Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

That same night, returning from hunting, father and son stumble upon a broken bus from the hospital and a group of people in white hospital pajamas on the road.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

The father gets out of the car to find out about the incident, and the son at this moment tries to contact the police, but without knowing the location, takes a gun and gets out of the car to find his father.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

He finds a wounded policeman on the side of the road telling him to leave here.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

But the boy goes on to the bus, where Dr. Sartan, who accompanied the patients, suddenly appears.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In fear, the boy shoots right in the shoulder of the doctor and in panic returns to the car, where Michael is already waiting for him.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

He kills a boy by smashing his head against the door.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

It comes on October 31.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Aaron and Dana stop near the car service and find three people killed by Michael, one of whom he took off his work overalls, and then Michael kills the couple and takes away his mask from their car.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Halloween night arrives, Michael Myers appears in Haddonfield and arranges a bloody massacre.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In total, Michael kills 15 people.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

One of the victims is Dr. Sartan, who managed to shoot down Michael and kill assistant officer Hawkins, who was ready to kill the maniac (Sartan wanted to put Michael back in the hospital), but Then Michael kills Sartan.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Lori persuades her daughter and son-in-law to hide in her house, where there is a secret basement.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

After a while, a police car arrives there.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Ray approaches her, opens the door suspiciously and sees the body of the policeman and the headless head of his partner.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Myers comes up to Ray from behind and kills him.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In a fight with Laurie, he stabs her in the stomach, and she falls from the balcony right to the ground.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Michael goes to a secret entrance that leads to the basement, where Karen and Allison are located.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Michael breaks down the door mechanism.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Karen is waiting for Michael to show up.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

She's holding a gun.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

And when he shows up, she shoots him right in the head.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Lori appears from behind her back and pushes Michael into the basement.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

He falls down the stairs.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Karen and Allison are going up.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

However, Michael gets up and manages to grab Karen's leg.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

The struggle begins.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Allison notices a kitchen knife on the floor, and makes several penetrating blows to Myers' hand.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Karen gets out.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Laurie locks Michael with retractable blades, then turns on the gas and throws out the burning sword.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

The house is starting to catch fire.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Lori, Karen and Allison are getting out of there alive.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

They are picked up by a passing truck.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Allison still has a knife in his hand stained in Myers' blood.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

At the end of the credits, Michael's breath can be heard, indicating that he survived.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Cast


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Production


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Development


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In 2011, it was announced that a sequel to Halloween II (2009), entitled Halloween 3D, would be released on October 26, 2012.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

However, the project was never created.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

The first information about the planned eleventh film appeared in June 2015.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Then it became known that the film will be shot in July, and directed by Marcus Dunstan.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan were also supposed to work on the script.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

However, later the director was changed, and the start date of filming was postponed [1].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In July, it became known that the film will be a direct continuation of the second part of Halloween.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

However, later it was decided that the film would continue the first part, although it would contain references to other parts of the franchise.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Events will unfold in 40 years.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In December 2015, the media reported that Dimension Films lost the rights to the franchise after 20 years of owning them.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Meanwhile, producers began looking for a new buyer [2].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In February 2016, The Wrap news agency announced the possible launch of a television series based on the movie “Halloween”.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

However, Universal Pictures turned out to be the film company.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

On May 26, 2016, it was announced that Blumhouse Productions and Miramax would shoot a new installment in the Halloween series [3].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In December 2016, it was reported that David Gordon Green would be directed and Danny McBride would help him write the script.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In February 2017, Danny McBride said in an interview with Cinema Blend that the film will not be a restart, but will be based on the mythology of the first two parts of the film, released in the 1980s.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

The premiere will take place on October 19, 2018, 40 years after the release of the original film [4].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Also in February, fans of the franchise created a petition asking the filmmakers to approve for the role of Dr. Sam Loomis, originally played by Donald Pleasence, Robert Englund, who played the role Freddy Kruger in the entire Nightmare on Elm Street franchise [5].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Later it turned out that Dr. Loomis would not appear in the film.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Filming


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Filming began on January 13, 2018 in Charleston, South Carolina [6].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

On February 16, Jamie Lee Curtis finished her scenes [7].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In April, it was reported that the audience was disappointed with the final of the film at the test screening on April 18 in California [8].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In May, Director Green decided to return to the set for additional filming, which began on June 11 [9].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

music


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In October 2017, the director of the original film, John Carpenter, confirmed that he, as well as Cody Carpenter and Daniel Davis, had signed a contract with the filmmakers to write the soundtrack for the film [10].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

On September 19, 2018, the first track was published online, which is a variation of the musical theme for the 1978 film [11].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Listings


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

All music composed by John Carpenter, Cody Carpenter and Daniel Davis


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Halloween (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) No.TitlElength1.” Intro” 1:142.” Halloween Theme” 3:023.” Laurie's Theme” 0:444.” Prison Montage” 2:465.” Michael Kills” 0:336.” Michael Kills Again” 3:457.” The Shape Returns” 3:328.” The Bogeyman” 1:069.” The Shape Kills” 0:5010.” Laurie Sees the Shape” 1:1311.” Wrought Iron Fence” 0:4712.” The Shape Hunts Allyson” 0:5813.” Allyson Discovered” 1:2614.” Say Something” 3:0215.” Ray's Goodbye” 1:3916.” The Shape Is Monumental” 1:5717.” The Shape and Laurie Fight” 1:5418.” The Grind” 1:5219.” Trap the Shape” 2:1020.” The Shape Burns” 1:3121.” Halloween Triumphant” 7:28 Total length: 43:29


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Criticism


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

The film received positive reviews from film critics.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has 79% positive reviews, based on 323 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8 out of 10 [12].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

On Metacritic it was 67 out of 100, based on 51 reviews [13].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

On the Megacritic website, it scored 6.3 out of 10 according to 30 reviews [14].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Continuation


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In June 2018, McBride confirmed that he and Green had originally planned to make two films one after the other.


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

However, later they decided to see the reaction to the first film first [15].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In turn, the producer of the franchise Malek Akkad said in an interview that the option of creating a TV series about Michael Myers is being considered and being worked out [16].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

In October 2018, Bloody Disgusting, citing its sources, reported that work on the sequel had already begun [17].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

McBride soon confirmed that early production of the sequel had begun [18].


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Notes


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

References


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:Halloween franchise


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:American thriller films


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:Horror movies 2018


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:Films directed by John Carpenter


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:2018 US films


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:Universal Pictures Movies


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:Movies in English


Question: When was the horror movie Halloween released?

Halloween (2018 film)

Category:American horror films


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Astrakhan Bridge is an automobile and pedestrian bridge across the Tsaritsa River in Volgograd.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The bridge is an element of an important transport artery of the city — the First Longitudinal Highway and connects Voroshilovsky (in the south, Raboche-Krestyanskaya Street) and Tsentralny (in the north, Lenin Avenue) districts.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The path of the Malaya Privolzhskaya Railway passes under the bridge.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Next to the road bridge there is also the Volgograd Metro Tram Bridge, on which the Pionerskaya station is located.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

History


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The problem of bridges was very acute in Tsaritsyn, since the city was located in an area with a large number of ravines, and by the beginning of the 20th century there were only three bridges (and even then flip) through them.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Tsaritsyn


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The bridge was named Astrakhan because it was a continuation of Astrakhanskaya Street (now Sovetskaya).


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Another likely reason why the bridge was called Astrakhan is that it was located in the direction of Astrakhan.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The first wooden bridge over Tsaritsa was built in 1868.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Since 1911, the construction of a reinforced concrete bridge began on the site of a wooden one.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The need for construction was caused by the imminent launch of the tram [1] on December 15, 1913, the construction of the Astrakhan Bridge across the Tsaritsa was completed.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

It was the first reinforced concrete bridge in the city.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

It doesn't exist now.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Volgograd


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The project of a modern bridge across Tsaritsa was carried out by the Volgograzhdanproekt Design Institute.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Construction work was carried out directly by the Gidrospetsstroy Trust and Bridge Train No. 480. [3] (currently Mostootryad No. 57 of Volgomost OJSC) [4]


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The construction of the bridge began in 1958.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

It was put into operation in 1964.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

At the turn of the 21st century, the bridge was overhauled and slightly expanded.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Features


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The characteristics for the modern bridge are given.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Bridge scheme: 4.08+2x18, 17+5x41, 5+2x18, 17+4.08 meters


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

The total length of the bridge: 288.34 meters


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Type of span structures: 5 span structures of the combined system (beams reinforced with flexible arches), 4 girder spans


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Span material: reinforced concrete


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Notes


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

See also


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Volgogradsky bridge


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

References


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

//BridgeArt: The art of building bridges.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Information, educational and entertainment portal for bridge workers


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Literature


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Mitrofanov Yu.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

M.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

, Popov O.A.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

, Kharebava J.A.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Revival of bridge span structures made of monolithic reinforced concrete.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Construction of a bridge across the river The queen in g. Volgograd//Transp, str-vo.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

- 1990.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

- No. 11.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

- P. 12-16.


Question: How many bridges are there in Volgograd?

Astrakhan Bridge (Volgograd)

Category:Bridges in Volgograd


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Friedrich Christian Accum (March 29, 1769 — June 28, 1838) was a German chemist whose most important achievements were the development of luminous gas, attempts to combat dangerous food additives and popularize chemistry as a science among the general population.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum lived in London from 1793 to 1821.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After graduating as a pharmacist, he opened his own commercial laboratory for the production of chemicals and laboratory equipment.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum himself gave paid public lectures on practical chemistry and cooperated with many scientific institutions around the world.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Intrigued by the work of Friedrich Windsor, who promoted the idea of introducing gas lighting in London, Accum also became interested in this invention.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

At the request of Gas Light and Coke Company, Accum conducted numerous experiments in this new scientific field.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After years of close collaboration with the company, he became a member of its board of directors in 1812.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The company was tasked with creating the first gas plant in London to supply light gas to both residential buildings and public areas.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum has succeeded in designing and planning the operation of this incredibly successful enterprise.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Most of Accum's publications were written in English.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The style of their writing made them readable by people far from science.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

These works gave impetus to many scientific discoveries that were decisive in the popularization of chemistry at that time.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1820, Accum published a Treatise on Food Falsification, in which he protested against the use of chemical additives in food.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In this revolutionary work, for the first time, the issue of food safety control was raised.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum was the first to work on this problem and communicated his ideas to the general public.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His book, which caused a lot of controversy at the time, found its reader and sold well.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

However, the ideas expressed in the book threatened the established technologies of the food industry, thereby making Accum an enemy of London food producers.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum left England after a lawsuit was filed against him.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum worked as a teacher at the Industrial Institute in Berlin for the rest of his life.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Life and work


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Youth and education


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum was born in Bückeburg, Schaumburg-Lippe, about 50 km (31 miles) west of Hanover.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His father was originally from Vlotho and served in the infantry regiment in the calculation of Wilhelm von Schaumburg-Lippe.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1755, Akum's father changed his faith from Judaism to Protestantism.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Shortly thereafter, his father married Judis Wers de La Motte in Bukenburg.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Judis was the daughter of a hat manufacturer who belonged to the French society of Berlin and the granddaughter of a French refugee who was persecuted by Huguenots in France.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

When adopting Baptist, Accum Sr. changed his name from Marcus Hertz to Christian Accum.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In addition to the name “Christian”, which means “follower of Christ,” Accum's father wanted to emphasize his new religious affiliation by changing his surname to “Accum”, which comes from the Hebrew the words “Akum”, which means “Nejudean.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

It is not known whether the name change was his own initiative or whether he changed his name under pressure from his fiancée's family.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After his marriage, Christian Accum opened a soap shop in Bukenberg.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Nine years after marrying Judis, Accum received legal citizenship from the city.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[2] On May 9, 1772, Christian Accum died at the age of 45, only three years after the birth of his first son.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Friedrich Accum attended the Bukenberg Adolfinum Gymnasium and took additional private lessons in English and French.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After graduating from high school, he studied pharmacist in Hanover with the Brande family, who were friends of his family.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Brande also did business in London and were pharmacists of the King of England of Hanover, George III.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[3] As one of the leading centers of scientific research at the end of the 18th century, London attracted the best minds from all over Europe.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[4] Friedrich Accum moved there in 1793.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He found a job as an assistant at one of Brand's pharmacies located on Arlington Street.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Early years in London


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After gaining experience as a pharmacy assistant, Accum studied science and medicine at the Great Windmill Street School of Anatomy in London.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He met surgeon Anthony Carlisle (1768—1842) and London chemist William Nicholson (1753—1815).


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum published his first article in Nicholson's Journal in 1798.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[5] Accum married Mary Anna Simpson on May 10, 1798 (March 7, 1777 — March 1, 1816).


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He anglicized his name before Frederick.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Frederick and Mary had eight children, but only two of them survived to adulthood.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In the autumn of 1799, Nicholson's magazine published a translation of Franz Karl Achard's revolutionary work on the production of sugar from beets.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Before that, the only plant from which sugar was obtained was sugar cane, which was grown far beyond the borders of England.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The information presented in Achard's work made it possible to create sugar production in the country, and therefore attracted great interest.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Shortly after the article was published, Accum received sugar samples (derived from beets) sent to him from Berlin and presented them to William Nicholson.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Nicholson conducted a thorough analysis of two types of sugar (beet and sugar cane) and published a detailed report in the January issue of his magazine, in which he indicated that there was a significant difference in taste there is no sugar between these two types.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Lab work, entrepreneurship and teaching


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1800, Accum and his family moved from 17 Haymarket Street to 11 Old Comptom Street in London.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He will live there for the next 20 years.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His house served at the same time as a school, a laboratory for conducting experiments and a shop selling chemicals and laboratory equipment.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum's business card of that time describes his activities as follows:


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Mr. Accum informs professionals and amateurs of chemistry that he continues to give private lecture courses on Operational and Philosophical Chemistry, Practical Pharmacy and the Art of Analysis, in addition, Students to live in his Home and he always sells in the purest possible form reagents used in experimental chemistry and the Complete Collection of Chemical Apparatus and Tools that can suitable for any Buyer.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum compiled a catalog of goods and distributed it to his customers in London.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

This catalog could be sent to other cities at the request of customers.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

For many years, Accum's establishment was the only significant institution in England that gave lectures on the theory of chemistry and conducted practical classes.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Chemistry enthusiasts were invited to conduct simple experiments and, thereby, improve their knowledge.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum's lectures attracted many outstanding students, such as the famous London politician, and then Prime Minister Lord Permelston, the Duke of Bedford, and the Duke of Northumberland.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In addition, his laboratory was the first in Europe to be visited by students and scientists from the United States, including Benjamin Silliman and William Dandridge Peck.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

When Silliman later became Professor of Chemistry at Yale College (the predecessor of Yale University) in New Haven, he ordered equipment for his laboratory from Accum in London.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum's biographer, Charles Albert Brown, noted in one of his works in 1925 that some of the old American colleges by that time still kept receipts from Accum's London business.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

With the development of new laboratory equipment, Accum positioned its business as a business in the middle price range, with a good combination of price and quality.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum has developed portable laboratory tool kits designed for farmers to analyze soil and stones.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

With an affordable price of £3 to £80, these kits were the first truly portable labs.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Lecturer and researcher


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In March 1801, Frederick Accum was offered a position at the Royal Institution on Ablemarle Street, a research institute founded two years earlier by the Earl of Rumford.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After accepting the position, he began working as an assistant to Humphrey Davy, who was the head of the laboratory, and later became President of the Royal Society.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum stopped working at the Royal Institution in September 1803.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His biographer, R. D. Cole, believes that this change in Accum's life is associated with the simultaneous departure of the Earl of Rumford to Paris.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Rumford was the driving force behind Accum's retention.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

By 1803, Accum had published a number of articles in Nicholson's Journal discussing a number of issues: research methods for determining the purity of drugs, determining the presence of benzoic acids in vanilla extract, monitoring the explosiveness of mixtures of phosphorus and sulfur.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[11] Accum completed one of his most significant publications in 1803.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Cole, biographer of Accum, notes that this book, The System of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry, “was the first general chemistry textbook written in English and based on the new principles of Lavoisier; so but it is an outstanding work, so it is written in a popular science style, while the subject is presented at the level of a modern textbook.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum gave his first chemistry and mineralogy lecture in a small room in his home on Old Compton Street.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His audience grew so fast that he soon had to rent the Medical Theater on Cock Street.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After leaving the Royal Institution and taking up a new position at the Surrey Institute, he continued his popular lectures.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

An advertisement in The Times on January 6, 1809 reported that Accum gave a course on mineralogy and chemical analysis of metals every Wednesday evening.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His growing interest in mineralogy at that time can be seen in the titles of his two books, written between 1803 and 1809.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The first book was a two-volume work published in 1804 under the title “Practical Essay on the Analysis of Minerals”, which was reprinted in 1808 as the Manual of Analytical Mineralogy.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1809, he published An Analysis of Lectures on Mineralogy.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Since 1808, while working at the Surrey Institute, Accum also published a number of articles on the chemical properties and composition of mineral water in the Philosophical Journal of Alexander Tilloch.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1811, when Bernard Courtois, a Parisian nitrate producer, first obtained iodine from the ashes of brown algae, his discovery aroused great interest among scientists.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum was one of the first English chemists who conducted experiments on the release of iodine.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In two articles published in Tilloch's Journal of Philosophy in January and February 1814, Accum described the iodine content in various types of seaweed and gave a detailed description of the isolation process iodine.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum's role in the history of luminous gas


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Artificial lighting of any kind was practically absent during the industrial development of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The use of candles or oil lamps to illuminate a textile factory was expensive and economically unjustified.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

With the advent of industrial production methods, textile workshops became larger and needed brighter lighting for longer periods of time.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Due to the high demand for artificial lighting and the appearance of Lavoisier's works describing the role of oxygen in the combustion process, the rapid development of lighting technology began at the end of the 18th century.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The formation of gases from coal was noticed by Henry Clayton.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He shared his observations with Robert Boyle in a letter written in the 17th century.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

This letter was published in the Royal Society's Philosophical Transactions journal in 1739.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Clayton's discoveries were not used until the end of the 18th century.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The mixture of gases released during coking coal was not used anywhere until William Murdoch proposed using this gas as a light source.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Similar experiments were conducted by George Dixon in 1787 in Cockfield, Jean-Pierre Minkellers in 1785 in Leuven, Archibald Cochrane at his home in Culross Abbey.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Operating prototypes of future gas plants were first designed in 1802 at a foundry in Soho and in 1805 at the George Lee paper mill in Salford, near Manchester.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

However, this innovative technology for the time was received with skepticism by many critics.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

It wasn't until 1810 that Murdoch was asked in the House of Commons, “Do you mean that lighting will be possible without using a wick?” [17] It was only in the second decade of the 19th century that lighting gas began to be used to illuminate not only enterprises, but also streets and residential premises.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Frederick Accum played a decisive role in the spread of artificial lighting.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum was involved in the production of light gas thanks to the efforts of Friedrich Albert Winsor (1763—1830), another German immigrant who launched a long public campaign.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1809, Accum appeared before a Committee of Parliament, which considered sponsoring a lighting gas company promoted by Winsor.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Despite the fact that this first attempt to obtain financing failed, the necessary funds were transferred in 1810 and the Gas Light and Coke Company was founded [19].


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The newly founded company met all the requirements for funding and began operations in 1812, and Accum became a member of its board of directors.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum oversaw the construction of a gas plant on Curtain Road, which was the first of its kind in the history of luminous gas.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Since then, the use of artificial lighting has not been limited to industrial enterprises and factories and has become part of urban life.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Westminster Bridge began to be illuminated by gas lamps in 1813, and a year later, gas lamps appeared on the streets of Westminster.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1815, Accum published a Description of the Luminous Gas Production Process.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In the introduction, Accum compared gas plants to water companies that have been operating in London since the beginning of the 18th century: “Thanks to gas, it will be possible to illuminate every room, as before This made it possible to have a water supply.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

When this book was translated into German in Berlin in 1815, an explanation was added to it, as Berlin did not have running water at the time: “Many residential buildings in England have walls laid pipes in such a way that, if necessary, you just need to open the tap so that water flows out of it.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1814, London had only one 400 m3 (14,000 cubic feet) gas meter, and by 1822, four gas companies were operating in London, with a total gas meter volume of almost 1 million feet.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[21] In order to ensure that the distance required for gas delivery was as short as possible, gas plants were opened in areas of the city where gas consumption was greatest.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The appearance of such factories in densely populated parts of cities met with public protest.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

This was due to harmful waste generated at enterprises.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Gas plants were especially severely criticized after the explosions that occurred at one of the enterprises.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[22] Accum, who at that time was an ardent supporter of the use of luminous gas, in addition to chemistry, sharply denied in his publications all the arguments of critics about gas plants.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

After a thorough analysis, he showed that, in general, accidents were more the result of negligence of the plant workers than shortcomings and shortcomings in the technological process, and they could have been avoided.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

From the very beginning, Accum was concerned about the disposal of waste from the production of light gas, including resins and various sulfur compounds.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Usually they were simply buried or drained into nearby water bodies.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Ammonium and sulfur compounds were particularly harmful to the environment.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1820, Accum began to demand legislative measures to suspend the discharge of these by-products into sewage systems and rivers.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Few people approved his initiative.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[24] Accidents such as gas explosions at factories attracted much more attention than the long-term impact of the discharge of hazardous production waste on the environment.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Death in a Bowler Hat


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1820, Accum began to openly oppose harmful food additives, writing the book “Treatise on falsification of food and culinary poisons”.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Some additives derived from plants and used as preservatives have been used for a long time.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

At the beginning of the 19th century, there was a sharp increase in food production.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The significant increase in the number of supplements used in these processes has led us to think about their possible effects on human health.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Food production and delivery, instead of being evenly distributed between cities and rural areas, began to rapidly concentrate on large factories.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The rapid increase in the number of known chemical compounds and the absence of laws governing their use have enabled unscrupulous traders to increase their revenues, harming the health of others people.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[25] Accum was the first to publicly announce the risks of this practice and communicate his ideas to the public.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum expresses its opinion on the use of dietary supplements as follows:


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

“A person who robs another for a few shillings on the road is sentenced to death; while whoever spreads a slow-acting poison to an entire society moves away from responsibility”.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Thousands of copies of The Treatise on Food Falsification and Culinary Poisons were sold within a month of its publication.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[28] Its second edition was published the same year, and a German translation was published in Leipzig two years later.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The cover of the book shows that Accum was able to depict the drama of the situation and, thus, draw attention to his scientific book.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The cover depicts a rectangular frame supporting the web and surrounded by intertwined snakes.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The spider lurks in the center of the web waiting for the victim, and at the top there is a skull with the caption: “Death in a bowler hat.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The chapters of the book described both harmless types of fraud, such as mixing dry peas into coffee, as well as the use of much more dangerous poisonous substances.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum explained to the reader that Spanish olive oil had a high lead content, as lead containers were used in the oil purification process, and recommended using oil brought from other countries, such as France and Italy, where this practice did not exist.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[30] He cautioned against eating bright green candies sold by wandering merchants on the streets of London, as their color was due to the addition of a dye with a high copper content.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[31] “Vinegar,” he explained to readers, “was often mixed with sulfuric acid in order to increase acidity.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum paid special attention to beer; turning to its discussion in his work, he notes: “Malt drinks and, especially, port wine, which is popular with residents of London and other big cities, are the most commonly counterfeited products.”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[33] He stated that honey, molasses, vitriol, pepper and even opium were sometimes added to English beer.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Among the most shocking examples, he notes the addition of anamirta (a plant of the moon-seed family, the fruits of which were used as poison for fish) to port wine.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

This became known during the French Revolutionary Wars, when Accum attributed the intoxication effect of the drink to the addition of the extract of this plant.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[34] Accum resorted to various methods of confirming the authenticity of his research.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

As evidence of the use of anamirta, he used, among other things, import data that supplemented his own observations of how the price of the plant rose in the product catalog, used for brewing.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He also observed historical trends in prices for the same goods.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The “Treatise on falsification of food products and culinary poisons” can be described as follows.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

First, as in other early works of Accum, there is a description of the methods of analytical chemistry he used, thus, these methods have become more accessible to a wide range of readers.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He wanted to make every test reproducible and in the simplest possible way by any layman.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Secondly, Accum did not limit himself to simply pointing out the problem.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

At the end of each chapter, it included the names of merchants who were caught counterfeiting food until 1820.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Thus, Accum wanted to deprive them of business and thus influence the economy of London.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Reaction to “Treatise on food falsification and culinary poisons”


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Even before the publication of his book, Accum was well aware that specifying the names of representatives of London business could cause resistance or even an aggressive reaction.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In the preface to the first edition of the book, he calls naming those who counterfeit food a “painful duty” [36] that he performs to verify his claims.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Although he further notes that he only cites data certified by documents of Parliament [37], this did not save him from his opponents.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

By the time the second edition was published, as he notes in the preface, he had been threatened several times.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He further writes that he would like to notify his secret enemies that he will convey to future generations data on the crimes committed by these fraudsters — that is, the addition of poisonous substances to products nutrition.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Scandal and lawsuit


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The process that eventually led Accum to leave England and return to Germany began a few months after the publication of his book on food poisoning.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

For a long time, there were many opinions about his expulsion from England.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Finally, in 1951, Cole, in an appendix to the protocol of the Royal Institution, found evidence that the events described in an article in the Dictionary of National Biography [39], and later in Allgemeinen Deutschen Biographie [40] (according to which Accum was accused of embezzlement as a librarian at the Royal Institute and fled to Germany) are not true.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Cole completely reprinted the minutes of the Extraordinary Meeting of the Royal Institution of December 23, 1820, [41] which shows that these events were initiated by observation made by a Royal Institution librarian named Sturt.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Sturt reported to his superiors that on November 5, 1820, several pages were removed from books in the reading room of the institute, books Akkum had read.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

On behalf of his superiors, Sturt cut a small hole in the wall of the reading room to watch Accum from the next room.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

On the evening of December 20, as recorded in the minutes, Sturt could see Accum pulling out pages of work on the components and use of chocolate with him.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The article was from Nicholson's magazine issue.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum's house on Old Compton Street was searched by order of a judge of the city of London, and the torn pages were indeed found.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

They could be parts of books that belonged to the Royal Institution.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The magistrate, after hearing the whole case, noted that although the pages found in Accum's house may have been parts of valuable books, they are of no value in themselves.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

If they weighed a pound, Accum could be accused of damaging a pound of paper, but in this case Accum cannot be found guilty.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The Royal Institution Committee, which met on December 23, 1820, however, did not agree with this decision and decided to take further legal action against Accum.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

On January 10, 1821, an open letter sent to Earl Spencer, president of the institute, was published in The Times in defense of Accum.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[43] The letter was signed by A.C., and Cole suggested that the author was surgeon Anthony Carlisle, who had been friends with Accum since the latter's early years in London.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

This unsolicited support did little to Accum, as shown by the Royal Institution minutes of April 16, 1821. [44] They claimed that a lawsuit would be initiated against Accum for stealing paper on 14 pence.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[45] Two of his friends were included in the indictment.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The publisher is Rudolph Ackermann and architect John Papworth.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The three defendants appeared in court and paid only £400 as bail.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum did not appear at the hearing.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

[46] He fled England and returned to Germany.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Back to Germany


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Two years before his return to Germany, Accum published a number of books on nutritional chemistry.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In 1820, he published two works, one on beer production (Treatise on the Art of Brewing) and the other on wine (Treatise on the Art of Winemaking).


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The following year, Culinary Chemistry was published, in which Accum presented practical information on the scientific foundations of cooking.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He also published a book on bread (A Treatise on the Art of Making Good and Healthy Bread).


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Even when he returned to Germany, his works continued to be reprinted and translated into French, Italian and German, becoming available to a wide readership in Europe, as well as in the United States.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Immediately after arriving in Germany, Accum went to Althaldensleben.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

There, industrialist Johann Gottlob Nathusius purchased various properties and used them to establish a vast industrial settlement.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Nathusius was the first German to produce sugar from beet, and established a beet sugar factory in that city between 1813 and 1816.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

It was the extensive library of this industrialist and his chemical laboratory that attracted Accum.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He stayed only briefly at Althaldensleben, but he soon became a professor at the Gewerbeinstitut and Bauakademie in Berlin.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His lectures in physics, chemistry and mineralogy were collected in two volumes of the book, Physische und der Chemische Beschaffenheit Baumaterialien, deren Wahl, Verhalten und zweckmässige Anwendung, published in Berlin in 1826.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

This was Accum's only work originally published in German.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

A few years after moving to Berlin, Accum already had a house built on 16 Marienstraße (later 21 Marienstraße), where he lived until his death.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

In the last years of his life, he suffered from a severe form of gout, which eventually caused his death.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His illness worsened sharply in June 1838, and his condition worsened.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

On June 28, about 16 years after his return to Germany, Accum died at the age of 69 in Berlin.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He was buried there at the Dorotheenstadt cemetery.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Bibliography and primary sources


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

The first biographical essay on the life of Friedrich Accum was written by the American agrochemist and scientific historian Charles Albert Brown Jr., in 1925.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He carefully studied Accum's life and work for ten years, during which time he had access to information from civic and ecclesiastical sources in Bukenberg.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

His enthusiasm was so great that he went to Germany in July 1930 to meet Hugo Otto Georg Hans Westphal (August 26, 1873 — September 15, 1934), Accum's great-grandson.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Brown's latest publication on this topic, which appeared in 1948 in Chymia, a journal on the history of chemistry, relies heavily on information he collected from Hugo Westphal.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Three years later, Cole published a description of Accum's life, based on English sources.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

He was particularly interested in finding new information to cover the 1821 trial.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Like Brown, Cole also had relatively little data on Accum's last part of his life in Berlin.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Lawson Cockroft of the Royal Society of Chemistry in London noted that Friedrich Accum was one of those chemists who, despite significant achievements in his life, are largely forgotten today.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Accum's works


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

System of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry, London 1803 Vol 1, [51] Vol 2 [52] Second edition 1807; Reprint Philadelphia 1808 Vol 1 [53] Vol 2, [54] Second edition 1814 Vol 1 [55] Vol 2 [56]


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

A Practical Essay on the Analysis of Minerals, London 1804; Reprint Philadelphia 1809; [57] and a new edition expanded to two volumes in 1808 with the title A Manual of Analytical Mineralogy


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

An Analysis of a Course of Lectures on Mineralogy, London 1809, expanded edition in 1810 under the title A Manual of a Course of Lectures on Experimental Chemistry and Mineralogy


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Description Catalog of the Apparatus and Instruments Employed in Experimental and Operational Chemistry, in Analytical Chemistry, and in the Pursuits of the Recent Discoveries of Electro-Chemical Science, London 1812


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Elements of Crystallography, London 1813 [58]


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Practical Treatment on Gas-Light, London 1815, went through four English editions to 1818, rewritten with the title Description of the Process of Manufacturing Coal-Gas.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

For the lighting of streets, houses, and public buildings, with elevations, sections, and plans of the most improved sorts of apparatus.


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Now employed at the gas works in London, London 1819, Second edition 1820; German translation by Wilhelm August Lampadius entitled Praktische Abhandlung über die Gaserleuchtung: enthaltend eine summarische Beschreibung des Apparates und der Maschinerie, Berlin 1816, Second edition 1819; the 1816 French edition [59] Traité pratique de l'éclairage par le gaz inflammable contained a forward and was expanded by Friedrich Albert Winsor, Paris 1816; Italian Trattato pratico sopra il gas illuminante: contenente una completa descrizione dell'apparecchio... con alcune osservazioni, Milan 1817


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

A Practical Essay on Chemical Re-agents or Tests: Illustrated by a Series of Experiments, London 1816, expanded second edition 1818 with the title Practical Treatment on the Use and Application of Chemical Tests with Concise Directions for Analyzing Metallic Ores, Metals, Soils, Manuals and Mineral Waters, Third edition 1828; [60] reprint Philadelphia 1817; French Traité pratique sur l'usage et le mode d'application des réactifs chimiques, Paris 1819; [61] Italian (translation of second English edition) Trattato practico per l'uso ed apllicazione de'reagenti chimici, Milan 1819


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Chemical Amusement, a Series of Curious and Instructive Experiments in Chemistry Which Are Easily Performed and Unattended by Danger, London 1817, Second edition 1817, Third edition 1818, fourth reprint 1819; German Chemische Unterhaltungen: eine Sammlung merkwürdiger und lehrreicher Erzeugnisse der Erfahrungschemie, Kopenhagen 1819, entitled Chemische Belustigungen Nürnberg 1824; second American edition based on the third English edition with additions by Thomas Cooper, Philadelphia 1818; French translation by V. Riffault Manual de Chimie Amusante; ou nouvelles recreations chimiques, content une suite d'experiences d'une execution facile et sans danger, ainsi qu'un grand nombre de faits curieux et instructifs, 1827, Second edition 1829 [62] later reprinted by A.D. Vergnaud, final and sixth reprinting Paris 1854; two volume Italian translation Divertimento chimico contenente esperienze curiose, Milan 1820, second expanded edition by Pozzi La Chimica dilettevole o serie di sperienze curiose e instructive di chimica chi si esequiscono con facilità e sicurezza, Milan 1854


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Dictionary of the Apparatus and Instruments Employed in Operational and Experimental Chemistry, London 1821, reprinted omitting the author's name as Explained Dictionary of the Apparatus and Instruments Employed in the Various Operations of Philosophical and Experimental Chemistry by a Practical Chemist, London 1824


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

A Treatment on Adulterations of Food and Cultural Poisons: Exhibiting the Fraudulent Sophistications of Bread, Beer, Wine, Spiritual Liquors, Tea, Coffee, Cream, Confectionery, Vinegar, Mustard, Pepper, Cheese, Olive Oil, Pickles, and Other Articles Employed in Domestic Economy, and Methods of Detecting Them, London 1820, [63] Second edition 1820, [64] Third edition 1821, Fourth edition 1822; reprint Philadelphia 1820; German translation by L. Cerutti Von der Verfälschung der Nahrungsmittel und von den Küchengiften, Leipzig 1822, Second edition 1841


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

A Treatment on the Art of Brewing: exhibiting the London practice of Brewing, Porter, Brown Stout, Ale, Table Beer, and various other Kinds of Malt Liquors, London 1820, Second edition 1821; German translation by Accum's niece Fredrica Strack Abhandlung über die Kunst zu brauen, oder Anweisung Porter, Braun-Stout, Ale, Tischbier... zu brauen, Hamm 1821; French translation by Riffault Manual théorique et pratique du brasseur, Paris 1825, later reprinted by A.D. Vergnaud


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Guide to the Chalybeate Spring of Thetford, London 1819 [65]


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

A Treatment on the Art of Making Wine, London 1820, followed by many edition, the last being 1860; French Nouveau Manuel complet de la Fabrication des Vins de Fruits, 1827, later translation by Guilloud and Ollivier as Nouveau Manuel complet de la fabrication des vins de fruits, du cidre, du poiré, des boissons rafraîchissantes, des bières économiques et de ménage..., Paris 1851 [66]


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Treatment on the Art of Making Good and Wholesale Bread, London 1821


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Cultural Chemistry, exhibiting the scientific principles of Cookery, with concise instructions for preparing good and wholesale Pickles, Vinegar, Conserves, Fruit Jellies with observations on the chemical constitution and nutritive qualities of different kinds of food, London 1821


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Physische und chemische Beschaffenheit der Baumaterialien, deren Wahl, Verhalten und zweckmässige Anwendung, 2 volumes, Berlin 1826


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Notes


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

References


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Media related to Friedrich Accum at Wikimedia Commons


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

See also


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Arthur Gassal


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Category:German chemists


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences


Question: What city was Friedrich Christian Accum born in?

Friedrich Accum

Category: Burials at Dorotheenstadt Cemetery


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This is an article about a Christian relic.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

For the cross as a symbol, see Crucifixion.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

For the city, formerly known as the “Holy Cross”, see Budyonnovsk.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The Life-Giving Cross [1] (Greek: the True Cross, or the Cross of the Lord, or the Life-Giving Tree [2], is the cross on which, according to Christian doctrine, Jesus Christ was crucified.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

It is one of the instruments of the Passion of Christ and belongs to the main Christian relics.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Apocryphal tales of the Cross


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The Gospels do not provide much detail about the cross on which Christ was executed by crucifixion.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

It is mentioned as a ready-made object when describing Christ's carrying it to Calvary (for example, the story of the way of the cross from the evangelist Luke — Luke 23:26-31).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Apocryphal literature, unlike canonical texts, contains many details of the legendary history of the Life-Giving Cross.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

However, the history of the cross as a significant relic for Christendom, supported by reliable evidence, begins only with excavations carried out by Empress Elena Equal-to-the-Apostles and described by many early Christian historians.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The cycle of legends about the Life-Giving Cross originated mainly in Palestine and has an ancient origin (early copies of the Gospel of Nicodemus date back to the 5th century).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The main emphasis in apocryphal tales is placed on the connection of the instrument of Christ's death on the cross with one of the trees of paradise and other events of the Old Testament [3].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The apocrypha also tells about the circumstances of the acquisition of the Cross (the apocrypha “Teaching of Addai the Apostle”)


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Researchers believe that the authors of these legends did not aim to glorify this Christian relic, the significance of which has never been disputed.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The goal was to show the origin of Christianity (which at that time was still a “young” religion) from an ancient tradition, literally “from Adam” [4].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The apocryphal story of the Life-Giving Cross is reflected in numerous images.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The most complete cycle of depictions of this story was made in 1452—1465 by Piero della Francesca on frescoes in the main chapel of the Basilica of San Francesco in Arezzo.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The Legend of the Three-Part Eight-Pointed Cross


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

In Greek, and then in Old Slavic hagiographic literature, there is a story about a three-part eight-pointed (octofinial) Cross.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to this account, Christ was crucified on the Cross, which was made of three parts, and each part was made of a different type of wood.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The pillar of the Cross was made of cypress; the crossbar to which Christ's hands were nailed was made of pewg (pine); the “foot” was the lower crossbar on which Jesus' legs stood Christ, was made of cedar wood.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

As a confirmation of this explanation, the words from the Book of the Prophet Isaiah were quoted: “The glory of Lebanon will come to you, cypress and singing and cedar together, to decorate the place of My sanctuary, and I will glorify the foot My feet” ().


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This legend is set out in Gregory's debate with Rabbi Yervan, placed in the Life of St. Gregory of Omiritsky, Bishop of Negransky (commemorated on December 19) [5].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The story of the three-part Cross was reflected in the liturgical texts of the Orthodox Church, in Oktoikha [6], in Minea [7], in the Lenten Triodi [8].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Bogomil legend


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Bogomils is credited with one of the dualistic legends about the Life-Giving Cross, which tells about the creation of the world and the planting of paradise at the same time by God and Satanael [9].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to this legend, God, when planting one of the trees of paradise, says to Satanael, “Here will be my body, and the tree will serve to expel you.”


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

When Satanael rejected God, when he came to see the tree of knowledge of good and evil, he was driven out of paradise by his mysterious power, and the devil became black for the first time [3].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The tree grew into three trunks, called the trunks of Adam, Eve and the Lord (in the center).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

After the first men were expelled from paradise, the tree fell apart and only a part of the Lord remained in place.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Part of Adam fell into the Tiger and was brought by water to the land of Midian, and part of Eve fell to Merra during the Flood.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to Bogomil legend, these two parts were used to make the Cross for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Zolotaya legenda


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This text of the legend of the Life-Giving Cross has been preserved in the West as part of the Golden Legend, and in the East it is known only from a few Greek manuscripts.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The basis of the story about the origin of the material for the Life-Giving Cross is taken from the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

It tells us that when Adam was dying, his son Seth went to the gates of Paradise to receive oil of forgiveness and anoint his father's body with it.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

However, the Archangel Michael who appeared said that the oil of forgiveness to the whole world would be given in 5500 years (prophecy of the coming of Christ) and gave Sif a branch from the tree of knowledge of Good and Evil, the fruit from which Adam tasted at the time of the Fall.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Handing over the branch, the archangel said: “If you can revive this dry fruit, you will be healed to it” [4].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Returning home, Sif found Adam dead and put a dry branch in his mouth (according to other versions, Sif put a wreath woven from this branch on Adam's head [10], or Adam himself, who was still alive by the time of Sif's return [9]).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Then a tree of three fused trunks sprouted from it, which continued to grow for thousands of years until the time of King Solomon.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This king, having cut down a tree, tried to use it in the construction of the Temple in Jerusalem, but it did not fit due to its size.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The timber was used in the construction of the bridge.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

When the famous Queen of Sheba paid a visit to Solomon, she knelt before the tree.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

After bowing, she predicted that the Savior of the World would be hanged from this tree, and therefore the kingdom of the Jews would come to ruin and end [4].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Then, instead of stepping on a tree, she waded barefoot across the stream [11].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Frightened Solomon ordered to bury the timber.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The wood was found during the construction of a swimming pool for washing the entrails of sacrificial animals.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

However, the water in it became famous for its healings, and it was turned into a healing bath (Bethesda, which had five covered passages).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

After the arrest of Christ, a tree surfaced from the waters of the bath.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

It was decided to make a Cross from it for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, namely a vertical supporting pillar.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The cross bar, sign and foot were made of other types of trees.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to legend, the Cross was assembled from cypress, cedar and olive wood [12].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Russian apocrypha


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The Russian apocrypha “The Word of the Cross Tree” (15th—16th centuries) contains the history of the Cross Tree, similar to the European Golden Legend, with the addition of legends about Moses and Lot.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

However, the queen who comes to Solomon is called Sibyl.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

When she came to see the tree Solomon had thrown away, she sat on it and was scorched by fire.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

After that, she said: “O damn drevo,” and the people standing next to him exclaimed: “O blessed drevo, the Lord will be crucified on him!”


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

[10] The Word of the Cross Tree also reports that the tree from the legend of Moses (see below) was used to make a cross for the crucifixion of the Mad Robber.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

In the Russian apocrypha, the Queen of Sheba is often called a sivil and in a number of sources she is credited with a prophecy about the fate of the tree rejected by Solomon during the construction of the temple:


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Other legends


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Related to Moses:


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The legend is based on the history of popular murmur at the bitter-salty spring of Merra described in the Old Testament (Ex 15:23-25).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

There are two versions of this story in the apocrypha.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

First, Moses planted a tree on the bank of the spring, brought from paradise during the Flood (see the Bogomil legend about the tree of Eve).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Second, an angel gave Moses the branches of three trees: aloe, cedar and cypress, and ordered them, weaving them together as a symbol of the Holy Trinity, to plant them on the shore.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

In both versions of the legend, the fate of the grown tree corresponds to the story described in the Golden Legend with King Solomon.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Lot related:


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This legend describes the origin of the tree for the cross of the pious robber, but in a number of versions it is associated with the origin of the Life-Giving Cross [9].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to legend, Seth received from the angel not only a branch from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, but also another, which Seth later lit on the banks of the Nile, and it burned with unquenchable fire for a long time.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

When Lot sinned with his daughters, God told him to plant three bunts from that fire for redemption and water them until a big tree grew.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The cross of a pious robber was made of this tree, or, after going through the path described in the Golden Legend, it became the material for the Life-Giving Cross.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

There is also a second legend about the origin of the tree for the Cross, related to Lot.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

When God appeared to Abraham in Mamra in the form of three angels, they left him three of their staffs before leaving for Sodom.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Abraham gave them to Lot after his Fall with his daughters, ordering them to be planted in the vicinity of Jerusalem and poured water from the Jordan.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Lot, in an effort to atone for his sin, fulfilled Abraham's errand — planted staffs in the valley, carried water from the Jordan himself, and fought Satan, who tempted him through thought.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The staffs sprouted and grew into a triune pinya-cypress-cedar tree.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Further, the fate of the tree repeats the story described in the Golden Legend [13].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The Orthodox Monastery of the Holy Cross, one of the oldest in Jerusalem, according to legend, was built where Lot planted the tree of the Cross.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The silver circle in the chapel behind the main altar of the monastery church marks this place, which is revered as sacred.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Finding the cross


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Church historians' testimonies


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Church historians of the 4th-5th centuries


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The next cycle of legends, which already speaks of the acquisition of a historical church relic — the Cross, generally accepted by believers as the True One, dates back to 326, when it is believed that it was found to be a saint Queen Elena (mother of Emperor Constantine the Great) during her journey to Jerusalem for the purpose of pilgrimage and search for Christian relics:


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

... divine Constantine sent Blessed Elena with treasures to find the life-giving cross of the Lord.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The Patriarch of Jerusalem, Macarius, met the Queen with proper honor and together with her sought the desired life-giving tree, being in silence and diligent prayers and prayers [14].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

— “Chronography” by Theophanes, year 5817 (324/325)


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Together with the Cross of the Lord Elena, four nails and INRI titles were found.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This story is described by many authors of that time: Ambrose of Milan (c. 340—397), Rufin (345—410), Socrates Scholastic (c. 380—440), Theodorite Kirsky (386—457), Sulpicius North (ca. 363—410), Sozomen (ca. 400—450).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The earliest church historian, Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263—340), in his Life of Constantine, reports in detail on the discovery of the “divine tomb”, but does not mention the acquisition The Life-Giving Cross, nor about the participation of Queen Elena in this event.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to his story, the cave where Christ was buried was found during the struggle against pagan temples.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

When, by order of Constantine, the mound of the temple was torn off to the “defiant demon of love” (that is, the goddess Venus), then “suddenly in the depths of the earth, beyond any expectation, an empty space seemed, and then Honest and the All-Holy Sign of the saving Resurrection. Then the most sacred cave became for us the image of the Savior who returned to life.” [15] Eusebius does not specify what the sign was.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to Eusebius, Queen Elena erected a church in Bethlehem near another cave where Christ was born in the flesh.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Socrates Scholastik and Eusebius cite a letter from Emperor Constantine to Macarius of Jerusalem, where the emperor gives instructions for the construction of a temple on the site of the opening of the “sign of the holiest passions” [16].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

However, Constantine does not name the cross in his letter, but speaks about the discovery of the holy


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

If the contemporaries of Queen Helena and Emperor Constantine do not report anything about the acquisition of the Cross, then already under his son Emperor Constantia (reigned 337-361), church circles firmly believe that the discovery took place under Constantine.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

In a letter to Constantius on the sign of the cross in heaven, Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem writes: “For under the Most God-loving, and blessed memory of Constantine Your Father, the Saving Tree was found in Jerusalem Cross: when he had the greatest jealousy for piety, through the assistance of Divine grace, he found secret Holy Places” [17].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

For the first time in the surviving texts, the history of the discovery of the Cross appears in an expanded form with Ambrose of Milan in 395.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

In “The Word on the Death of Theodosius”, he talks about how Blessed Elena ordered to dig at Calvary and found 3 crosses there.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

From the inscription “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews”, she found the true Cross and bowed to it.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

She also found the nails with which the Lord was crucified, and put one of them in check and the other in a diadem [18].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

A similar story is described in Chapter 10 of Rufin's Church History, which is a Latin translation of a fragment of the work of the same name by Gelasius of Caesarea [19].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The lost original Greek text of Gelasius dates back to about 390 and can be considered the first known account of the history of Elena's discovery of the Cross [20].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

This story is generally close to Ambrose's story, but contains an insert with the miraculous healing of a dying woman — a “divine testimony” that confirmed the inscription on the cross.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

According to Rufin, the Cross was found at the site of Christ's execution, disguised as a statue of Venus.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Elena builds a temple on this site, and sends the nails she finds to her son [21].


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

In its most developed form, the legend of the discovery of the Cross appears in Socrates Scholastica and Sozomen.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Socrates himself reports about the source on the history of the discovery of the cross: “Although I wrote this by ear, almost all residents of Constantinople speak about the authenticity of this event.” [22]


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The works of these historians formed the basis for subsequent descriptions of the acquisition of the Life-Giving Cross (in particular, in the Chronography” of the Byzantine historian Theophanes (760-818)).


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

On the basis of these historical evidence with the addition of apocryphal sources, the story of the discovery of the Life-Giving Cross was included by Yakov Voraginsky in his Golden Legend, which received a wide prominence in the West.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Date of discovery of the Cross


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The question of the exact date when Elena found the Cross is debatable.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

The most common date is the date given by Socrates Scholastica - 326.


Question: In what year did Empress Elena find the Lord's Cross?

The Life-Giving Cross

Socrates does not name the year in which the discovery of the cross took place, but in his Church History, the story of the event comes immediately after the mention of the celebration of the 20th anniversary of Constantine's reign (July 25, 326) [22].