a result of the study, it was possible to discover the radioactivity of a number of substances,


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie also noted that rays were a property inherent in a certain element, regardless of temperature, purity of its composition and external irradiation [6] [86].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

A report at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences on these discoveries with a proposal to call the new phenomenon “radiation” was made on July 18, 1898 on behalf of the couple Henri Becquerel, since Curie were not members of the Academy [ 10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Since the isolated substance contained a large amount of bismuth, the properties of which were very similar to the properties of the new element, Maria and Pierre suggested that the new element is in the same group of the periodic table [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

However, bismuth was not radioactive, so the Curie couple suggested the existence of a new element, which they proposed to call polonium [84] [86] in honor of Poland (Polish: Polōnia), Mary's birthplace Sklodowska [87] [88].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In November 1898, the Curie couple returned to experiments with nasturan and discovered a radioactive substance that was completely different in chemical properties from polonium, but also more active than uranium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Curie suggested the existence of another new element, which is also found in the ore in very small quantities and is more similar in chemical properties to barium [86] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

To isolate the new element, the couple again used a procedure that consisted in dissolving solid samples with acids and precipitating the resulting salts.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Curie obtained a mixture of barium chlorides and a new element that was 2—3 million times more active than uranium [88].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

For more accurate confirmation, the researchers sent several samples to Demarcé, who recorded the spectra of their radiation and noticed new spectral lines in the ultraviolet region that were cannot be attributed to any of the known elements.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Since the intensity of these lines increased with the radioactivity of the substance, he attributed them to a new element.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie and Pierre Curie, together with December 19, 1898, sent a new message to the Paris Academy of Sciences, in which they called the new element “radium” [87] [84].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On December 26, 1898, Becquerel again announced this discovery on behalf of the spouses Curie and Beaumont [10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On January 30, 1899, Marie Curie published an article in Becquerel's Rays and Polonium, in which she coined the term “radioactivity” and “radioactive element” [46] [44].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Since the concentration of radium in the tar was 4000 times lower than the concentration of polonium, it was necessary to process huge amounts of ore to isolate the former.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

With the personal assistance of Eduard Suess, President of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, and the Government of Austria-Hungary, Maria received a ton of slag from Joachimstal free of charge [89] [10] [86].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Curie couple paid only for the transportation of waste contaminated with garbage and needles due to outdoor storage [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie processed the ore in batches of 20 kilograms, which were heated in huge boilers moved manually with the help of bulky devices.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

For each ton of nasturan waste, Maria received from 10 to 20 kg of alkaline earth sulfates, which contained a little radium sulfate.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Barium chloride containing a small amount of radium chloride was then obtained, which was separated by fractional crystallization.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Curies processed tons of ore in a poorly equipped, unventilated shed with a leaking roof, which was difficult to warm up in winter.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In September 1902, they managed to isolate 0.1 grams of radium chloride and determine its atomic mass [6] [32] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The couple spent 4 years on this job.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Later, Maria wrote that if they had the appropriate means and equipment, they would have done it in a year [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

It was a cross between a stable and a potato cellar, and if I hadn't seen desks with chemical appliances, I would think I was just joking about.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

—Wilhelm Ostwald on the Curie couple laboratory, [17]


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Curie couple faced the question of patenting their discovery, but they decided to transfer it free of charge for the benefit of mankind [32] [47].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Curie couple was not the only one who worked on the phenomenon of radioactivity.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Thus, in January 1902, Ernest Rutherford wrote:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The best runners on the starting track of research are Becquerel and the Curie couple in Paris, who have done a lot of work over the past few years and achieved very important results in studying radioactive substances.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

—E.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Rutherford [41]


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The following year, Rutherford and Frederick Soddy put forward the theory that radioactive radiation is the result of the transformation of one chemical element into another [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In their work, the Curie couple concluded that at that time they had studied only the practical side of the phenomenon, but they could not propose a theory of radioactivity [84].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the public defense of her dissertation and in the first version of the work, Maria did not focus on any of the known theories for explaining radioactivity, but in a reissue of 1904 she added Rutherford's theory and Soddy on radioactive transformations [45].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1906, Marie Curie finally accepted this theory and introduced into scientific circulation the terms “decay” and “transmutation” [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1910, Marie Curie, in collaboration with Andre Debierne, managed to isolate pure metallic radium by electrolysis of a solution of radium chloride and subsequent distillation of the resulting mercury cathode amalgams [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Thus, a 12-year cycle of research was completed, as a result of which it was undeniably proved that radium is an independent chemical element [9] [6] [59].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In September of the same year, Rutherford chaired the International Congress on Radioactivity and Electricity in Brussels, one of the issues of which was to determine the standard of radium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie produced the standard in August 1911.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On March 25—28, 1912, in Paris, an international commission compared its standard and the sample obtained from, and established rules for their use [41].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The discovery of radium and polonium marked the beginning of a series of discoveries of new radioactive elements and the creation of a new science that studies radioactivity [90].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Discovery of the effects of radiation on living tissues


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1900, German dentist Otto Walkhof noticed that if you apply a cloth soaked in radium solution to the skin twice for 20 minutes, inflammation occurs that lasts two weeks.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

German chemist Friedrich Oscar Gisel noted that if you put your closed eye to a closed box containing radium salts, you can see light on the retina.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

He also held 270 mg of radium salt in his hand for two hours, after which he developed burns that healed for two weeks [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Becquerel and the Curie couple also suffered burns and noted the effects of radioactive materials on living tissue.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Becquerel noticed the effect of radiation when he received a burn from a radium tube [46].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre Curie deliberately irradiated his hand to record the changes that were taking place [86] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The skin peeled off and peeled off on the hands, and pains were felt that prevented him from writing freely [43].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria suffered from anemia and lost weight during studies, Pierre felt pain in her legs and back, which doctors classified as rheumatism and later as neurasthenia [48].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

It was concluded that the degree of damage depends on radiation activity and the time of exposure to the tissue [84] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the war, Maria suffered from cataracts, which could be an early symptom of radiation sickness [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She underwent surgery, but kept it a secret from others [91].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Experiments on the effects of radiation on living tissues, conducted by doctors in 1900-1906, marked the beginning of radiotherapy, which in France was called curitherapy, after the discoverer [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Radium radiation began to treat lupus and ringworm [86], and research began on the treatment of cancer [88] [92].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Curie couple for a long time did not think about the possible negative effects of radiation.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre discovered the deadly effect only after experiments on mice that were implanted with capsules with radium salts [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

When relatives decided to transfer the entire archive of the Curie couple — articles, books, diaries, letters — to the National Library of France in the late 1960s, it was found that the archive of scientists still had dangerous radioactivity for humans [93].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In this regard, each document was placed in a special case, and the most radioactive ones were taken to the University in Orsay for their rehabilitation [94].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The discovery of radiotherapy led to the fact that radium quickly became a marketable product produced on an industrial scale [86], and its price increased to 750,000 francs in 1904 [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Awards and titles


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In addition to two Nobel Prizes, Marie Sklodowska-Curie was awarded:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Berthlot Medal of the French Academy of Sciences (1902)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Royal Society of London Davy Medal (1903)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Matteucci Medals, National Academy of Sciences of Italy (1904)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Elliot Cresson Medal (1909)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts (1910)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Willard Gibbs Award (1921)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

John Scott Medal (1921).


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She was a member of 106 scientific societies around the world, including the French Medical Academy, and received 20 honorary degrees.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

From 1911 until her death, Sklodowska-Curie took part in the prestigious Solvey Congresses on Physics, and for 12 years she was an employee of the International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation of the League United Nations [6] [16] [7].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Since 1926, she was an honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences [50].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

M. Sklodowska-Curie participates in Solvejevo Congresses


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

1911, bottom row second from right


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

1913, seventh in the upper row from the left


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

1921, bottom row second from right


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

1924, bottom row second from left


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Bibliography in Russian


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

memento


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Sklodowska-Curie is the second woman to be buried in the Paris Pantheon with her husband in 1995 and the first to be honored for her own merits.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

(The first is Sophie Berthelot with her husband Marcelin Berthelot) [7] [95].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In science


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In honor of Pierre and Marie Curie, a chemical element is named - Curium, Cm), a curie unit of measurement (Russian designation: Ki; international: Ci) [96] [97], radioactive minerals [98] and [99] [100].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1961, the International Astronomical Union named Marie Sklodowska-Curie a crater on the far side of the Moon [101].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

An asteroid discovered in 1939 [103] [104] is also named after Marie Curie on Mars [102].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Numismatics, Bonistics, Philately


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Postage stamps dedicated to Curie [105] [106] were issued in the USSR, Poland, the GDR and Moldova and other countries.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In Poland, the portrait of Curie is placed on a commemorative banknote of 20 zlotys and coins of various denominations, in France it was placed on banknotes of 500 francs [107] [108] [100].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Geography, institutions


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In Warsaw, across the Vistula River, it is named after Marie Curie [109].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In Warsaw, the Sklodowska-Curie Museum was organized in the house at Freta 16, where Sklodowska was born [50].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In Poland, Marie Curie is named after the Oncology Center - Marie Sklodowska-Curie Institute in Warsaw, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Warsaw, many schools of different levels throughout the country and the research nuclear reactor in Otwock [110] [50].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In France, Pierre and Marie Curie University, the Curie Institute and one of the Paris metro stations, one of the streets of Paris [50] [100] are named after her.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Streets, museums, hotels in various cities around the world are named after Marie Curie [100].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Public opinion polls


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

According to a 2009 survey by New Scientist, Maria Sklodowska-Curie is the most inspiring woman in science (she won a quarter of the vote, ahead of runner-up Rosalind Franklin by almost two times) [111] [112].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Another survey conducted in 2018 also ranked Marie Curie first in the ranking of the most influential women in history, followed by Rosa Parks [113].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 2017, Maria Sklodowska-Curie was included in the list of the 8 most famous women in Poland according to polsha24.com [114].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In culture


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie's biography was reflected in the films Madame Curie (1943, dir. Mervyn Leroy) [115], “” (2016, dir.) [116].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Another


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Marie Curie's name is on the Radiology Memorial, a monument in honor of those killed by exposure to X-rays, in Hamburg [117].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

A copy of the KLM McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft (PH-KCC number) was also named in her honor [118].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On a postage stamp of the USSR, 1987


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On a postage stamp of Moldova, 1996


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Monument in Warsaw


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Monument near Curie University in Lublin, Poland


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Notes


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Literature


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Books


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

CS1 maint: Date and year (link)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

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Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

A. :Physicists


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

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Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Articles


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

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Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

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Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

References


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

(in English)


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Immigrated to France from Poland


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Nobel Prize Winners in Physics


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Nobel Prize winners in chemistry


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Nobel laureates from France


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Multiple Nobel Prize winners


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category: Knights of the Legion of Honor


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Personalies:Radiobiology


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Corresponding Members of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917—1925)


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category: Recipients of the Matteucci Medal


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Deaths from leukemia


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Burials at the Pantheon in Paris


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category: Davy Medal winners


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Discoverers of chemical elements


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Women physicists


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Women chemists


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Scientists after whom physical units of measure are named


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Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Honorary Citizens of Warsaw


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Category:Women Nobel Laureates


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The common viper [1] (Latin: Vipera berus) is a species of poisonous snakes of the genus of real vipers of the viper family, often found in Europe and Asia.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Unlike other members of the family, it prefers lower temperatures, occurring either at higher latitudes (up to the Arctic Circle and even north), or in mountains up to 2600 m above sea level.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Description


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

A relatively small snake, whose length together with its tail usually does not exceed 65 cm [2].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The largest specimens are found in the northern part of the range: for example, snakes more than 90 cm long were recorded on the Scandinavian Peninsula. In France and Great Britain, the largest individuals reached a length of 80—87 cm [3].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Females are slightly larger than males [4].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The weight of an adult viper varies from 50 to 180 g [5] [6].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

A large flattened head with a rounded muzzle is noticeably delimited from the body by a short cervical interception.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In the upper part of the head, three large shields stand out, one of which - frontal - has an almost rectangular shape elongated along the body and is located in the space between the eyes, the remaining two - parietal - right behind him.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Sometimes another small shield is developed between the frontal and parietal shields.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The nasal opening is cut in the lower part of the nose shield [7].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The vertical pupil, along with the overhanging supraorbital shields, gives the snake an evil appearance, although they have nothing to do with the manifestation of emotions.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The apical shield is not separated.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

There are usually 21 scales around the middle of the body.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The abdominal scales in males are 132—150, in females 132—158.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Tail scales in males are 32—46, in females 23—38 pairs [3].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The color is extremely variable — the main background can be gray, yellowish brown, brown or reddish with a copper tint.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In some regions, up to 50% of the population is made up of black melanist vipers.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Most individuals have a contrasting zigzag pattern on their backs along the ridge.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The belly is gray, grayish-brown or black, sometimes with white spots.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The tip of the tail is yellow, orange or red [2].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In juveniles, the back is often copper-brownish with a zigzag stripe [8].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Distribution


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The common viper is distributed mosaically in the forest strip of Eurasia from Great Britain, France and northern Italy in the west, to Sakhalin and the Korean Peninsula in the east.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In France, the main habitat is within the Central Massif.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In Europe, the southern border of the range passes through northern Italy, northern Albania, northern Greece and the European part of Turkey [2].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In Eastern Europe, the viper penetrates the Arctic Circle in some places — for example, it lives in the Lapland Nature Reserve and on the shores of the Barents Sea.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

To the east - in Siberia and the Far East - distribution in many places is limited by the lack of suitable wintering holes.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The viper is found to the north on the Lena River up to the 62nd parallel, in Western Siberia up to the 64th parallel, east to the Trans-Baikal Territory.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

From the south, the range is limited to steppe regions.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The southeastern margin of the distribution area is located in Mongolia (Mongolian Altai), northwestern and northeastern China (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Jilin Province) [9].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Lifestyle


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

mini|left|275pcs|adult female, Scotland


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Life expectancy can reach 15 years, and according to some data, 30 years [9].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

However, observations in Sweden show that snakes rarely survive two or three years of breeding, which, taking into account puberty, gives an age limit of 5-7 years.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The viper quickly adapts to any terrain, rising to 2600 m above sea level in the Swiss Alps [10].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Habitats are more diverse in the northern and eastern parts of the range, where the snake often develops peat bogs, heather wastelands, clarified mixed forests, the shores of various freshwater reservoirs, wet meadows, margins of fields, protective strips, dunes.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In southern Europe, biotopes are mainly limited to wet depressions in mountainous areas [10].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

It is distributed unevenly depending on the availability of suitable places for wintering.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The sedentary, as a rule, does not move beyond 60-100 meters.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The exception is forced migration to the wintering site, in which case snakes can retire to a distance of 2—5 km [7].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Wintering usually occurs from October-November to March-April (depending on the climate), in the north of the range lasts up to 9 months, for which the snake chooses a depression in the ground (burrows, crevices, etc.) at a depth of 2 meters, where the temperature does not fall below +2... +4° C.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In the event of a shortage of such places, several hundred individuals can accumulate in one place, which crawl to the surface in spring, which gives the impression of great crowding.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Subsequently, snakes spread [7].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In summer, it sometimes basks in the sun, but mostly hides under old stumps, in crevices, etc.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The snake is not aggressive and when approaching a person tries to use its camouflage color as much as possible, or crawl away.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Only in the event of an unexpected appearance of a person or when provoked by him can she try to bite him.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

This cautious behavior is explained by the fact that it requires a lot of energy to reproduce the poison in conditions of changing temperatures.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

It feeds mainly on mouse-like rodents, amphibians and lizards, and destroys bird nests located on the ground.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The ratio of different feeds may vary depending on the availability at the time and in the area.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Thus, during the observation of vipers in the Netherlands, it was found that they prefer grass and sharp muzzle frogs, as well as a viviparous lizard [11].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In other regions, the diet may be dominated by gray and forest voles, shrews, spindles, warbler chicks, skates and buntings.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Young snakes catch insects — locusts, beetles, less often butterfly caterpillars, ants, slugs and earthworms [4].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Breeding


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The mating season is in May, and offspring appear in August or September, depending on the climate.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The viper belongs to viviparous - the development of eggs and the hatching of young occurs in the womb.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Usually up to 8-12 juveniles appear, depending on the length of the female.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

It happens that during childbirth, the female wraps around a tree or stump, leaving her tail on weight, “throwing” snakes to the ground, which from the first moment begin an independent life.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Juveniles are usually 15-20 cm long and are already poisonous.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Many believe that only born individuals are more poisonous, but this is not true.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

It is also wrong to think that young individuals are more aggressive.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Once born, snakes usually shed.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In the future, young and adult molting occurs 1-2 times a month.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Before their first hibernation in October-November, they never eat, as they must digest all the food eaten before hibernation to avoid metabolic problems.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Poison


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In terms of the complex of components, the venom of the common viper is similar to those of other European and tropical species of vipers [12].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

It contains high molecular weight proteases of hemorrhagic, hemocoagulating and necrotizing action, peptide hydrolases, hyaluronidases and phospholipases, which at the time of bite through lymph nodes enter the circulatory system [13].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

For humans, the bite of an ordinary viper is considered potentially dangerous, but it is extremely rare to lead to death [7].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

For example, the UK recorded only 14 deaths between 1876 and 2005, the last of which occurred in 1975 (a five-year-old child died from a bite) [14].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

About 70% of those bitten either do not experience any symptoms at all or feel burning pain directly in the bite area.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Often, redness and swelling develop around the wound - hemorrhagic edema.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

With a more severe degree of intoxication within 15-30 minutes, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pale skin, increased sweating, chills, tachycardia are possible.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Finally, with particularly hypersensitivity, loss of consciousness, swelling of the face, a significant drop in blood pressure, heavy bleeding (DIC), kidney failure, convulsive or coma [15] [16].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In the vast majority of cases, the effects of a bite disappear after 2—4 days [8], but can last for a longer period of up to a year [3].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In particular, complications can be caused by improper self-treatment [7] [8].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

As a first aid for a bite, doctors recommend calming down, applying a pressure bandage (but not tourniquet), reducing the load on the limb up to immobilization, and providing plenty of drinking.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Opinions about the benefits of sucking poison from the wound are divided: some experts believe that with this procedure, up to 30-50% of the total poison can be removed within 10-15 minutes, others consider it harmful, since blood along with saliva can enter the bacterial flora that causes purulent inflammation.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Of the wrong and erroneous, but still encountered treatments, there are transverse incisions to the bite site, cauterization, application of a tourniquet, covering with snow [16].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Enemies


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The greatest danger for the common viper is represented by a person, primarily his economic activities aimed at deforestation and other changes in natural landscapes.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In Europe, it is also not uncommon for vipers to be deliberately exterminated and caught for sale for keeping in private terrariums.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

In Romania, it is practiced to catch snakes illegally in order to collect poison [17].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Among forest dwellers, the main enemies of vipers are hedgehogs, which are immune to snake venom.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The hedgehog uses the following tactics when attacking: it bites the snake's body and immediately curls up into a ball, substituting its needles to strike back.


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

The procedure is repeated several times until the viper weakens and dies [18].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Snakes are also hunted by common fox, badger, ferrets, owls, snake eagles, and less often storks [4].


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Notes


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Literature


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

References


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Category:Vipers


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Category:Poisonous animals


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Category:Reptiles of Eurasia


Question: How dangerous are snakes for humans?

Common viper

Category:Animals described in 1758


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Sergei Sergeevich Verkhovskoy (Verkhovsky [1];, Kostroma [2] —,, New York) is a philosopher and theologian of the Russian Diaspora (the main work is “God and Man”; editor of the famous collection “Orthodoxy and Life”).


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

He is an active member and one of the leaders of the Russian Student Christian Movement.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Biography


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Born on July 5, 1907 in a family of hereditary nobles of the Kostroma province, his father is a railway engineer.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1920, the Verkhovsky family was evacuated to Constantinople with the army of General P. N. Wrangel, moved to Czechoslovakia in 1921.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

He received his secondary education in Prague, then studied at the University of Bratislava and the Sorbonne in Paris.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1931 he married Olga Sergeevna Chetverikova, daughter of Archpriest Sergiy Chetverikov.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1932-1936 he studied at the St. Sergius Theological Institute in Paris, where he defended his thesis.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1937-1941 he was Secretary of the Russian Student Christian Movement (RSHD).


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1944-1952, he taught moral theology and history of philosophy at St. Sergius Theological Institute.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

At the same time, from 1945 to 1952, he was chairman of the brotherhood of Christ the Savior in Paris.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Member of the diocesan council of the Russian Exarchate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from laity.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1952, at the invitation of St. Vladimir's Theological Seminary (NJ. New York) moved to the United States and held the position of Professor of Dogmatic, Moral and Comparative Theology.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1955 he was appointed vice-rector of the seminary.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

As a consultant, he participated in the 2nd WCC Assembly in Evanston, NY. Illinois, 1954).


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1956/1957, he was invited to give lectures at the Bosse Ecumenical Institute.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

He was a member of the Commission on Ecclesiology at the National Council of Churches (USA).


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1960 he received a doctorate in theology from the St. Sergius Theological Institute.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

In 1968, he was delegated by the Orthodox Church in America to the 4th Assembly of the WCC in Uppsala, Sweden.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

He retired in 1981.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

He died on August 4, 1986 at Lawrence Hospital in Bronkville, New York, at the age of 79.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

He has a sister, three daughters and nine grandchildren and granddaughters [3].


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Theological views


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Representative of neopatrist synthesis; the main emphasis was on St.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Scripture, understood in the patristic context [4].


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Priests Pavel Florensky also rejected the sophiology of Archpriest Sergiy Bulgakov.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Recognizing many achievements in historical, linguistic, literary and archaeological research for the study of the Holy Scriptures, he sharply criticized modern biblical studies, especially interpretations of the Bible made without taking into account the context of the liturgical and ascetic life of the Orthodox Church.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

As an Orthodox theologian, I can have no other desire than to be faithful to the teachings of the Church.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

If my thoughts are wrong in anything, I will be the first to welcome sound criticism... I focused mainly on the purely spiritual, moral and intellectual side of our path to God, because it is usually talked less than about other possible ways of communion with God... The question of knowing God may seem too difficult and special.


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

But one can only regret that modern man often considers it superfluous to know anything about God and understand why faith in God is reasonable and necessary [5].


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Notes


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Source


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category: Death in the Bronxville


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category:Spiritual writers


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category:Christian philosophers


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category:French philosophers


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category:American philosophers


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category:French theologians


Question: At which university did Sergey Sergeevich Chetverikov teach?

Sergey Verkhovskoy

Category: American theologians


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored road (abbreviated armored passage, bepo, BP) is a product, a railway combat vehicle, an armored train (train) for conducting combat operations in the railway strip, in Armed Forces armored vehicles of tank and other branches of the armed forces.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored trains were widely used in armed conflicts of the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, especially in countries with a developed railway network.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored train composition and armament


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The classic scheme of an armored train includes: an armored locomotive (armored locomotive or armored diesel locomotive), a “black” (unarmored) steam locomotive, several armored cars (armored platforms) with a rifle, artillery and anti-aircraft weapons (most often weapons are combined), from two to four control platforms (cover platforms), sometimes landing platforms.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Sometimes wagons that do not have armor, but blinding, or platforms that have a parapet made of bags of soil can be used [1].


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

German armored trains from the Second World War (Panzerzug) also sometimes with one or two platforms with tanks (usually Czech or captured French).


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

During the Second World War, armored trains were also built to cover important facilities in the rear - (large railway bridges, important defense and oil refineries), outside the combat zone , but within the reach of enemy aircraft.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Such armored trains had an armored locomotive and platforms with anti-aircraft weapons.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored trains should be distinguished from motor armored cars and armored cars, which can either be part of an armored train (formation) or act independently.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Purpose of rolling stock units


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

An armored locomotive or an armored locomotive for moving an armored train in battle.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored locomotives were equipped on the basis of serial steam locomotives that had a low axial load (in order to avoid a significant excess of the axial load after armor) and a low silhouette (to reduce the area of the armored locomotive as a target).


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored diesel locomotives were built on the basis of serial diesel locomotives, but initially diesel locomotives at manufacturing plants were modernized and received reservations.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

An armored tender is an armored car with a reserve of coal for a steam locomotive.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The Black Steam Locomotive is a powerful unarmored steam locomotive for the rapid movement of an armored train outside the combat zone.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The “black” steam locomotives did not participate in hostilities, they unhooked and waited with their composition (headquarters) for an armored train at the nearest station or on the stretch, they were not part of the product, they were part of the formation .


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored cars (Armored platforms) — to combat military equipment and enemy manpower by means of existing weapons.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Anti-aircraft armored platforms are used to combat enemy aircraft with anti-aircraft weapons.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The control car is often with a commander's turret, later radiated.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The location of the commander of the armored train, who controls the movement and fire of the armored train.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored amphibious assault cars are cars specially equipped for the location of the landing force used to capture stations and other key points on the path of the armored train.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Usually they were equipped with light machine gun weapons and loopholes for firing from personal assault weapons.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In the absence of such cars or other cases, the landing force was placed on control platforms.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

“Control” platforms are ordinary railway platforms used to detect mining of a railway track.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In addition, platforms usually transported track tools, rails, sleepers, rail fasteners — to repair a railway track damaged in an explosion or shelling.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In many cases, control platforms were used to accommodate landing and/or observers, for this purpose they were blinded to a height of about 40 cm and equipped with loopholes for firing from personal landing weapons .


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

According to the source [1]


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Abbreviations list


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Formations


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

bepo, bp — armored train;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

ZPBEPO — reserve regiment of armored trains;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

MBW — motor armored car;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

ominbepo — a separate mortar armored train;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

OBP, secure — separate armored train;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

ODBP — a separate division of armored trains;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Wares


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

BP — armored train, armored train;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

DB — armored railcar;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

MBV — motor armored car;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

PL — lightweight armored platform;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

PT - heavy armored platform;


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

According to [2] [3]


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Start of application


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The theoretical project for reserving and arming the train appeared in France during the Restoration in 1826, that is, immediately after the construction of the first railway in England.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In practice, this idea was implemented in the Austrian army in 1848 during the siege of Vienna by the Hungarians.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

For the first time, guns were delivered to railway platforms during the Civil War in the United States (1861−1865) [1], in 1861 in the Northern States Army by commander, Colonel I. IN. Turchaninov (John Basil Turchin).


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The artillery was quickly delivered to the troops of the Southern States encamped near the railway line and caused sudden devastation in their camp.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

This successful experience was then repeatedly used.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In 1864, 13-inch mortars were already installed on the platforms, firing shells weighing about 100 kg with a range of up to 4.5 km during the siege of St. Petersburg.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In Europe, a similar use of railway platforms took place in 1871 during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, during the siege of Paris by the Prussian army, which managed to shell the fortifications cities from different sides.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In 1884, the French engineer Mougins developed a design for an armored car with cannons - it was the prototype of an armored train.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

But the track width (1435 mm) was not enough for him, it could only move on a specially built track [1].


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Real armored trains were first widely used in the Boer War of 1899−1902. The Boers used guerrilla tactics, disrupting the supply of the British army, and to protect communications, the British army began to create armed and armoured garrisons on wheels [1].


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Subsequently, combat trains were used in wars: the First World War, the Civil War in Russia, World War II and later armed conflicts [1].


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

World War I


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

By the beginning of the First World War, the armies of most European countries had several armored trains of the simplest design.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

After the outbreak of the war, the creation of new armored trains began in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France, and Italy.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Separate mobile vehicles — armored handcars — were also used on the railways.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

By 1913, engineer K. B.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Krom and Colonel M. IN. Kolobov developed two types of armored trains.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

By the highest order of Emperor Nicholas II, the construction of armored trains began.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

By the beginning of 1915, 5 armored trains had been built and adopted by the Russian Imperial Army and attached to railway units.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Four armored trains were designed for senior management, being mobile control points.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored train No. 3 “St. George the Victorious” at the “His Imperial Majesty's Own Railway Regiment”.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored train No. 4 “Vityaz” at the “1st Railway Battalion”.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armored train No. 5 “General Skobelev” at the “1st Turkestan Railway Battalion”.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armoured train No. 2 (non-general type)


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Hunkhuz, No. 2, 3, 5 armored trains (“general type” or type of the 2nd Zaamursky Railway Brigade - developed at the end of June 1915 by the commander of the 2nd Zaamursky Railway Brigade, Major General M . IN. Kolobov and built in September-October 1915).


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The armored train consisted of an armored locomotive based on a standard steam locomotive of the O series (in everyday life “Sheep”) and two armored platforms based on two-axle cargo platforms.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armor thickness is 12-16 mm.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Each armored platform is made of a machine-gun casemate, in which 12 Schwarzlose heavy machine guns on machines, and turrets with a three-inch (76.2 mm) mountain cannon of the 1904 model of the year.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

This gun was chosen as the main weapon for its small size and weight to be placed on a swivel mount in the front of the car.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The horizontal firing angle of the gun is 220 degrees.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The team of the armored train consists of 94 people, including four officers, who are provided with comfortable conditions for combat work.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Armoured platforms with a steam heating system, heat and noise insulation — the walls are lined with 20 mm cork sheets and 6 mm plywood sheets).


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

During the battle, the commander of the armored train observed and led the actions of the crew from the observation turret on the armored locomotive.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

For communication with armored platforms, electric alarms (colored light bulbs), horn (as on ships of that time) and call communication were used.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The head Hunkhuz was handed over to the 1st Zaamursky Railway Battalion.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The 2nd and 3rd Zaamursky and 2nd Siberian Railway Battalions received the same armored train each.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

They had numbers 2, 5 and 3 [4] [2].


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

As of mid-1917, the Russian army had 7 armored trains [5] (out of 15 built, 6 more were being repaired, 2 were lost).


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The photo below shows a typical armored train of the Caucasian Army of 1915.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

According to the project, it consists of two armored platforms and a semi-armored steam locomotive.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The armament is two 76.2 mm mountain guns of the 1904 model of the year in rotating installations in the first and last armored cars with a limited sector of fire (the gun is not visible in the photo, only the horseshoe-shaped one is visible armor shield of its embrasures in front of the armored car) and 8 machine guns in the side embrasures - 4 per armored car, the team is 4 officers and 70 shooters, the armor thickness is 12-16 mm.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Four trains of this type have been built [6].


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Russian armored train of the Caucasian Army [6] built in 1915.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

French blinded railway


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

gun, 1916.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

See also


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Hunghuz armoured trains


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

“General Annenkov” armored train


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Engineer Ball's Armoured Train


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Zaamurets


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Russian Army Armoured Cars


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Civil war


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In Russia, the “boom in armored trains” occurred during the Civil War.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

This is due to its specifics — the actual absence of clear front lines, a large number of irregular troops and the struggle for railways as the main means for the rapid transfer of troops, ammunition, bread.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Almost all warring parties had armored train units.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In addition to the Red Army, the White Guard Volunteer Army (later in the Armed Forces of Southern Russia (VSYUR)) of General Denikin, the Czechoslovak Corps (bepo “Orlik”), the army of the Ukrainian People's Republics (bepo “Glory of Ukraine”, “Sechevik”), etc.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The widespread combat use of armored trains during the Civil War showed their main weakness.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

The armored train was a large, bulky target, vulnerable to artillery (and later air) strike.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

In addition, it was dangerously dependent on the railway line.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

To immobilize it, it was enough to destroy the canvas in front and back.


Question: What was the name of the most damaged plant in Gorky during the Second World War?

Armoured train

Therefore, to restore the destroyed tracks, armored trains were part of a platform with track materials: rails, sleepers, fasteners.