Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Center|240pxCenter|240pxAurora Borealis in winter at Alaskan North Pole (webcam snapshot) North Pole-37 drifting station Icebergs near Greenland


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Hydrological regime


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Due to the polar geographical location of the ocean in the central part of the Arctic basin, the ice cover remains throughout the year, although it is in a mobile state [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Surface water circulation


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

300px|mini|Surface water circulation.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The map shows: purple arrows - the Transarctic current, blue arrows - the cycle in the Beaufort Sea, blue arrows - the cycle east of Severnaya Zemlya, red arrows - river flow


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

A permanent ice cover isolates the ocean surface from the direct effects of solar radiation and the atmosphere.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The most important hydrological factor affecting the circulation of surface waters is the powerful inflow of Atlantic waters into the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This warm North Atlantic current determines the whole picture of the distribution of currents in the North European basin and in the Barents Sea, partly in the Kara Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The flow of waters in the Arctic is also significantly affected by the inflow of Pacific, river and glacier waters.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The water balance is equalized primarily due to the flow into the northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This is the main surface current in the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

A smaller part of the water flows from the ocean into the Atlantic through the straits of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

River runoff plays a significant role in the formation of the surface water circulation of the ocean, although it is small in volume.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

More than half of the river flow comes from the rivers of Asia and Alaska, so there is a constant runoff of water and ice here.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

A current is formed that crosses the ocean and in its western part rushes into the strait between Svalbard and Greenland.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This direction of the remote current is supported by the inflow of Pacific waters entering through the Bering Strait.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Thus, the Transarctic Current is a mechanism that ensures the general direction of ice drift and, in particular, of the North Pole polar drifting stations, which invariably end their journey in North European Basin [12] [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Beaufort Sea, a local cycle occurs between Alaska and the Transatlantic Current.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Another cycle is formed east of Severnaya Zemlya.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The local cycle in the Kara Sea is formed by the East Novozemelskoye and Yamal currents.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

A complex system of currents is observed in the Barents Sea, where it is entirely connected with the North Atlantic Current and its branches.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

After crossing the Faroese - Icelandic threshold, the North Atlantic Current follows north - north - east along the Norwegian coast, known as the Norwegian Current, Svalbard and Northkap currents.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The latter near the Kola Peninsula is called the Murmansk Peninsula, and then passes into the West New Zealand Current, which gradually fades in the northern part of the Kara Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

All these warm currents move at a speed of more than 25 cm per second [12] [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The continuation of the Transatlantic Current along the eastern coast of Greenland is the East Greenland Current.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This cold current is characterized by its high power and high speed.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Bypassing the southern tip of Greenland, the current follows into the Baffin Sea as the West Greenland Current.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the northern part of this sea, it merges with a stream of waters rushing from the straits of the Canadian archipelago.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

As a result, a cold Canadian current is formed, running at a speed of 10-25 cm per second along Baffin Earth and causing the flow of water from the Arctic into the Atlantic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Local cyclonic circulation is observed in Hudson Bay [12] [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The water balance of the Arctic Ocean (according to the Atlas of the Oceans. 1980) [5].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

IncomeQuantity of water


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

thousand km³


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

per yearConsumptionQuantity of water


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

thousand km³


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

in the year of the Atlantic Ocean through the straits: Davisov, Danish, Faroese - Icelandic, Faroese - Shetland 225 To the Atlantic Ocean through the straits: Devisov, Danish, Faroese Icelandic, Faroese - Shetland260From the Pacific Ocean through the Bering Strait30evaporation 3precipitation5Ice removal 2River Stock5total265total265


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Water masses


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are several layers of water masses in the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The surface layer (up to 25-50 m) has a low temperature (below -1.5° C) and a reduced salinity (28—33.5 ‰).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The latter is explained by the desalting effect of river runoff, meltwater and very weak evaporation.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Norwegian Sea, where the North Atlantic Current dominates, there is no surface layer, the average temperature is 6—8° C, salinity is 34—35 ‰.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the East Greenland Current, the temperature is about -1° C, the salinity is 30-33 ‰.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Below is the subsurface layer (up to 150-200 m), colder (up to -1.8° C) and more salty (up to 34.3 ‰), formed by mixing surface water with the underlying intermediate aqueous layer.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This layer prevents the penetration of heat from the intermediate layer to the surface layer.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The intermediate water layer is Atlantic water coming from the Greenland Sea with a positive temperature and increased salinity (more than 37 ‰), spreading to a depth of 750-800 m [12] [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Deeper lies the deep water layer, which is formed due to vertical convection in winter in the Greenland Sea, slowly creeping in a single stream from the strait between Greenland and Svalbard.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Other sources of deep layer formation are the shelf waters of the Chukchi and Barents Seas, as well as the fjords of Svalbard.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Deep water mixing takes place in the Norwegian Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

After 12-15 years, counting from the time of entry into the strait, this water mass reaches the Beaufort Sea area.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The deep water temperature is about -0.9° C (with the exception of the Canadian depression, separated by the Lomonosov Ridge, with a temperature of -0.4° C), salinity is close to 35 ‰.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There is also a bottom water mass, very sedentary, stagnant (the circulation period is 700 years), which practically does not take part in the general circulation of the ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Bottom water accumulates at the bottom of the deepest basins of the ocean bed (Nansen, Amundsen and Canadian) [12] [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

As a result of a generalization of Russian and international data obtained during research within the framework of the International Polar Year 2007-2008, information was obtained on the formation of the surface layer of the Arctic Ocean of vast areas with anomalous salinity values.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Along the American continent, a zone with salinity of 2—4 ‰ less than the long-term average was formed, and an anomaly with an increased salinity of up to 2 ‰ was recorded in the Eurasian sub-basin.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The border between these two zones runs along the Lomonosov Ridge.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Surface water temperature anomalies were recorded in a significant part of the Canadian Sub-Basin, reaching values of +5°C relative to the long-term average level.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Anomalies up to +2°C were recorded in the Beaufort Sea, in the southern part of the Podvodnikov basin and the western part of the East Siberian Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There is also an increase in the temperature of deep Atlantic waters in some areas of the Arctic basin (sometimes deviations reach +1.5°C from the average climatic state) [22].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Water massesTemperature and salinity profiles


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Tides, surges and disturbances


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Tidal phenomena in the Arctic seas are mainly determined by the tidal wave propagating from the Atlantic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Barents and Kara Seas, a tidal wave comes from the West from the Norwegian Sea, into the Laptev, East Siberian, Chukotka and Beaufort seas, a tidal wave comes from the north, through the Arctic swimming pool.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Tides and tidal currents of the correct semi-diurnal nature predominate.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

During the course, two periods of phase inequality are expressed (depending on the phases of the moon), each of which has one maximum and one minimum.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Significant tidal heights (more than 1.5 m) are noted in the Northern European Basin, in the southern part of the Barents and the northeastern part of the White Seas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The maximum is observed in the Mezen Bay, where the tide height reaches 10 m. Further east on most of the coasts of Siberia, Alaska and Canada, the tide is less than 0.5 m, but in the Baffin Sea 3-5 m, and on the southern coast of Baffin Land - 12 m [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On most of the coast of the Arctic Ocean, surge fluctuations in the water level are much greater than the tides.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The exception is the Barents Sea, where they are less noticeable against the background of large tidal fluctuations in the level.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The largest drifts and surges, reaching 2 m or more, characterize the Laptev and East Siberian seas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Especially strong ones are observed in the eastern part of the Laptev Sea, for example, in the Vankino Bay area, the extreme surge height can reach 5-6 m. In the Kara Sea, surge fluctuations exceed 1 m, and in the Gulf of Ob and the Yenisei Bay they are close to 2 m. In the Chukchi Sea, these phenomena still significantly exceed the tidal ones in scope, and only on Wrangel Island the tides and surges are approximately equal [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The turmoil in the Arctic seas depends on the wind regime and glacial conditions.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In general, the ice regime in the Arctic Ocean is unfavorable for the development of wave processes.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Exceptions are the Barents Sea and the White Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In winter, storm phenomena develop here, in which the wave height reaches 10-11 m in the open sea. In the Kara Sea, waves of 1.5—2.5 m have the greatest frequency, sometimes up to 3 m in autumn. With northeastern winds in the East Siberian Sea, the wave height does not exceed 2—2.5 m, with a north-westerly wind in rare cases it reaches 4 m. In the Chukchi Sea in July-August, the waves are weak, but in autumn storms with a maximum wave height of up to 7 m are played out. In the southern part of the sea, powerful unrest can be observed until the beginning of November.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Canadian basin, significant waves are possible in the summer in the Baffin Sea, where they are associated with stormy southeasterly winds.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the North European Basin, strong storm waves are possible throughout the year, associated with western and south-western winds in winter, and mainly with northern and northeastern winds in summer.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The maximum wave height in the southern part of the Norwegian Sea can reach 10—12 m [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ice


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ice coverage is of great importance for the hydrodynamics and climate of the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ice is present all year round in all Arctic seas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the central regions of the ocean, pack ice is distributed in a continuous cover in summer, reaching a thickness of 3-5 meters.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ice islands (30-35 meters thick) drift in the ocean, used to base the drifting stations “North Pole”.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ice drifts at an average speed of 7 km/day, a maximum of 100 km/day [23].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Coastal seas in summer are largely freed from ice, but there are spurs of oceanic glacial massifs that come close to the shore and create difficulties for navigation.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Kara Sea, a local array of drifting ice remains in summer, the other exists south of Wrangel Island.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Landfast ice disappears off the coast in summer, but at some distance from the coast there are local massifs of solder ice: Severozemelsky, Yansky and Novosibirsky.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In winter, coastal fast ice is especially extensive in the Laptev and East Siberian Seas, where its width is measured in many hundreds of kilometers [16].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

High ice coverage is observed in the waters of the Canadian basin.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the straits, drifting ice remains throughout the year, the Baffin Sea is partially (in the eastern part) freed from floating ice from August to October.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Hudson Bay is ice-free during September-October.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Powerful coastal fast ice persists throughout the year off the northern coast of Greenland and off the coast in the straits of the Elizabeth Archipelago [16].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Several thousand icebergs are formed annually in the eastern and western parts of Greenland, as well as in the Labrador Current.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Some of them reach the main shipping route between Europe and America and descend far south along the coast of North America [12].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

According to the National Center for Snow and Ice Research (NSIDC) at the University of Colorado (USA), Arctic sea ice is shrinking with acceleration, especially the old thick ice disappears quickly, causing all the ice sheet is becoming more vulnerable.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On September 16, 2012, a daily and monthly minimum of ice area in the ocean was 3.61 million km² (13% lower than the average for the observation period from 1979 to 2000).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Other lows were recorded on September 18, 2007 — 4.24 million km² and September 9, 2011 — 4.33 million km².


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At this time, the North-West Passage, traditionally considered impassable, is fully opened.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At this rate, by 2100, the Arctic will completely lose its summer ice.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

However, recently the rate of ice loss has been increasing, and according to some forecasts, summer ice may disappear by the middle of the 21st century [24] [25].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Flora and fauna


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Severe climatic conditions have an impact on the poverty of the organic world of the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The only exceptions are the North European Basin, the Barents and White Seas with their extremely rich flora and fauna.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The flora of the ocean is mainly represented by kelp, fucus, anfeltia, and in the White Sea - also by the seaside.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Phytoplankton in the Arctic Ocean has only 200 species, of which 92 species are diatoms.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Diatoms have adapted to the harsh environment of the ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Many of them settle on the lower surface of the ice.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Diatomaceous flora forms the bulk of phytoplankton — up to 79% in the Barents Sea and up to 98% in the Arctic basin [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Due to unfavorable climatic conditions, the zooplankton of the ocean is also not rich.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are 150-200 species of zooplankton in the Kara, Barents, Norwegian and Greenland Seas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are 80—90 species in the East Siberian Sea and 70—80 species in the Arctic Basin.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Copepods (copepods), intestinal, predominate, some shells and protozoa are represented.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Some Pacific species are found in the zooplankton of the Chukchi Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The fauna of the ocean floor has an even more uneven distribution.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The zoobenthos of the Barents, Norwegian and White Seas is comparable in diversity to the seas of the subpolar and temperate zones of the Atlantic Ocean — from 1500 to 1800 species, with a biomass of 100—350 g/m².


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Laptev Sea, the number of species decreases by 2—3 times with an average biomass of 25 g/m².


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The fauna of the seabed of the eastern Arctic, especially the central part of the Arctic basin, is very poor.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are more than 150 species of fish in the Arctic Ocean, including a large number of commercial fish (herring, cod, salmon, scorpion, flounder and others).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Seabirds in the Arctic are predominantly colonial and live on the shores.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

About 30 species of birds constantly live and multiply here (white gull, lurik, some waders, eiders, guillemots, guillemots, white geese, black goose, bunochki).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The entire population of the giant “bird bazaars” feeds exclusively on the food resources of the ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Mammals are represented by seals, walruses, beluga whales, whales (mainly minke whales and bowhead whales), narwhals.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are lemmings on the islands, arctic foxes and reindeer come along ice bridges.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

A polar bear, whose life is mainly associated with drifting, pack ice or coastal fast ice, should also be considered a representative of the ocean fauna.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Most animals and birds are white or very light all year round (and some only in winter) [19] [26].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The fauna of the northern seas is distinguished by a number of specific features.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

One such feature is the gigantism inherent in some forms.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean is home to the largest mussels, the largest cyanea jellyfish (up to 2 m in diameter with a tentacle length of up to 20 m), the largest ofiura “Gorgon's head”.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Kara Sea, a giant solitary coral and a sea spider are known, reaching a legspan of 30 cm. Another feature of organisms in the Arctic Ocean is their longevity.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

For example, mussels in the Barents Sea live up to 25 years (in the Black Sea - no more than 6 years), cod live up to 20 years, halibut up to 30-40 years.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This is due to the fact that in cold Arctic waters, the development of life processes is slow [19].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In recent years, due to warming in the Arctic, there has been an increase in the number of cod north of Svalbard, in the Kara Sea and on the coast of Siberia.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The fish moves behind the expanding food base, due to the increase in temperature, to the north and east [27].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Center|210pxPolar Bear


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Franz Josefalurik Land


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

SpitsbergenGreenland whale


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

FoxCrossota norvegica Bay


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Beaufort Sea


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Environmental problems


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The nature of the Arctic Ocean is one of the most vulnerable ecosystems on the planet.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1991, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the United States adopted the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1996, the Foreign Ministries of the Arctic region signed the Ottawa Declaration and formed the Arctic Council.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) calls the main environmental problems of the Arctic: melting ice and changing the Arctic climate, pollution of the waters of the northern seas with oil products and chemicals waste, a decrease in the population of Arctic animals and a change in their habitat [28].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The loss of summer ice entails big problems for the nature of the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

When the sea ice border retreats, it will be difficult for walruses and polar bears to survive, using ice as a hunting platform and a place to relax.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The reflectivity of the open water ocean will decrease, which will lead to the absorption of 90% of solar energy, which will increase warming.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At the same time, the glaciers of the surrounding land will begin to melt, and this water, once in the ocean, will lead to a rise in sea level [29].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The condition of coastal waters is deteriorating.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Northern Fleet discharges about 10 million m³ of untreated water annually.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Along with wastewater from industrial enterprises, petroleum products, phenols, heavy metal compounds, nitrogen, and other substances enter the Arctic seas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There is a risk of radioactive contamination.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Containers with nuclear waste and nuclear reactors from submarines have been flooded in the Kara Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are 200 abandoned and sunken ships in the Kola Bay, which are sources of pollution.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

About 12 million barrels lie along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, often filled with fuel, oil and chemical raw materials [30] [31].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

From 1954 to 1990, nuclear tests were carried out at the nuclear test site on Novaya Zemlya.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

During this time, 135 nuclear explosions were carried out at the test site: 87 in the atmosphere (including 84 air, 1 ground, 2 surface), 3 underwater and 42 underground explosions.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Among the experiments were very powerful megaton tests of nuclear charges carried out in the atmosphere over the archipelago.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1961, the most powerful hydrogen bomb in the history of mankind, the 58-megaton Tsar Bomb, was detonated on Novaya Zemlya [32] [33].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On January 21, 1968, seven miles south of the US air base Thule in northwestern Greenland, a B-52 strategic bomber crashed with nuclear bombs on board, pierced a 2-meter layer of ice and sank in North Star Bay.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The bombs split into pieces, which led to radioactive contamination of a large area [34].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Study history


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The history of discoveries and first exploration of the ocean


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The very first written mention of a visit to the ocean dates back to the 4th century BC. e.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

, when the Greek traveler Pytheas from Massilia sailed to the country of Tula, which was most likely far beyond the Arctic Circle, as on the summer solstice the sun is there it was shining all night.


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Arctic Ocean

Some scholars believe that the country of Tule is Iceland [35].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the 5th century, Irish monks explored the Faroe Islands and Iceland.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

And in the 9th century, the first Scandinavian navigator Ottar from Holugaland sailed east and reached the White Sea [36].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 986, the Vikings founded settlements in Greenland, in the 11th century they reached Svalbard and Novaya Zemlya, and in the 13th century they reached the Canadian Arctic [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1553, the English navigator Richard Chansler circled Cape Nordkin and reached the place where Arkhangelsk is now located.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1556, Stephen Barrow from the Moscow Company reached Novaya Zemlya.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Dutch navigator and explorer Willem Barents made three Arctic expeditions in 1594—96, the purpose of which was to search for the northern sea route to the East Indies, and tragically died near Novaya Zemlya.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The northern regions of Eurasia were studied by Russian or foreign researchers who were in the Russian service.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the 11th century, Russian fishermen and farmers reached the shores of the White Sea, and in the XV-XVI centuries, fur traders penetrated into the Trans-Urals and took possession of lands already developed and inhabited by hunters, fishermen and reindeer herders.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Since the 18th century, Russia began to conduct intensive scientific research in Siberia and the Far East, as a result of which many details of the outline of the Arctic Ocean became known [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1633, Russian pioneers Ivan Rebrov and Ilya Perfiliev traveled by sea from the mouth of the Lena River to the Yana River.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1636, Rebrov reached by sea the mouth of the Indigirka River, which flows into the East Siberian Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Mikhail Stadukhin in 1643, rode a koche along Indigirka to its mouth and, going by sea to the east, reached the mouth of the Kolyma River [38].


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Arctic Ocean

In 1641-1647, Cossack S. AND. Dezhnev explored the coast of North Asia from the mouth of the Kolyma River to the easternmost point of the continent (now Cape Dezhnev).


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Arctic Ocean

In 1648, Dezhnev discovered the strait between Asia and America, later called the Bering Strait (the strait was rediscovered in 1728 by V. Bering).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

These discoveries were the reason for organizing the Great Northern Expedition, which in 1733-1743 was supposed to find the shortest route from the White to the Bering Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

During this expedition in 1742, S. AND. Chelyuskin discovered the northernmost point of Asia [39].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Northeast Passage in 1876—1880 was the first to be passed by the Swedish explorer Baron A. E.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Nordenskiöld aboard the ship Vega.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In search of a northwest passage, Martin Frobisher landed on Baffin Island (discovered long before by the Scandinavians) in 1576.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In August 1585, John Davis crossed the strait (which now bears his name) and described the eastern shore of the Cumberland Peninsula.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Later, during the next two voyages, it reached 72°12'N.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

but couldn't make it to Melville Bay.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1610, Henry Hudson, aboard the Discovery, reached the bay that now bears his name.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1616, Robert Bylot crossed the entire Baffin Sea northbound on the Discovery and reached Smith Strait between Ellesmere Island and Greenland [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Hudson's Bay Company has made a major contribution to research from North America.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1771, Samuel Hearn reached the mouth of the Coppermine River, and in 1789 Alexander Mackenzie reached the mouth of the river, later named after him.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1845, John Franklin's expedition on two ships Erebus and Terror sailed into the waters of the American Arctic, fell into an ice trap in the Victoria Strait and died.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Numerous expeditions in search of Franklin for 15 years have clarified the outlines of a number of sections of the sea coast in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and confirmed the reality of the existence of the Northwest Passage [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Before the First World War, merchant ships began voyages from the Atlantic Ocean to the Yenisei River, but regular development of the Northern Sea Route began in the 1920s.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1932, the icebreaker Alexander Sibiryakov was able to cover the route from Arkhangelsk to the Bering Strait in one navigation, and in 1934, the icebreaker Fedor Litke traveled this way in the opposite direction from the east to the west.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Subsequently, regular flights of caravans of merchant ships, accompanied by icebreakers, passed along the Northern Sea Route along the Arctic coast of Russia.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The entire North-West Passage was first passed by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen in 1903—1906 on the small ship Joa.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the opposite direction, in 1940-1942, the Canadian police schooner Saint Rock sailed down the aisle, and in 1944, the St. Rock became the first ship to cover this path in one navigation.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the 1980s, several small passenger ships and the tourist ship Lindblade Explorer passed the North-West Sea Route for the first time [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Conquering the North Pole


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The first attempts to reach the North Pole were made from Smith Bay and the Kennedy Strait between Ellesmere Island and Greenland.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1875-1876, the Englishman George Ners managed to lead the Discovery and Alert ships to the edge of powerful pack ice.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1893, Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen froze on the ship Fram into the cover of sea ice in the north of the Russian Arctic and drifted with it into the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

When Fram was closest to the pole, Nansen and his moon Hjalmar Johansen tried to reach the North Pole, but reached 86° 13.6'N.


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Arctic Ocean

, had to turn back.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

American Robert Peary spent the winter aboard his ship Roosevelt and claimed to have reached the pole on April 6, 1909 with his black servant Matt Hanson and four Eskimos.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Another American, Dr. Frederick Cook, stated that he reached the pole on April 21, 1908.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Currently, many researchers believe that in fact, neither Cook nor Peary was able to visit the pole [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On May 11-14, 1926, Roald Amundsen, together with American explorer Lincoln Ellsworth and Italian aviator Umberto Nobile, flew from Svalbard in the airship Norway, crossed North The Arctic Ocean across the North Pole reached Alaska after spending 72 hours on a non-stop flight [40].


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Arctic Ocean

In 1928, Kh.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Wilkins and pilot Carl Ben Eyelson flew from Alaska to Svalbard.


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Arctic Ocean

Two successful flights from the USSR to the United States across the Arctic Ocean were carried out by Soviet pilots in 1936—1937 (in the third attempt, pilot S. A. Levanevsky, along with the plane, disappeared without a trace) [37].


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Arctic Ocean

The first people who undoubtedly reached the North Pole on the surface of the ice without the use of motor transport are considered members of the British transarctic expedition led by Wally Herbert.


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Arctic Ocean

This happened on April 6, 1969 [41].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On May 9—10, 1926, American Richard Evelyn Baird flew to the North Pole for the first time from the base on Svalbard and returned back.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The flight, according to him, lasted 15 hours.


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Arctic Ocean

Doubts about its achievement arose immediately — back in Svalbard.


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Arctic Ocean

This was confirmed in 1996: a study of Baird's flight diary found traces of erasures - falsification of part of flight data in the official report to the National Geographic society [42].


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Arctic Ocean

On August 17, 1977, at four o'clock Moscow time, the Soviet nuclear-powered ship Arktika was the first in surface navigation to reach the Northern Peak of the planet.


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Arctic Ocean

On May 25, 1987, the Sibir nuclear-powered ship reached the North Pole by the shortest route from Murmansk.


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Arctic Ocean

In the summer of 1990, the new nuclear-powered icebreaker Rossiya reached the North Pole with tourists [43].


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Arctic Ocean

Nansen and Johansen start


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Arctic Ocean

1895 Airship “Norway”


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Arctic Ocean

1926 The volume submarine “Skate”


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Arctic Ocean

at the North Pole, 1959 Yamal icebreaker


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Arctic Ocean

with tourists, 2001


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Arctic Ocean

Ocean science


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Arctic Ocean

In 1937-1938, under the leadership of I. D. Papanina (together with P. P. Shirshov (hydrobiologist), E.


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Arctic Ocean

K. Fedorov (geophysicist) and E.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

T. Krenkel (radio operator)) organized the polar research station “North Pole” on a drifting ice floe near the pole.


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Arctic Ocean

During the 9-month drift, regular meteorological and geophysical measurements and hydrobiological observations were carried out, and sea depths were measured.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Since the 1950s, many such drifting stations have operated in the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The governments of the United States, Canada and the USSR organized long-term research bases on large ice islands, where the ice thickness reached 50 m [37].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1948, Soviet scientists discovered the Lomonosov Ridge [9], and in 1961, American scientists found a continuation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge [17].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1930, the Hudson Bay Company, with the support of the Canadian government, conducted the first studies of ocean currents in the Canadian ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Since 1948, biological studies of the region have been carried out, including the construction of the Arctic Biological Station in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, as well as the research ship Calanus.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Since 1949, Canada and the United States have conducted joint research in the Bering and Chukchi Seas, and since the 1950s - in the Beaufort Sea [44].


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Arctic Ocean

In 1980, the major work Atlas of the Oceans. Arctic Ocean”, published by the GUNIO of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR [22].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the 1980s, the German scientific icebreaker Polarstern performed a set of meteorological, hydrological, hydrochemical, biological and geological works in the Eurasian part of the ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1991, similar studies were carried out aboard the Swedish icebreaker Oden.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1993 and 1994, research was carried out in the eastern Arctic basin aboard the American icebreaker Polar Star and the Canadian icebreaker Louis Saint Laurent.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the following years, work on the study of the waters of the Arctic basin of the Arctic Ocean from foreign ships became almost regular [22].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On August 2, 2007, as part of the Russian polar expedition Arktika-2007, dives were made from the research vessel Akademik Fedorov at the North Pole in two deep-sea Mir devices [45] [46].


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Arctic Ocean

In 2009, a joint US-Canadian scientific expedition took place with the support of the Healy ships of the US Coast Guard and the Louis Saint Laurent of the Canadian Coast Guard to study 200 kilometers ocean floor of the continental shelf (northern Alaska region — Lomonosov Ridge — Canadian Arctic Archipelago) [47].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Currently, on the part of Russia, the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute is engaged in comprehensive scientific research of the Arctic [48].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Every year, the Institute organizes polar expeditions.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On October 1, 2012, the North Pole-40 station began drifting in the Arctic Ocean [49].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

With the direct participation of the Institute, the joint Russian-Norwegian Arctic Laboratory for Arctic Climate Research named after Fram [50] and the Russian-German Laboratory of Polar and Marine Otto Schmidt Research [51].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In Canada, the Bedford Institute of Oceanography is engaged in ocean research [44].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ocean in the mythology of the peoples of Eurasia


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean occupies an important place in the mythological views of the peoples of Northern Eurasia.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Northern Ocean appears as the lower world of darkness, the underworld, the kingdom of the dead in the mythological picture of the world of the peoples of Northern Eurasia (Finno-Ugric, Samoyed, Tungus-Manchu).


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Arctic Ocean

This view was formed in ancient times and is being reconstructed as the border of the ancient North-Eurasian cosmogonic myth about diving beyond the earth.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The peoples of Siberia divided the universe not vertically, but horizontally — relative to the World River.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the mountain sources of the river, the upper world of light was thought, from where migratory birds brought the souls of newborns to the human world in spring.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The souls of the dead went down the river to the lower realm of the dead.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This picture of the world was caused by geographical realities, namely, the large rivers of Siberia, flowing from south to north and flowing into the ocean.


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Arctic Ocean

The very myth of birds diving behind the earth and the creation of peace from it arose in the post-glacial period, when the waters of Siberian rivers accumulated in the north in front of the retreating glacier and formed a huge reservoir [52].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Indo-Iranian mythological tradition, some echoes of contacts with the northern neighbors of the Aryan ancestral homeland have been preserved.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In particular, some scientists correlate the World Mountain of Aryan mythology (Meru of the Indo-Aryans, Vysokaya Khara of the Iranians) with the Ural Mountains.


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Arctic Ocean

At the foot of this mountain is the World Ocean (Vorukasha of the Iranians), which is compared with the Arctic, and on it is the Island of the Blessed (Svetadvip Indo-Aryans).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Mahabharata specifically notes that the coast of the Milk Sea is located on the northern slope of the world Mount Meru [53].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

According to a number of researchers, some elements of this picture through the Scythian means were borrowed into the ancient Greek tradition and influenced, in particular, the formation of the image of the Riphean Mountains and Hyperborea [54] [55].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean seemed extremely vague as an ancient and medieval book tradition and therefore actively mythologized.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In particular, its shores were considered the edge of the inhabited world, so they had to be inhabited by various monsters (Arimaspas, etc.), heirs of primitive chaos [56].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the Old Russian and later Russian traditions, these myths were gradually replaced by objective data accumulated due to the development of the region and active contacts with the local population.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At the same time, in the European geographical tradition in modern times, there was an idea of a certain Arctic continent, which, with the development of geology, grew into a theory about the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ideas about the mysterious Arctic islands were popular later, embodied in the legend of the Sannikov Land, and such myths are still preserved in popular and near-scientific literature.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Some information about the ocean has been preserved by the Arab geographical tradition.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Arab traveler Abu Hamid al-Garnati, who visited Volga Bulgaria in the middle of the 12th century, talked about its northern neighbor, the country of Yura (Yugra), which was located beyond the Visu region, on the Sea of Darkness, that is, on the shores of the Arctic Ocean.


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Arctic Ocean

Arabic information and fantastic details are not without — for example, it is reported that with the arrival of northern merchants, a terrible cold came to Bulgaria [57].


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Arctic Ocean

The legal status of the Arctic Ocean


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The legal status of the Arctic space at the international level is not directly regulated.


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Arctic Ocean

In fragments, it is determined by the national legislation of the Arctic countries and international legal agreements, mainly in the field of environmental protection [58].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The territories of 6 states directly adjoin the Arctic Ocean: Denmark (Greenland), Canada, Norway, Russia, the United States of America, Iceland.


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Arctic Ocean

The latter makes no claims to its own Arctic sector.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Today, there are no agreements between the Arctic states that clearly define the rights to the bottom of the Arctic Ocean [58].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are two main ways to distinguish between the rights of Arctic states to the bottom of the Arctic Ocean: sectoral (each Arctic state owns a sector of the Arctic Ocean in the form of a triangle, the vertices of which are the North Geographical Pole, the western and eastern borders of the coast of the state) and conventional (general rules of delimitation must be applied to the ocean rights to maritime areas established by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of December 10, 1982) [58].


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Arctic Ocean

To comply with the convention, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf was created [59] [60], which is considering documents to increase the length of the shelf from Denmark, Norway and Russia [10] [61].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2008, Russia, Norway, Denmark, the United States and Canada signed the Ilulissat Declaration that there is no need to conclude new international agreements on the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At the same time, the powers agreed on environmental cooperation in the Arctic, as well as on coordination of actions in possible future rescue operations in the region [62].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Denmark


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Denmark has included Greenland and the Faroe Islands in its Arctic region.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Denmark's sovereignty over Greenland was established in 1933.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Denmark's polar holdings have an area of 0.372 million km² [63].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Denmark and Canada dispute the rights to Hans Island in the middle of the Kennedy Strait [64].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2002, Denmark applied to the UN for ownership of 62,000 km² of the continental shelf (including the North Pole) [65]


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Canada


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1880, Great Britain officially ceded the Arctic possessions in North America to Canada.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

However, many islands in the Canadian Arctic were discovered by American and Norwegian researchers, which posed a threat to Canada's sovereignty in the region.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Canada was the first to determine the legal status of the Arctic in 1909, officially declaring its property all lands and islands, both discovered and likely to be discovered later, lying west of Greenland, between Canada and the North Pole [66].


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Arctic Ocean

In 1926, these rights were legally enshrined in a royal decree prohibiting all foreign countries from engaging in any activity within Canada's Arctic lands and islands without much permission from the Canadian Government.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1922, Canada declared its ownership of Wrangel Island.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The USSR protested this statement and in 1924 installed the Soviet flag on Wrangel Island.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Today, Canada defines its Arctic holdings as an area that includes the Yukon River catchment area, all lands north of 60°N.


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Arctic Ocean

, including the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and its straits and bays, and the Hudson Bay and James Bay coastal areas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The area of Canada's polar holdings is 1.43 million km² [63].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2007, the Prime Minister of Canada launched an initiative to strengthen Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

As a follow-up to this proposal, the Canadian Parliament adopted Canada's Northern Strategy in 2009, which, in addition to the political component, focuses more on economic development Arctic region with a focus on scientific research [47].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2013, Canada filed an application with the UN for ownership of 1.2 million km² of the continental shelf (including the North Pole). [65]


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Norway


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Norway does not give an official definition of its Arctic territories.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1997, the Ministers of the Environment of the Arctic States determined that the Norwegian Arctic territory is formed by areas of the Norwegian Sea north of 65° N.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The area of Norway's polar possessions is 0.746 million km².


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1922, 42 countries signed a treaty in Paris establishing Norwegian sovereignty over the Spitsbergen archipelago.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

But since companies from several countries mined coal in Svalbard, the archipelago received the status of a demilitarized zone.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1925, Norway officially announced the annexation of Svalbard to its territory and established a 200-mile economic zone around the archipelago, which the Soviet Union and then Russia did not recognize .


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On February 15, 1957, the USSR and Norway signed an agreement on the maritime border between the two countries in the Barents Sea [63].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2010, Norway and the Russian Federation signed the “Agreement on the Delimitation of Maritime Spaces and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean” [10], as a result of which the ownership of vast maritime spaces with a total area of about 175 thousand km² has been determined [67].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Russia


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The status of the Russian Arctic zone was first determined in a note from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire dated September 20, 1916.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

It defines as Russian possessions all lands located on the extension to the north of the Siberian continental plateau.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The memorandum of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the USSR of November 4, 1924 confirmed the provisions of the 1916 note


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Resolution of the Presidium of the Central Election Commission of the USSR “On Declaring Lands and Islands Located in the Arctic Ocean as the Territory of the USSR” of April 15, 1926 determined the legal status of the Arctic possessions of the Soviet Union.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The CEC resolution declared that “the territory of the USSR is all both open and may be discovered in the future lands and islands that do not constitute by the time of publication of this resolutions of the territory of any foreign states recognized by the Government of the USSR, located in the Arctic Ocean north of the coast of the USSR to the North Pole within between a meridian of 32 degrees 4 minutes 35 seconds E longitude from Greenwich, passing along the eastern side of Waida Guba through the triangulation sign at Cape Kekursky, and the meridian 168 degrees 49 minutes 30 seconds west longitude from Greenwich, passing through the middle of the strait separating the Ratmanov and Kruzenshtern Islands of the Diomede Islands group in the Bering Strait.”


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Arctic Ocean

The total area of the polar possessions of the USSR amounted to 5.842 million km² [63].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2001, Russia was the first to submit documents to the UN Commission on the extended limits of the continental shelf [60] to 1.2 million km² (including the North Pole) [65].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

USA


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 1924, the United States intended to annex the North Pole to its possessions, citing the fact that the North Pole was an extension of Alaska.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Today, the US defines its holdings in the Arctic Ocean as territories north of the Arctic Circle and an area north and west of the border formed by the Porcupine, Yukon, and Kuskokwim rivers, and also all adjacent seas, including the Arctic Ocean, the Beaufort Sea and the Chukchi Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The area of the polar possessions of the United States is 0.126 million km² [63].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The US and Canada are arguing about the border between countries in the Beaufort Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In addition, the Americans insist that the Northwest Passage for the Law of the Sea refers to international waters, in contrast to the position of Canada, which considers it its territorial waters [10] [ 47] [66].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The line of delimitation of maritime spaces of the United States and Russia, established by the 1990 agreement, passes through the Chukchi Sea, continuing further south through the Bering Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

This agreement has not yet been ratified by Russia, but has been implemented by both parties since its signing [68].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Economic use


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Transport and port cities


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

For most of the year, the Arctic Ocean is used for sea transportation carried out by Russia along the Northern Sea Route, the United States and Canada along the Northwest Passage.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The main navigable straits of the Arctic Ocean: Bering, Long, Dmitry Laptev, Vilkitsky, Karskiye Vorota, Matochkin Shar, Yugorsky Shar, Danish, Hudsonov [69].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The length of the sea route from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok is more than 12.3 thousand km.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The heaviest section along the Northern Sea Route along the Eurasian coast of Russia runs from Murmansk to the Bering Strait.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Murmansk and Arkhangelsk ports account for up to 60% of the cargo turnover of the Russian coast of the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The most important cargoes along the Northern Sea Route are timber, coal, food, fuel, metal structures, cars, as well as essential goods for residents of the North.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Kandalaksha, Belomorsk, Onega, Dudinka, Igarka, Tiksi, Dikson, Khatanga, Pevek, Amderma, Zeleny Mys, Cape Schmidt stand out in terms of cargo turnover in the Russian sector of the Arctic [16] [31].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the American sector of the Arctic Ocean, there is no regular navigation, and one-way transportation of essential goods for a rare population sharply prevails.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On the coast of Alaska is the largest port of Prudhoe Bay, serving the oil producing area of the same name.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The largest port of Hudson Bay is Churchill, through which wheat is exported from the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan through the Hudson Strait to Europe.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Transportation between Greenland (port of Qeqertarsuaq) and Denmark (fish, mining products go to Denmark, manufactured goods and food to Greenland) is balanced [16].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Along the Norwegian coast, a dense network of ports and port points is developed, and year-round navigation is developed.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The most important Norwegian ports are Trondheim (forest and forest products), Mo i Rana (ore, coal, petroleum products), Bodø (fish), Ålesund (fish), Narvik (iron ore), Kirkenes (iron ore), Tromsø (fish), Hammerfest (fish).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Iceland's coastal waters are characterized by the development of coastal navigation.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The most significant ports are Reykjavik, Grundartangi (aluminum), Akureyri (fish).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

On Svalbard, the port points Longyearbyen, Svea, Barentsburg and Pyramid specialize in the export of coal [16] [31].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

With the opening of the northern routes, an alternative route for the delivery of goods from Asia to Europe and North America appears, bypassing the Suez or Panama Canals, which reduces the length of the route by 30-50% and draws the attention of Asian countries to the region, in particular, China, Japan and South Korea [70] [71].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Northern Sea Route is almost 5,000 km shorter than the route through the Suez Canal, and the North-West Passage is 9,000 km shorter than the route through the Panama Canal [72].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

MurmanskView from the other side of the fjord


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

to the port of Akureyri Oil and gas well on the artificial island of Northstar


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

in the Beaufort Sea north of AlaskaView of Barentsburg from the sea


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Fisheries


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

For a long time, fishing was the main branch of economic use of the ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The main fishery in the European part of the basin falls on the Norwegian, Greenland and Barents Seas, as well as the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, which catch about 2.3 million tons of fish annually [31 ].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Most of the catch in the Russian Federation falls on the Barents Sea.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The entire large-capacity fleet is based in Arkhangelsk and Murmansk.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Norway's large fleet is based in dozens of ports and port points: Trondheim, Tromsø, Bodø, Hammerfest and others.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Iceland's entire catch falls on Arctic waters (Greenland and Norwegian Seas).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The fishing is mainly carried out by small-tonnage vessels based in 15 ports and port points.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The most important of the ports are Sigjeferdur, Vestmannaejoar, Akureyri.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Greenland is characterized exclusively by coastal fishing, specific for it is St. John's wort fishing (mainly harp seal).


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Fishing in Greenland is concentrated off the west coast of the island.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Canada and the United States practically do not engage in commercial fishing in Arctic waters [16].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Industrial fishing is prohibited off the coast of Alaska on an area of more than 500 thousand km² [70].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Oil and gas


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean with adjacent land areas is a huge oil and gas bearing superbasin containing the richest reserves of oil and gas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

According to data provided by the US Geological Society in 2008, the undiscovered reserves of the Arctic shelf are estimated at 90 billion barrels of oil and 47 trillion m³ of natural gas, which is 13 % of undiscovered world oil reserves and 30% of undiscovered gas reserves.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

More than 50% of undiscovered oil reserves are located off the coast of Alaska (30 billion barrels), in the Amerasian basin (9.7 billion barrels) and in the Greenland region.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

70% of blue fuel reserves are concentrated in the East Siberian Region, in the east of the Barents Sea and off the coast of Alaska.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

As of 2008, more than 400 hydrocarbon fields have been explored in the Arctic, with total reserves of 40 billion barrels of oil, 31.1 trillion m³ of gas and 8.5 billion barrels gas condensate.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The most important existing and planned oil and gas production projects in the region are:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

in Alaska in the USA:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

the Prudhoe Bay oil and gas field and


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Kuparuk River oil field,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

in Canada:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

a gas field on Melville Island,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

oil fields on Cameron Island and


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

hydrocarbon deposits in:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

the Mackenzie River Delta and


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Beaufort Sea,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

developed by Norway:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

gas fields:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ormen Lange and


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Snevit on the shelf of the Norwegian Sea,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Russia:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

the Shtokman gas condensate field in the east of the Barents Sea,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Bovanenkovskoye oil and gas condensate field on the Yamal Peninsula,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

oil and gas bearing Vostochnozemelsky areas in the Kara Sea on the Russian shelf [73] [74].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Mineral resources


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Coal


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Russian sector of the Arctic coast is rich in coal and brown coal:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

in Taimyr and


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Anabar-Khatanga coast,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Olonets coastal field,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

in the area of Tiksi Bay;


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

on the islands:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Begicheva,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Vize,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ushakova,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Seclusions,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Isachenko.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The total coal reserves on the Arctic coast of Siberia exceed 300 billion tons, more than 90% of which are coal of various types.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are rich coal reserves on the Arctic coast of the United States and Canada.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In Greenland, coal and graphite deposits have been discovered on the coast of the Baffin Sea [16].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ore minerals


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The shores of the Arctic Ocean are rich in various ore minerals:


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

coastal marine placers of ilmenite on the Taimyr coast,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

tin deposits on the coast of Chaun Bay,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

gold on the Chukotka coast,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

aluminum,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

iron ore,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

apatite,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

titanium,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

mica,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

phlogopite,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

vermiculite on the Kola Peninsula,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Sidvaranger iron ore deposit in eastern Norway,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

gold and beryllium deposits (Lowes River),


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

tin and tungsten on the coast of Alaska's Seward Peninsula,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Red Dog lead-zinc deposit in Alaska (up to 10% of global zinc production),


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

lead-zinc ores in the Canadian archipelago,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

silver-lead ores on Baffin Land,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

iron ore mining on the Melville Peninsula,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

polymetal deposits on the west coast of Greenland with a high silver content in ore,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

lead and zinc,


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

a large uranium deposit in Greenland discovered in 2010 [16] [70] [75].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Military use


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In the 20th century, the use of the ocean for military purposes was limited due to difficult navigation conditions, several military bases were built, and flights over the ocean were carried out.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

During the Second World War, the path of Arctic convoys ran in the European part [70].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

However, the decrease in ice cover in the summer months, as well as the possible complete melting of the ice, makes military use relevant, allowing the presence of naval forces in the Arctic, as well as rapid deployment of military forces and more flexible plans using sea transport routes.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The strategy of security, protection of borders and interests in the region is also changing [70] [71].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Danish fleet uses two small ships and one patrol ship to patrol the coast of Greenland year-round, and 3 more frigates are not able to work in the ice.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Royal Danish Navy base is located in southern Greenland in Kangilinnguit.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Royal Norwegian Navy is armed with 6 Ula submarines, 5 frigates of the Fridtjof Nansen type, and by 2015 Norway plans to add a support ship to them.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The frigates are equipped with a supersonic anti-ship missile NSM.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Norwegian Coast Guard also includes a number of ships capable of operating in thin ice, none of Norway's ships can break thick ice.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Canada's northern waters are patrolled by the Coast Guard, which has 11 unarmed icebreakers on board, two of which are equipped for research projects.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Royal Canadian Navy is armed with 15 surface ships and 4 submarines without ice reinforcement, which can operate in the ocean only in summer.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The nearest naval base is in Halifax, but by 2015 it is planned to re-equip and build docks at the coastal base in Nanisivik (Nunavut), as well as the construction of a base in Resolute Bay [72] [76].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The main forces of the Russian fleet in the Arctic are concentrated in the north-west of the Kola Peninsula.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Russian Northern Fleet, the largest of the country's five fleets, is based on several naval bases on the coast of the Barents and White Seas.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Northern Fleet is armed with submarines, including those with nuclear ballistic missiles, the only aircraft carrier in Russia Admiral Kuznetsov of the Fleet of the Soviet Union, as well as a large icebreaker “50 Let Pobedy”.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In addition, the Northern and Pacific Fleets are armed with smaller icebreakers of Project 97, and the border service - 97P.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Mistral amphibious helicopter carriers ordered by Russia can strengthen the military presence in the region.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

There are also about 20 civilian icebreakers operating in Arctic waters.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The coast of Alaska is part of the area of responsibility of the Pacific Fleet of the US Navy.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The fleet is armed with 39 nuclear submarines, including 10 Ohio nuclear submarines, 6 nuclear aircraft carriers of the Nimitz type and other vessels.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Ships are mostly not equipped for sailing in ice, with the exception of the experimental vessel M/V Susitna.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At the same time, they have enough equipment to work in northern latitudes.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Most submarines are capable of operating under the ice of the Arctic and make regular raids in the ocean, including surfacing near the North Pole.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The modern patrol ship of the US Coast Guard type is specially designed to perform operations in the Arctic.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Coast Guard also operates three unarmed icebreakers, which are used mainly for research purposes [72] [76].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Since 2008, Canada has been conducting the annual Arctic exercise Operation Nanook.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Russia has intensified its presence in the region by conducting a number of launches of ballistic missiles from submarines [76], as well as flying Tu-95 strategic bombers in the Beaufort Sea area.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

In 2009, the US Navy adopted the Arctic Strategy, and since 2007 it has been conducting joint exercises with the UK.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Stockholm Peace Research Institute notes that ships are being modernized and relocated in accordance with economic and political realities.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

It is too early to talk about the strengthening of the military confrontation in the Arctic Ocean.


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

At the same time, due to the resource wealth of the region and the increase in military and economic activity, unexpected incidents are possible, in order to avoid which the Institute recommends to all coastal countries conduct an open policy [76].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

The Center for Strategic and International Studies in the United States also notes that due to activity in the region, the number of accidents and disasters has increased, such as the incident with the Clipper Adventurer cruise ship shores of Nunavut in August 2010, the prevention of which requires coordination of efforts by all riparian countries [70].


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Notes


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Literature


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

Check date values in: |date= (help)


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean

References


Question: Are there any corals in the North Sea?

Arctic Ocean


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CompTek is a Russian company, one of the distributors of equipment, software and solutions in the field of telecommunications.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

It is located in Moscow.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

It was founded in 1989 by A. YU.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

We will play.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

It is part of LANIT holding.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Within the walls of CompTek, the Yandex search engine was created, as well as the People hosting service.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

ru and Molotok.ru.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CompTek, as part of the Documentary Telecommunications Association, played a leading role in the emergence of VoIP in Russia and was one of the first companies to offer this service to customers [1].


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

A number of CompTek departments focused on the production of hardware and software in the field of telephony and IT stood out as independent companies: CTI [2] (system integrator in the field of IP- communications), InFinet [3] (wireless solutions), a research project to create algorithms for the morphological analysis of Russian words gave life to Yandex [4], the most famous search engine Runet car.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CompTek's business is based on the distribution of products and solutions from Cisco, Avaya, Alcatel-Lucent, EMC, DELL, AudioCodes, Crestron, Infinet, Verint Systems Inc.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

, OneAccess, LifeSize, CommScope, Fluke Networks, and other telecom leaders.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CompTek's efforts to promote equipment and develop a partner network have been noted by many vendors.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Through distribution channels in the Russian and CIS markets, CompTek promotes such technologies as VoIP, WiFi, WiMAX, SS7, and CTI integration solutions.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CompTek's activities are based on a two-tier system, in which the distributor offers its partners a whole range of services to support and develop their business.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Courses on the latest technologies are taught by professional teachers certified by Cisco, Avaya, Alcatel-Lucent.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CompTek is a member of the Documentary Telecommunications Association (ADE).


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Among the industry events organized by CompTek are the Conference on IP Telephony and IP Communications, the TALK Conference on Wireless Data Technologies, and the Conference” Intelligent services in telephone networks”.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

At conferences that bring together up to 500 professionals, the latest achievements in communication technologies are discussed, new business models are developed and long-term contacts are established.


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Distribution


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

The company distributes products in Russia and the countries of the former USSR:


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Cisco (in 2006 [5] and 2007 [6] it was the best distributor in the former USSR);


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Avaya (according to the CompTech website, with Diamond Partner status);


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Alcatel-Lucent (according to the CompTech website, with Value-Added Distributor status);


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

EMC;


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Dialogic (with the Value-Added Distributor status [7], until 2006 — the only official distributor of Dialogic products in Russia),


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

CommScope


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Dell (Enterprise Hardware)


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

F5 Networks


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Fluke Networks


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Fujitsu


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

LifeSize


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

AudioCodes


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Ubiquiti Networks


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Crestron


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Extron Electronics


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Siklu


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Ruckus Wireless


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Infinet


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Xclaim


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Cambium


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Raisecom


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Megabrige


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

OneAccess


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

AcmePacket


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Notes


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Category:Telecommunications companies in Russia


Question: When was CompTek founded?

CompTek

Category:IT companies in Russia


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Ministry of Energy and Electrification of the USSR (abbreviated by A. The Ministry of Energy [1]) is a public administration body in the USSR, according to the Constitution of the USSR, which is an all-Union ministry.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

The central office of the department was located at the address: Moscow, October 25, 17 (until 1990) [2].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

In addition, the Ministry occupied areas at the address: Moscow, ul. Chinese passage, 7 [2].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

According to the Regulation on the Ministry of March 14, 1969 No. 195, adopted by the Council of Ministers of the USSR:


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“The Ministry of Energy and Electrification of the USSR manages the operation and construction of power plants, electrical and heating networks. The Ministry of Energy and Electrification of the USSR is responsible for the state and further development of the country's energy and electrification, scientific and technological progress in the industry and the technical level production, the quality of electricity and other products, the quality of construction and installation works and for the most complete satisfaction of the country's needs for electricity and heat” [3].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Ministry's tasks


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

According to Regulation No. 195 of March 14, 1969, the main tasks of the Ministry are [3]:


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Ensuring the comprehensive development of energy and electrification as an integral part of the country's national economy, high rates of production development and labor productivity growth on the basis of scientific and technological progress in order to fully meet the needs of the population, the national economy and the defense of the country in electricity and heat energy.”


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Fulfilling tasks for the production of electricity, the construction of power plants, electric and heating networks and other tasks of the state plan and ensuring strict compliance state discipline”.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Ensuring, with minimal costs of public labor, the production of electrical and thermal energy and other manufactured products, as well as the implementation of construction and installation works, increasing production efficiency, improving the use of fixed assets, labor, material and financial resources, ensuring the uninterrupted supply of electricity and heat to the national economy ”.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Carrying out a unified technical policy in the industry, introducing the latest achievements of science and technology and best practices and ensuring high technical and economic indicators of production.”


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Rational use of capital investments and increasing their efficiency, industrialization of construction and improvement of technology and organization of construction work, reducing the cost and reduction of construction time, timely commissioning of production facilities and fixed assets, as well as the development of production capacities in a short time.”


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Introduction of the scientific organization of labor and management, providing enterprises, organizations and institutions of the Ministry system with qualified personnel, creating conditions for the best use of knowledge and experience of employees, the nomination of young, well-proven specialists for managerial work.”


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Ensuring safe working conditions at work, introducing new means and methods for preventing occupational injuries.”


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

“Improvement of housing, cultural and living conditions of workers and employees of enterprises, organizations and institutions of the Ministry system”.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

History


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Predecessors


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

On February 21, 1920, to develop a long-term plan for the electrification of Russia, the State Commission for Electrification of Russia was created (abbreviated. GOELRO).


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

By the end of the year, under the leadership of Gleb Krzhizhanovsky and with the participation of a number of scientists, the “Plan for the Electrification of the RSFSR” appeared, which was a 650-page volume containing diagrams and maps electrified districts.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

The plan, designed for 10-15 years and approved in October 1921, consisted of two sections and provided for the modernization of existing, as well as the commissioning of new energy facilities in eight economic regions of the country: thirty new power plants with a total capacity of 1.75 million kW (20 thermal and 10 hydroelectric stations) and high-voltage power lines for 110 kV and 220 kV [4].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

On June 15, 1921, on the basis of the GOELRO Commission, the State Planning Committee of the RSFSR was formed, which included a section on energy [5].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Since 1921, the general management of the energy sector in the country has been carried out by the Main Electrotechnical Directorate (abbreviated. Glavelektro) under the Supreme Council of the National Economy.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Since 1930, its functions have been transferred to the formed State All-Union Association of Energy Economy “Energotsentr”.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Two years later, the association was transferred to the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry and transformed into the Main Directorate of the Energy Economy [6].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Establishment of the department


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

By the end of the 1930s, due to the increase in the volume of work, it was decided to enlarge the People's Commissariat of Tyazhmash.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

One of the executive bodies created on its basis was the People's Commissariat of Power Plants and Electrical Industry of the USSR, established on January 24, 1939.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Mikhail Pervukhin became the first head of the new department.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

In April next year, a decision was made to divide the People's Commissariat into two.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Independent People's Commissariat of Power Plants of the USSR and the People's Commissariat for Electrical Industry


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

The structure of the first People's Commissariat, headed by Andrei Letkov, included hydroelectric power plants, district thermal power plants, heating and electrical networks.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Also, organizations and enterprises of the peat industry belonging to the People's Commissariat of the Local Fuel Industry, engaged in providing fuel, passed to the People's Commissariat for Power Plants power plants.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Dissolution


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

On August 31, 1991, in accordance with Order No. 37-rp of the President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin, the activities of the Ministry of Energy of the USSR on the territory of the RSFSR were suspended.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

By Order of the President of the RSFSR dated October 4, 1991 No. 50-rp, before the start of the functioning of the state administration bodies of the RSFSR, the nuclear energy complex was resumed.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Officials had to continue to perform their duties, be guided by orders of the Government of the RSFSR and the Ministry of Fuel and Energy, as well as organize the transfer of all property that was part of the structure of the Federal Department (as of August 1, 1991) [8].


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Successors


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

The legal successor of the Ministry of Energy of the USSR on the territory of Russia is the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of the RSFSR, established on February 28, 1991.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

May 2008: Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Energy activities in Belarus are currently carried out by the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Belarus.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Departmental awards


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Distinction “Excellence in the Socialist Competition of the People's Commissariat of Electro” (1940-1946).


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

It was approved by People's Commissar Andrei Letkov on September 28, 1940.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

It is made of bronze.


Question: When was the USSR Ministry of Energy and Electrification founded?

Management and official titles