Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The main tourist attraction of Hoi An is the old town, which has a protected area of 30 (another 280 is a buffer zone, which is also regulated).


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The old town is home to 1107 well-preserved historic buildings with wooden frames, brick or wooden walls, tiled roofs and traditional wood carvings.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The buildings are crowded together, facing narrow pedestrian streets with their front facades.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Buildings of historical and architectural value include a market, a ferry pier, Buddhist pagodas and temples, family places of worship, assembly halls of the Cantonese, Fujian and Hainan communities, wooden Japanese bridge with a pagoda on it, old houses [2].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The original layout of the old town was based on its port activities.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The street grid has two main axes: some are parallel to the river, others cross them at right angles.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The ground floors of buildings facing the streets are occupied by shops and workshops, and buildings facing the river or canals are equipped with berths for unloading goods from boats.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Most of the wooden buildings date back to the XVII-XVIII centuries and are unique to Vietnam's traditional urban ensemble [2].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Most of Hoi An's old houses bear the stamp of a once very significant foreign presence in the city.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The architectural appearance of old Hoi An was especially influenced by Chinese and Japanese merchants who built buildings in their usual style.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

These old houses were built before the 19th century, and newer ones were built during the French colonial era (they intertwine Vietnamese and European styles).


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In total, more than 1,350 facilities are under the supervision and protection of the Hoi An Centre for Monument Management and Preservation (HACMMP), including 1,254 artistic and architectural structures, including shops, markets, family sanctuaries, pagodas, temples, churches, public houses, assembly rooms of various communities, tombs, bridges and wells [136].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Traditional construction is no longer carried out outside old Hoi An, and new hotels and restaurants are often not in harmony with the picturesque rural landscape [46].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The city authorities are actively fighting against modern infrastructure and equipment that spoils the visual image of old Hoi An — they remove wires underground, clean the facades from antennas and air conditioners.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The authorities also ensure that only traditional materials are used in the reconstruction of historical buildings [137].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Historical buildings


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Hoi An's historic buildings are classified into five main styles.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The first style includes single-story buildings with wooden facades and sloping tiled roofs.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Most of these buildings were built in the 18th and 19th centuries and are located mainly along Changfu Street.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The second style includes two-story buildings with a canopy on the ground floor.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Most of these buildings were built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

A typical example of such a building is located on Nguyen Thiminh Thai Street.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The third style includes two-story buildings with wooden floors and carved balconies.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

They were also built mainly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries [138].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The fourth style includes two-story brick buildings with small balconies or verandas.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

These buildings were built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and most of them are located along Changfu Street and Nguyen Thaihok Street.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The fifth style includes two-story brick buildings in the French style, built mainly at the beginning of the 20th century.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

These buildings are characterized by wide steps leading to the main entrance, shaded galleries on the ground floor and balconies decorated with balustrade.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Typical houses of this style can be found on the western side of Nguyen Thaihok Street (for example, the Sahuinh Cultural Museum building) [139].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

According to their purpose (use), Hoi An traditional buildings are divided into four types: trading houses, family shrines, public buildings and meeting rooms.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The Hoi An wooden trading house complex is one of the largest in Southeast Asia.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Previously, in Vietnam, buildings in this style were common in the old quarters of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, but unlike Hoi An, they have hardly survived to this day.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Trading houses consist of three main parts: the main building facing a busy street, annexes that make up the backyard, and buildings that connect these parts to each other.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The building facing the street is usually designed for commercial operations and has a large canopy that gives shade to buyers.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The outdoor courtyard is often decorated with an ornamental pool.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The backyard has a kitchen, bathroom (shower) and toilet.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Several generations of the same patriarchal family live in such houses [140].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

All trading houses have internal wooden frames.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The facade is made of wood or brick, depending on the period of construction of the house.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The buildings have a layout adapted to the tropical climate, which contributes to maximum air circulation.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The courtyard, surrounded by wooden panels, also provides the building with sunlight and fresh air.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The interior doorways are oriented to each other, and the entrance doors are aligned with the doors of the house on the opposite side of the street.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The floors in the houses are raised, which protects against cold and dampness; the rooms are separated from each other by light partitions, and there is a living room and a bedroom [141].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Zepdongnguyen House, located on Nguyen Thaihok Street, next to the Museum of Folk Culture, was built at the end of the 19th century by immigrants from Guangdong who made a fortune on traditional medicine.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Five generations of the same family sold medicines, fabrics, ready-made clothes and books in this house.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The interior of the house is designed in a mixed Vietnamese-Chinese-Japanese style.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Today, various ceramics and a large collection of ancient coins are exhibited on the ground floor of the house [142].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Built in 1850, Dykan House is located on Changfu Shopping Street and belongs to the family of the original owners.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

This is one of the few houses in old Hoi An that has preserved its original layout, furniture and utensils.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

For a long time, Dykan's house housed Hoi An's most popular bookstore, then housed the practice of Chinese medicine and the headquarters of the anti-French movement.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Politician Phan Chau Chinh and General Vo Nguyen Giap visited this house at various times [143].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Kuan Thang House was built in the early 18th century on Changfu Street in Chinese style by order of a wealthy family of shipowners and merchants.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The interior decoration of the building (including beams and rafters), wooden sculptures, shutters, railings and furniture, the arched roof and verandas are carefully preserved.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The walls surrounding the courtyard are decorated with beautiful blue ceramics [144].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Tanka's miniature two-story house is located near the Bridge of Lights and is considered one of the oldest in Hoi An.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It is built in a mixed Japanese-Chinese style, all four of its rooms are filled with antiques and wood carvings, and the walls are decorated with unique mosaics [145].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Phunghung Old Wooden House is located in Kampho District, next to Japan Bridge and Nguyen Tyong Family Shrine.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The house, built in 1780 in the Japanese-Chinese style, has a characteristic tiled roof, carved terrace railings, and the second floor is supported by eighty columns.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The rooms are filled with antiques, including antique furniture and utensils, and one of the rooms has a beautiful family altar.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

For eight generations, Phunghung House has been inhabited by members of the same family [146].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Family shrines usually have a square base and are located in small alleys.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

There is usually a large garden in front of the main building.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The shrine buildings have the same structure as the Hoi An trading houses, but with a protruding cornice on all sides of the structure.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Often, a detached residential building was built in one part of the complex.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Family sanctuaries are used as religious centers for ancestral cults (primarily the ancestral cult common among the Vietnamese), as well as places where the older generation teaches the younger generation the most important rituals and rules of conduct.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Family shrines are the most important symbols of strong ties between members of the same clan.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Important Hoi An family shrines are Ly, Pham, Nguyen, Lam, Thai, Hua, Truong, Tran, Phan, Tang, and Hoang.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

A prime example of a traditional family shrine is the Truong Clan's Worship House.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It was built in 1840, restored in the late 1990s, and is then used for its intended purpose — members of the Truong clan regularly gather there for holidays [147].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Another typical example of a family sanctuary is the house of the Chan clan, located at the intersection of Leloy and Fantiauchin streets.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It was built in 1802 to worship the ancestors of this aristocratic family.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The Chinese-style sanctuary is famous for its wood carvings, richly decorated altars and antique furniture.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The left door in the living room is for men, the right door is for women, and the central door is for the spirits of ancestors, who return to relatives during Theta [148].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Meeting rooms were built in Hoi An for meetings of members of Chinese communities or representatives of the entire community.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

They had both socio-cultural and religious purposes, and they contain both Chinese and Vietnamese architectural and stylistic elements.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Functionally, Chinese meeting rooms were very close to Vietnamese public houses, but they also negotiated trade deals, among other things.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Among the meeting rooms, the most famous are the Trieu Chau Assembly Hall, the Hainan Assembly Hall, the Phuoc Kien Assembly Hall, the Cantonese communities (Cantonese Assembly Hall) and the Trung Hoa Assembly Hall.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

All of them are located along Hoi An's main trading axis — Changfu Street and Nguyen Zuihyeu Street [149].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The assembly hall of the Chaozhou community was built by Huaqiao in 1845 and is dedicated to the god of wind and big waves, who patronizes sailors and merchants.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The hall is distinguished by beautiful wood carvings and complex porcelain reliefs.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In the main hall there are altars dedicated to the deities of wealth and luck, as well as the ancestors of the community [150].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The assembly hall of the Cantonese community was built by merchants in 1885 near the Japan Bridge.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Some elements of the complex were manufactured in China and then assembled together in Hoi An.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In the courtyard there is a ceramic fountain made in the form of dragons, and there are many statues and altars in the halls [151].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The oldest and most famous is the assembly hall of the Fujian community, built by merchants in 1697 near the city market.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

With a two-tier gate, a large courtyard, traditional pavilions, the shrine of the goddess Mazu and dragon sculptures, this complex is a prime example of Chinese architecture.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

There are many animal symbols in the design of the hall: the mosaic fountain in the main hall has a fish sculpture that symbolizes success.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

There are also sculptures of a unicorn, phoenix, lion and turtle.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The central courtyard of the complex is filled with flower pots and ornamental plants such as bonsai [152].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

To the west of the assembly hall of the Fujian community is the Chinese assembly hall, built in 1741 and also dedicated to the goddess Mazu.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In the first half of the 20th century, it housed a Chinese school that still exists today.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In addition to the goddess Mazu, Confucius, Sun Yat-sen and soldiers who died in the war with Japan are also revered in the hall [153].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Public houses serve as cultural and religious centers of the Vietnamese and Chinese communities of Hoi An, they are the main places for social and cultural interaction between members of the same clan or immigrants from one village.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Clan meetings are held in public houses, where funds are raised for holidays and other community needs.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Among the public houses, many of which have their own temples and shrines, stand out Kampho (Kampho District), Ongwoi and Minhuong (Min'an District), Kimbong (Kamkim Commune) [149].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Campho Public House was built in 1817 in the Chinese style and was later renovated.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It has right, left and main halls, a large courtyard, uniquely designed interiors and ancient altars dedicated to the patron god and ancestors [154].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Minhuong Public House was built by local Hoa Chinese to worship their heroic ancestors.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In the middle of the 17th century, newcomers settled in the small village of Minhuong, near the port of Hoi An.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Soon, carpenters from the neighboring village of Kimbong built an original public house for the Chinese, which was reconstructed in 1820, 1849, 1905, 1953 and 1970.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In 1993, Minh Huong Public House and its shrines were recognized as a monument of national history of Vietnam [155].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Compared to the rest of Hoi An architecture, the religious one looks more decorative.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Religious sites are scattered throughout Hoi An and the surrounding area.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

A striking example of religious architecture is the Fioklam pagoda, located in Kamkha commune.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It was built in the 18th century by a monk and illustrates the development of Buddhism in central Vietnam.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Other religious buildings of Old Hoi An include Quan Kong Temple, Ong Pagoda, Tinnghia, Wan Thanh and Amhon Temples, Bamu Pagoda located in Min'an District, and Confucian temple (Miu ThKhng T) in Kampho [149].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Ong Pagoda was built on Changfu Street in 1653 and is dedicated to the Chinese deity Xuanwu.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

As one of the oldest temples in Hoi An, Ong Pagoda has been reconstructed several times [156].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Hoi An's history and extensive international connections are reflected in various architectural styles of graves and tombs, including Cham, Vietnamese, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Spanish, French and German burial sites.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

For example, the graves of Japanese merchants of the XVII century have a vivid identity.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

They were built according to Japanese religious canons and had small Shinto altars.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Graves at the city's largest memorial “Martyr Cemetery” in the western district of Tanan have a modern look [149].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Hoi An's oldest bridge is Japan Bridge, also known as the Pagoda Bridge.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

A covered wooden bridge with stone supports once connected the Japanese and Chinese quarters, which is why it was called Japanese.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It was built at the end of the 16th century by Japanese merchants and has a Buddhist sanctuary (at one end of the bridge there is a sculpture of a dog and at the other end there is a sculpture of a monkey).


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

According to legend, the bridge was built to calm the mythical creature that caused the earthquakes [157] [158].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

After its opening, the Japanese Bridge has been reconstructed at least six times, only the supports and arches are part of the original design.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

As a result of these reconstructions, the bridge does not belong to a specific architectural style, its structure and decoration are a combination of Japanese, Chinese, Vietnamese and Western styles.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

For this reason, the bridge is a symbol of the close ties between different cultures that have existed in Hoi An throughout its history.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In addition, the Japanese Bridge is depicted on the coat of arms of Hoi An [157].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Another attraction of Hoi An is the ancient wells that are scattered throughout the city and the surrounding area.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Most wells are built with bricks that help filter water.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The oldest wells discovered are square in shape and were built in the Cham period.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

An example of such a well can be seen in the rural commune of Kamkha.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It is one meter in diameter and has 10 cm thick stone walls, surrounded by four stone columns and a small rectangular courtyard.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Later wells of the Daiviet period have a round shape and rise on a small round pedestal [157].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In Min'an District, next to Fantiauchin Street, there is another old well, Bale, in a private garden.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

It was dug around the 10th century, during the Cham rule, and has a traditional square shape.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In Hoi An, there is an opinion that only water from Bale Well is suitable for making the best noodles for Kaolau [159].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

All Hoi An historical monuments are divided into four classification categories according to their value.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

The first category includes buildings that are unique in architectural and artistic terms, in which all the original elements have been preserved; the second category includes structures in which the original elements have been preserved facade and roof; the third, in which some elements of the house and roof have been preserved; in the fourth, buildings located in the old town, but do not have great cultural value or reconstructed using modern materials.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Of the 1,254 monuments of old Hoi An, 1,064 are residential buildings, 39 are family sanctuaries, 39 are tombs, 34 are temples, 22 are public houses, 19 are pagodas, 16 are sanctuaries, 10 are wells, 5 are meeting rooms, 4 churches and houses of worship, 1 by a bridge.


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Of the 1,254 objects, 929 are privately owned, 205 are state-owned, 120 are collective (that is, owned by associations and public groups) [160].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Sister cities


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Currently, Hoi An's sister cities are three cities: (Australia) [161], Wernigerode (Germany) [162] and Szentendre (Hungary) [163].


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Notes


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Literature


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In Russian


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

In English


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

References


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Category:Provincial cities of Vietnam


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Category:World Heritage Sites in Vietnam


Question: What sea is Hoi An on the shore?

Hoi An

Category:Quang Nam


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Aryans or Aryan race (the term comes from the word “arias” (dr. -ind. ārya-, avest. airya-, etc. -Persian ariya-), which meant “worthy, respected, noble” in ancient Sanskrit) is a pseudoscientific term put forward in the middle of the XIX century by authors of racial theories and widely used by German National Socialists.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Initially, the Aryan race was understood as a subtype of the Caucasian race, better known as the “Nordic race” [1].


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

The term was coined by Joseph Gobineau in his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853, 1855) [2].


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

In the scientific literature, the term fell out of use in the first half of the 20th century and is no longer used.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

The pseudoscience of the term is derived from a mixture of linguistic and anthropological characteristics, since in linguistics, Indo-Iranian languages are now called Aryan, and at the time of the emergence of the term - Indo-European languages in general; but speakers of both do not share common physical properties and do not form any race.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Thus, native speakers of Aryan languages are peoples as diverse in anthropological terms as Iranians and Indians.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

The anthropological diversity among speakers of all Indo-European languages is much higher.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

According to theories fashionable at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, which later formed the basis of Nazi ideology, the ancestral home of the “Aryans” (Indo-Europeans) is Northern Europe, and it is there that the most “pure Aryan racial type”, while residents of other countries are the result of a mixture of “Aryans” with aborigines.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

This led to the conclusion about the racial superiority of the inhabitants of Northern Europe, who were allegedly the purest and most perfect bearers of the “Aryan spirit” (to which, in turn, all achievements were attributed European culture).


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Thus, Adolf Hitler wrote:


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

The “Aryan race” was opposed to the “Semitic race” in the person of Jews, hence the term anti-Semitism.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

At the same time, the “Semitic race” was attributed purely negative qualities that made it, in the opinion of racists, the exact opposite of the “Aryan race”.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

At the same time, it is interesting that the DNA analysis of relatives and namesakes A. Hitler (the main propagandist of the idea of the “Aryan race”) showed that he had a haplogroup E1b1b1 [3].


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

The idea of the Aryan race is popular in many areas of Slavic neo-paganism, including a number of areas of native faith, where the Aryans (more often: “arias”) are directly associated with the Slavs.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

As in the ideas common at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, all Indo-European peoples are considered “Aryans”.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

It is claimed that the ancient “arias” were the ancestors of a significant part or all Caucasians, carriers of an ancient highly developed culture and educators of all ancient mankind.


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

The ancestral home of the “Aryans” is often associated with the territory of Russia or with the legendary Hyperborea [4].


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

In science, these ideas are classified as pseudoscientific [4].


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Historical arias are considered only as ancestors of the Indo-Iranian peoples, that is, they are considered not ancestors or descendants of the Slavs or Germans, but peoples who had common ancestors with them in the face of the ancients Indo-Europeans [5].


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

See also


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Arias


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Racism


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Aryan paragraph


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Notes


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Literature


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Category:Races


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Category:Neo-Nazism


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Category:Non-academic research areas in biology


Question: Was Hitler a purebred Aryan?

Aryans (National Socialism)

Category:Nazi ideology


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (born Lev Simkhovich Vygodsky [1] [2]; [3], Orsha, Mogilev Province — June 11, 1934, Moscow) was a Soviet one.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Founder of the Marxist [lower-alpha 1] research tradition of studying higher psychological functions, which became known since critical works of the 1930s as “cultural and historical theory ” in psychology [5] [6] [7] [8].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He is the author of literary publications, works on pedology and cognitive development of the child.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He united a team of researchers known as the Vygotsky-Luria Circle (also the Vygotsky Circle).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The current situation in the development of Vygotsky's heritage in Russia and abroad is often described as the “Vygotsky cult” (Vygotsky cult, the cult of Vygotsky, the cult of personality around Vygotsky) [9] [ 10]: “Currently, in psychology there is a kind of “cult of Vygotsky”, blind worship, rarely based on understanding and reading the works of this undoubtedly outstanding scientist” [11].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The cult of Vygotsky originated in the Soviet Union in the 1960s, when an idea of the worldwide significance of this researcher and his scientific heritage was formed and his canonization took place: “for the new” the discovery of Vygotsky became possible without a radical revision of Soviet psychology as such, it was necessary to canonize the scientist as a cultural figure on a global scale: this is the only way in the 1960s and 1970s g. it was possible to withdraw Vygotsky's legacy from the sphere of influence of official psychological and pedagogical institutions.”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

[12] [13]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

On the other hand, as a counterbalance to this cult, there has been a “revisionist revolution in Vygotsky studies” around the world since the early 2000s [14] [15] [16] [17] [18].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Studies of the decade of the 2010s, conducted as part of the “revisionist turn” in Vygotsky studies, revealed not only systematic and massive falsifications and distortions of the author's heritage [19] [20] [4] [21] [22], but also recorded a rapid decline in Vygotsky's popularity around the world, which began in 2016-2017 and even accelerated in 2018 [23] [24] [25] [26].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

This situation is characterized as a “Vygotsky bubble”, in other words: “Vygotsky bubble” [27] (also informally, the “vygo_bubble” [28]) and the fundamental crisis in the global Vygotsky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The causes of this crisis are not yet fully understood and are widely discussed in scientific circles [29] [30] [31].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Biography


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Lev Simkhovich Vygodsky (changed his surname in 1923) was born in 1896 in Orsha, the second of eight children in the family of a graduate of the Kharkov Commercial School, merchant Simkha Leibovich (Semyon Lvovich Vygodsky (1869—1931), a native of Polotsk from a merchant family [32], and his wife, teacher Tsipa (Cecilia) Moiseevna Vygodskaya (1874—1935) [33] [34] [35].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

A year later, the family moved to Gomel, where his father received the position of deputy manager of the local branch of the United Bank and was engaged in timber trade.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygodsky's family was quite wealthy: together with other heirs of their father's late brother, they owned a house in Gomel [36].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The education of children was carried out by a private teacher Sholom Mordukhovich (Solomon Markovich) Ashpiz (1876 — after 1940), known for using the so-called method of Socratic dialogue and participating in the revolutionary activities as part of the Gomel Social Democratic Organization [37] [38] [39] [40] [41].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

His cousin, later a well-known literary critic and translator David Isaakovich Vygodsky (1893—1943), also had a significant influence on the future psychologist in childhood [42] [43].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

After the death of his father in 1897, David Vygodsky and his brother, sister and mother Dvosya Yakovlevna lived in the family of his uncle Semyon Lvovich Vygodsky and was brought up with his eight children [44].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

L. S. Vygodsky subsequently changed one letter in his surname to differ from D. AND. Vygodsky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

After completing his primary education at home, L. S. Vygotsky passed exams for grades 5 and entered the 6th grade of the state gymnasium, finished the last two classes at the private Jewish men's gymnasium A. E.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Ratner [37] [40] [45].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He continued to study Hebrew, Ancient Greek, Latin and English with private teachers, and studied Esperanto on his own.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1913, he entered the medical faculty of Moscow University, but soon transferred to law.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

As a student, he wrote a two-hundred-page study “The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince W. Shakespeare” (1916), which after graduation was presented as a thesis (published in 1968 as a supplement to the second edition of the Psychology of Art).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1916, he published articles on literary topics in the weekly Novy Put devoted to Jewish life (where he worked as a technical secretary): “M. YU. Lermontov (on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of his death)” and “Literary Notes (St. Petersburg, Andrey Bely's Novel)”; was also published in the Chronicle and Novy Mir published by Maxim Gorky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Until 1917 inclusive, he actively wrote on Jewish history and culture, expressing rejection of anti-Semitism in Russian literature [46] [47] and a negative attitude towards the ideas of socialism and communism [48].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1917, he dropped out of classes at the Law Faculty of Moscow University [49] and completed his studies at the Faculty of History and Philosophy of the University.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Shanyavsky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

After the October Revolution of 1917, he briefly moved to Samara, and then returned to Gomel, after which he traveled to Kiev with his mother and younger brother (1918) [50], but then returned to Gomel, which at that time was geographically subordinate to the Ukrainian state, and where his parents lived at that time.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1919, he fell ill with pulmonary tuberculosis.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1919-1923, together with his cousin David Vygodsky, he worked as a literature teacher at the Soviet labor school and pedagogical technical school, as well as in vocational schools of printers and metalworkers, evening Gubpolitical education courses, training courses for preschool workers, summer courses for retraining teachers, courses for cultural workers of the village, Sotsvos courses, at the People's Conservatory and workers' faculty.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

At the same time, in 1919-1921, he was first in charge of the theater subdepartment of the Gomel Department of Public Education, then the art department at Gubnarobraz, published more than eighty theatrical reviews in the newspapers Polesskaya Pravda and Nash Monday (38 of which were reprinted posthumously) [51] [52] [53] [54].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1922, he was in charge of the publishing department of the Gompechat publishing house, and in 1923-1924 he was the literary editor of the publishing department of the Gomel Provincial Administration of Party and Soviet Press.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He published a collection of poems by I. G. Ehrenburg (1919) and one issue of the literary magazine “Veresk” (with D. AND. Vygodsky, 1922).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

At the end of 1922, he entered a job as a teacher at the Gomel Pedagogical College, and in the first half of 1923 he was engaged in organizing a psychological laboratory.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

During the summer months of 1923. Vygotsky supervised the experimental work of students of the Moscow Pedological Institute in the laboratory room at the Gomel Pedagogical College.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The results of this work were formalized in the form of reports in the fall of 1923 and were presented by Vygotsky in three speeches at the II All-Russian Congress on Psychoneurology in Petrograd in early January 1924, thus becoming his first appearance at scientific conferences.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

It was at this congress that Vygotsky met Alexander Luria, who at that time was secretary of the Institute of Experimental Psychology in Moscow and contributed to his invitation to the institute as a graduate student (Director of the Institute — K. N. Kornilov).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Later, this acquaintance and invitation served as the basis for a long scientific alliance and cooperation between these two researchers, who formed the backbone of the so-called Vygotsky-Luria Circle.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1924, he moved to Moscow, where he lived the last decade of his life (the whole family soon moved here — Father L. S. Vygotsky in the last years of his life served as the manager of the Arbat branch of the Industrial Bank).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In the summer of 1925, he made his only trip abroad — as a responsible employee of the People's Commissariat of Education, he attended the International Conference on the Education of Deaf and Dumb Children (June 20—24) in London [55 ] [56].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Upon returning from the trip, he was hospitalized for a long time, and therefore his dissertation was accepted for defense (and credited as defended) at the end of 1925 in the absence of the author.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He spent the next year 1926 on disability and, from the point of view of his track record, did not officially work anywhere.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1927 (December 19), when the founder of this medical and pedagogical institution V. P. Kashchenko was relieved of his leadership position, L. S. Vygotsky was appointed director of the Medical Pedagogical Station [57] and remained in this position until October 10, 1928. (dismissed at his own request) [58].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1929, the Experimental Defectology Institute (EDI) was established on the basis of the Medical and Pedagogical Station.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Its first head was Dmitry Ivanovich Azbukin (Deputy — Rosenthal Lia Yan., Head of the Scientific and Pedagogical Department — L. IN. Zankov [59]), and since 1930 I. AND. Danyushevsky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky was invited to EDI as a freelance consultant and scientific director of psychological laboratories [60].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In 1930, during inspections and audits of the Institute of Experimental Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Rabkrin Commission revealed the inefficiency of this scientific institution and inappropriate expenditure of allocated budget funds [61].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

As a result, in November 1930. Kornilov was dismissed from the management of the institute, the institute was fundamentally reorganized, and A. B.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Zalkind [62].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Just a few months later, at the end of winter-spring 1931 [63], at the reorganized and renamed institute under the leadership of Zalkind and with the active participation of Vygotsky, Luria, etc.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

a critical scientific discussion took place to discuss the theoretical provisions and practical application of the so-called “reactological” concept of Kornilov (otherwise: Kornilov's “reactology”) [64], during which criticized this direction in psychology and removed from the agenda of the institute [65].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

At the same time, that is, in the spring and summer of 1931, the organizational structure of the institute was changed, as a result of which some employees lost their leadership positions, for example, as part of the disbanded collective governing body, that is, the College of the Institute.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Other employees, on the contrary, went for promotion: for example, as a result of purges and reorganization of the management apparatus, an employee of the institute since 1924. Lev Vygotsky was promoted and transferred from the post of “employee of the 1st category” to “full members” of the institute (see entry 24 of March 1, 1931 in Vygotsky's Work Book [3]).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He also worked for a number of government, educational, medical and research organizations in Moscow, Leningrad, Kharkov and Tashkent.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

At the very beginning of 1934. Vygotsky was invited to the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine, which was being created at that time in Moscow, to organize a psychology sector in it.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Nevertheless, these plans were not destined to be realized: Vygotsky was hospitalized in May and died on June 11, 1934 in Moscow from tuberculosis.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The urn with the ashes of L. S. Vygotsky was buried at Novodevichy Cemetery a year after the death of L. S. Vygotsky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

It is not known for certain where it was stored and for what purpose it was stored all this time and was not buried.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Timeline of the most important life and career events


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1922, autumn — Vygotsky was hired at Gomel Pedagogical College


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1923, winter-spring — organization of a psychological laboratory under the leadership of Vygotsky at the Gomel Pedagogical College


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1923, summer — the first experimental works of the psychological laboratory


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1923, autumn — completion of empirical studies, beginning of preparations for the presentation of research results at the psychoneurological congress


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1924, January — participation in the II Psychoneurological Congress in Petrograd, moving from Gomel to Moscow, enrollment in postgraduate studies and a position at the State Institute of Experimental Psychology in Moscow (Director of the Institute — K. N. Kornilov)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1924, July — beginning of work as the head of the subdepartment for the education of physically defective and mentally retarded children of the Department of Social and Legal Protection of Minors (SPON) (head of the SPON department — S. S. Tizanov) of Glavsotsvos under the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR; dismissed from office in 1926 due to disability


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1924, November 26 — December 1 — II Congress of Social and Legal Protection of Minors (SPON), Moscow: at the congress, during the work of the section on mental retardation, the turn to social education was officially announced as a new direction in the development of Soviet defectology and special pedagogy; a collection of articles and materials edited by L. S. Vygotsky “Issues of Education of Blind, Deaf and Mute and Mentally Retarded Children”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1925, May 9 — birth of first child: daughter Gita


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1925, summer — the first and only trip abroad: sent to London for a defectology conference; on the way to England I drove through Germany, where he met with local psychologists


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1925 — defense of the dissertation Psychology of Art.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

November 5, 1925 Vygotsky was awarded the title of senior researcher due to illness without defense, equivalent to the modern degree of Candidate of Sciences, the contract for the publication of the Psychology of Art was signed on November 9, 1925, but the book was never published during Vygotsky's lifetime.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Why this book hasn't been published?


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky was given permission to publish this book only in 1927, and then only at the expense of the author.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Therefore, it was not possible to publish this book at state expense, and the author did not accept publishing the work for his own money.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Everything is very simple here.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

November 21, 1925 to May 22, 1926 — tuberculosis, hospitalization in the Zakharyino sanatorium-type hospital; on discharge from the hospital for medical reasons, he was qualified as a disabled person until the end years


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1926 — throughout the year, temporary disability due to disability caused by recovery from treatment of chronic tuberculosis; Vygotsky's first book, “Pedagogical psychology”; writes notes and essays that compiled an unfinished manuscript on the “crisis of psychology”, later, several decades after the author's death, published under the title.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1927 — since the beginning of the year (officially — from January 1, 1927) he returns from disability, resumes work at the Institute of Experimental Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences and in a number of others.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

institutions in Moscow and Leningrad


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1927, September 17 — the scientific and pedagogical section of the State Academic Council (GUS) approved Vygotsky as a professor


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1927, December 19 — appointed head of the Medical and Pedagogical Station of the Glavsotsvos of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR, remained in this position until October 1928 (dismissed at his own request), since 1929 - freelance scientific consultant, head of psychological laboratories at the Experimental Defectology Institute (transformed by the Medical - pedagogical station)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1927, December 28 — January 4, 1928 — First All-Russian Pedological Congress, Moscow; Vygotsky takes part in the congress as a co-editor of the difficult childhood section (editors: L. S. Vygotsky and L. IN. Zankov) of a collection of abstracts and reports, and also presents two reports: “Development of a difficult child and its study” (at the section of difficult childhood) and “Instrumental method in pedology” (at the research methodological section); they are thematically adjacent, respectively, by Zankov's reports “Principles of constructing comprehensive programs of an auxiliary school from a pedological point of view” and Luria “To the methodology instrumental psychological research”; the first public presentation of “instrumental psychology” as a research method and the first public application for an independent scientific direction in psychology associated with the names of Vygotsky and Luria [66]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1928 — the first publications in the spirit of independent psychological theory and based on the results of experimental research using the “instrumental method”: a series of journal articles was published on Russian and English languages and Vygotsky's second book, “School Age Pedology”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1928, December — conflict with the director of the Institute of Experimental Psychology (GIEP) K. N. Kornilov, Vygotsky submits a memorandum to the collective governing body of the institute, the Board of the Institute; Vygotsky continues to work at the Institute of Psychology as a teacher of psychology, but with at the end of 1928, the research activities of the Vygotsky-Luria group were curtailed in this organization, and experimental studies were transferred to the Academy of Communist Education [67], in Laboratory of Psychology (Vygotsky and Luria have been laboratory employees since 1924 [68]; head no later than 1927 — Luria [69])


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1929, April — Vygotsky gives lectures in Tashkent (returned to Moscow in early May of the same year)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1929, autumn is the beginning of the first official work in the system of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR: Vygotsky was enrolled as an assistant (later: head of the psychological laboratory) of pediatric psychoneurology and experimental psychology at the Clinic of Nervous Diseases 1 of Moscow State University (dismissed no later than March 1931) [36]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1929, September — IX International Psychological Congress at Yale University; Luria presented two reports, one of which is based on the results of his many years of original research (using the so-called conjugate motor method), and the other was co-authored with Vygotsky; Vygotsky himself did not take part in the work of the congress


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1930 — the birth of the second child: daughter Asya; the third book (co-authored with Luria) is published, Studies on the History of Behavior: The Monkey. A primitive. Child” and Vygotsky's fourth book, in three parts (in 1929, 1930 and 1931, respectively), “Pedology of a Teenager”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1930, January 25 — February 1 — First All-Union Congress for the Study of Human Behavior (“Behavioral Congress”), Leningrad; Vygotsky takes part in the congress as a member of the Presidium and co-editor of the congress materials on the pedology section in the collection of abstracts and reports (other members of the presidium of the pedological section and co-editors: Basov M. Y., Vygotsky L. S., Molozhavy S. S. and Shchelovanov N. M.), and also presents three reports:


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

as part of the Section of Psychology, Reflexology and Physiology of the Central Nervous System: “Experimental study of higher behavioral processes” (subsection “Forms of behavior”; other significant reports of this subsection: Soloviev I. M. “Activity and Side Irritation”, Zankov L. IN. “The Study of Active Memorization” and Luria A. R. “The structure of psychophysiological processes and their reflection in conjugate motor skills”)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

as part of the Pedological Section: “I. Development of higher forms of behavior in childhood” (subsection “Study of the cultural development of the child”; the other two reports of this subsection: Luria A. R. “II. The function of the sign in the development of child behavior”, Leontyev A. N. “III. Development of the internal structure of higher behavior”) and “Cultural development of an abnormal and difficult child” (subsection “The problem of difficult childhood”; it is adjacent to the report: Zankov L. IN. “Active memorization in a mentally retarded child (idiot)”, in the same subsection) [70]; public presentation of the results of systematic emiric studies of “higher forms” and “cultural development” in the spirit of “instrumental psychology” as an independent scientific direction within the framework of “behavioral psychology” associated with the names of researchers of the Vygotsky and Luria Circle [71]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1930, April 23—27 — At the VI International Conference on Psychotechnics in Barcelona, L. S. Vygotsky “Le probleme des fonctions intellectuelles supérieures dans le système des recherches psychotechniques” (abstracts of the report were also published in Russian in 1930: in the journal Psychotechnics and psychophysiology of labor); the first public presentation of the results of empirical research by researchers of the Vygotsky and Luria Circle as a joint project to study “higher forms” and” cultural development” in conditions of normal and abnormal development [72]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1930, summer — former students of Kurt Levin Nina Kaulina and Gita Birenbaum move from Berlin to the Soviet Union and start working in cooperation with researchers of the Vygotsky-Luria Circle [73]: the beginning a full-scale revision of the research program and the convergence of Vygotsky's “instrumental” and “cultural-historical” psychology with the German-American gestaltist movement in psychology [74] [75]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1930, October 9 — made at the Clinic of Nervous Diseases 1 of Moscow State University: announced the beginning of a new research program aimed at studying psychological systems; actual refusal to study isolated “psychological functions”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1931, January-February - by order of the People's Commissariat of Health of February 17, 1931, Vygotsky was enrolled as deputy director for the scientific part of the Institute of the OzDIP named after M.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

10th Anniversary of the October Revolution [36]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1931, March 1 — from a researcher of the 1st category he was transferred to full members of the State Institute of Psychology, Pedology and Psychotechnics (the director of the institute is A. B. Zalkind) [3]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1931, March 2-3 — reactological discussion at the State Institute of Psychology, Pedology and Psychotechnics; during the discussion, Vygotsky and Luria publicly abandon “reactology” and mechanicism” instrumental period” of the 1920s [64] [76]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1931, May-August: Luria's first psychological expedition to Central Asia (with Vygotsky's participation in absentia) [77]; Kurt Levin Blum's third student Zeigarnik moves from Berlin to Moscow and joins to the Vygotsky-Luria Circle; Vygotsky entered the medical faculty at the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy in Kharkov, where he studied by correspondence with A. R. Luria


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1931, October 22 [78] — father's death


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1932, March — Vygotsky's report at the Institute of Scientific Pedagogy: the first public presentation of the research project and the draft of the book “Thinking and Speech”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1932, summer — Luria's second psychological expedition to Central Asia (with the direct participation of Kurt Koffka and Vygotsky's participation in absentia) [77]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1932, December — report on consciousness in Moscow, formal discrepancy with Leontiev's group in Kharkov


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1933, April-May — Kurt Levin stops in Moscow from the United States (via Japan), meeting Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1934, January-February — Vygotsky receives an invitation and begins work on the creation of a specialized psychological department at the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine (VIEM), in Moscow


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1934, May 9 — Vygotsky is transferred to bed rest


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1934, June 11 — Death


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

1934, December — publication of a posthumous collection of works from 1928—1934 entitled “Thinking and Speaking”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Workplaces after 1924


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Moscow State Institute of Experimental Psychology (since 1924 — researcher of the 2nd category, since 1931 — full member),


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

State Institute of Scientific Pedagogy (GINP) at LSPI and at LSPI named after V.I.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

A. AND. Herzen (1927—1934),


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Academy of Communist Education named after N. K. Krupskaya (AKV) (1929—1931),


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Clinic of Nervous Diseases at the First Moscow State University (1st Moscow State University) (as an assistant, then head of the psychological laboratory; see Fig. Rossolimo, Grigory Ivanovich) (1929—1931)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Second Moscow State University (2nd MSU) (1927—1930), and after the reorganization of the 2nd Moscow State University —


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Moscow State Pedagogical University (M.V. A. S. Bubnova) (1930—1934; Head of the Department of Pedology of Difficult Childhood) and


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

2nd Moscow State Medical Institute (MSMI) (1930—1934; Head of the Department of General and Age Pedology);


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Research Institute of Scientific Pedagogy at the 2nd Moscow State University (up to the liquidation of the institute in 1931)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Institute for the Study of Higher Nervous Activity at the Natural Science Section of the Comacademia (member of the section since March 17, 1930: ARAN. F.350. Op.3. D.286. LL.235-237ob)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

State Scientific Institute for the Protection of Children and Adolescents Health named after the 10th Anniversary of the October Revolution (since the beginning of 1931 as Deputy Director of the Institute for Scientific Affairs)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Experimental Defectology Institute (EDI im. M. S. Epstein) (1929—1934, scientific director of the research laboratory)


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He also gave lectures at a number of educational institutions and research organizations in Moscow, Leningrad, Kharkov and Tashkent, for example, at the Central Asian State University (SASU) (in April 1929 years).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Family and relatives


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

His parents were Simkha Leibovich (Semyon Lvovich) Vygodsky (1869 — October 22, 1931 [78]) and Tsipa (Tsetsilia) Moiseevna Vygodskaya (1874 — May 25, 1935 [78]).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Father L. S. Vygotsky was one of the organizers of the Society for the Dissemination of Education among Jews, within the framework of which a public public library was opened in Gomel.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Sisters and brother [79]:


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Khaya-Anna Semenovna Vygodskaya-Khavina (May 26, 1895 — June 6, 1936) [78].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Zinaida Semenovna (Zelda Simkhovna) Vygodskaya (April 12 (25), 1898 — December 4, 1981) [80] [78], linguist, author of Russian-English and English-Russian dictionaries [81], translator.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Esther Semenovna (Esya Simkhovna) Vygodskaya (October 21, 1899—1969) [82] [78].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Claudia Semenovna Vygodskaya (1904—1975) [83], linguist, author of Russian-French and French-Russian dictionaries [84].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Maria Semyonovna Vygodskaya (1907—1990) [85].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

David (October 24, 1905—1918 or 1919) [86].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

His wife (since 1924) was Roza Noyevna Smekhova (1899—1979) [87].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Daughters:


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Gita Lvovna Vygodskaya (1925—2010) - psychologist and defectologist, candidate of psychological sciences, researcher at the Research Institute of Defectology, co-author of the biography “L. S. Vygotsky. Strokes to the Portrait” (1996) [88] (her daughter is Elena Evgenievna Kravtsova, Doctor of Psychology, former employee of the Russian State University for the Humanities).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Asya Lvovna Vygodskaya (1930—1985), Candidate of Biological Sciences, Researcher at the Research Institute of Oncology [89].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

His cousin is David Isaakovich Vygodsky, poet, literary critic, translator (his wife is children's writer Emma Iosifovna Vygodskaya).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Scientific contribution


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky's formation as a scientist coincided with the period of perestroika of Soviet psychology based on the methodology of Marxism, in which he took an active part.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In search of methods for an objective study of complex forms of human activity and personal behavior, Vygotsky critically analyzed a number of philosophical and most modern psychological concepts (“The Meaning of the Psychological Crisis”, unfinished manuscript, 1926), showing the futility of attempts to explain human behavior, reducing the “higher” forms of behavior to the “lower” elements.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

By studying speech thinking, Vygotsky solves the problem of localization of higher psychological functions as structural units of brain activity in a new way.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Studying the development and decay of higher psychological functions on the material of child psychology, defectology and psychiatry, Vygotsky comes to the conclusion that the structure of consciousness is a “dynamic semantic system ” which are in unity of affective, volitional and intellectual processes.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Despite the fact that the designation “cultural and historical theory” is found only once in the texts of Vygotsky himself, this name later took root among a number of scientists who positioned themselves followers of Vygotsky [90] [91].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Since the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a historical analysis of missed opportunities in Vygotsky's original theory.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Traditional assessments of the creative heritage of Vygotsky's Soviet period are being revised.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky defines pedagogical activity as a special human-oriented activity in 1926.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

However, they did not deepen this direction in the future.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

New ways of development are being developed at the present stage — originally conceived by the author, but later forgotten or ignored in Soviet psychology of the 20th century (see, for example, [92] [93] [94]).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

This intellectual movement in a number of recent publications has become widely known as the “revisionist revolution” in Vygotsky studies [16].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The doctrine of “higher psychological” processes


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Throughout the decade of his scientific career as a psychologist (1924-34), Vygotsky always understood the meaning of his scientific work as the development of the doctrine of “higher psychological” processes, phenomena, functions, systems of functions, behaviors, etc. At the same time, he emphasized the importance of understanding these phenomena as “higher psychological”: “Consciousness determines life (image), but it itself arises from life and forms its moment: ergo life determines life through consciousness. As soon as we took thinking away from life (from dynamics) — we took it as a concept of mental, not psychological — we closed ourselves any way to find out and explain its main property: determine lifestyle and behavior, act, influence” [95].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

At the same time, Vygotsky emphasized the fundamental importance of distinguishing psychological and mental phenomena from the point of view of dialectical psychology and, in particular, his psychological theory:


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Dialectical psychology... does not mix mental and physiological processes, it recognizes the irreducible qualitative originality of the psyche, it only states that p s and x o l o g and h e s k and e the processes are one.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Thus, we come to the recognition of peculiar psychophysiological single processes that represent the highest forms of human behavior, which we propose to call psychological processes, in difference from mental and by analogy with what is called physiological processes [96].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Moreover, in his works published during the lifetime of their author, Vygotsky never used the expressions “higher mental” to describe the phenomena that his psychological theory described and studied [90] [91].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Nevertheless, immediately after his death, Vygotsky's texts began to undergo systematic editing in preparation for publication, which ultimately led to systemic and fatal falsifications of his scientific heritage in post-war publications of Vygotsky's works throughout the Soviet period of the 1950s and 1980s [14] [16] [17].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In addition to the “higher psychological functions” (more precisely, systems of such functions), other concepts and expressions that are found in Vygotsky's texts of various periods of his life, for example: “interiorization” (internalization), “the zone of proximal development” (mediation) and a number of others.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In total, these textual and semantic substitutions led to a systemic and massive distortion of almost the entire conceptual apparatus of the theoretical constructions of this author [29].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Cultural and historical theory


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The most vivid expression of the posthumous falsification of Vygotsky's legacy is presented in Vygotsky's so-called “cultural-historical” theory.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In an unfinished and untitled manuscript of the work, published in a distorted form in 1960 under the title “History of the Development of Higher Mental Functions” (the name is given according to the first words of the falsified text, work on the manuscript was completed no later than 1930) and presented as the main theoretical work of this author [21], a detailed presentation of the cultural and historical theory of psyche development is given, according to which it is necessary to distinguish between lower and higher psychological functions, and accordingly two plans of behavior — natural, natural (the result of the biological evolution of the animal world) and cultural, socio-historical (the result of the historical development of society), merged in the development of the psyche.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The hypothesis put forward by Vygotsky proposed a new solution to the problem of the ratio of lower (elementary) and higher psychological functions.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The main difference between them is the level of arbitrariness, that is, natural psychological processes do not lend themselves to regulation by a person, and people can use higher psychological functions consciously manage.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky came to the conclusion that conscious regulation is associated with the indirect nature of higher psychological functions.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

An additional connection arises between the acting stimulus and the reaction of a person (both behavioral and mental) through a mediating link - a stimulus-means, or a sign.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The difference between signs and tools that also mediate higher psychological functions, cultural behavior, is that the tools are directed “outward”, at transforming reality, and signs “inward” first to transform other people, then to control their own behavior.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The word is a means of arbitrary direction of attention, abstraction of properties and their synthesis into meaning (formation of concepts), arbitrary control of one's own psychological operations.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The most convincing model of indirect activity that characterizes the manifestation and implementation of higher psychological functions is the “situation of the Buridan donkey”.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

This classic situation of uncertainty, or problem situation (the choice between two equal opportunities), is of interest to Vygotsky primarily from the point of view of the means that allow you to transform ( solve) the situation that has arisen.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

By casting lots, a person “artificially introduces into the situation, changing it, new auxiliary incentives that are not related to it” [98].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Thus, the lot cast becomes, according to Vygotsky, a means of transforming and resolving the situation.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

He noted that the operation with casting lots reveals a new and peculiar structure, so a person himself creates stimuli that determine his reactions, and uses these stimuli as a means for mastering the processes of your own behavior.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Developing a method for studying higher psychological functions, Vygotsky is guided by the principle of “manifestation of the great in the smallest” and, in addition to casting lots, analyzes such phenomena as “tying a nodule for memory” and counting on the fingers.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In the last years of his life, Vygotsky focused on studying the relationship between thought and word in the structure of consciousness.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

His work “Thinking and Speech” (1934), devoted to the study of this problem, is fundamental for Soviet psycholinguistics.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In this paper, Vygotsky points to the different genesis of the development of thinking and speech in phylogenesis, and that the relationship between them is not a constant value.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In phylogenesis, the pre-speech phase of intelligence is revealed, as well as the pre-intellectual phase of the development of speech itself.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

But in the process of ontogenetic development, at some point, thinking and speech intersect, after which thinking becomes speech, and speech becomes intellectual.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

According to Vygotsky, internal speech develops through the accumulation of long-term functional and structural changes.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

It branches off from the child's external speech along with the differentiation of the social and egocentric function of speech, and finally, the speech functions assimilated by the child become the main functions of his thinking.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Age and pedagogical psychology


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky's works consider in detail the problem of the relationship between the role of maturation and learning in the development of higher psychological functions of a child.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Thus, he formulated the most important principle according to which the preservation and timely maturation of brain structures is a necessary, but insufficient condition for the development of higher psychological functions.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The main source for this development is the changing social environment, to describe which Vygotsky introduced the term social situation of development, defined as “peculiar, specific to of this age, an exceptional, unique and unique relationship between the child and the reality around him, primarily the social reality.”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

It is this attitude that determines the course of development of the child's psyche at a certain age stage.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

L. S. Vygotsky noted that culture creates special forms of behavior and modifies the activity of the psychological function.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In this regard, the concept of cultural development of the child is explained by him as a process corresponding to the individual development that took place in the process of historical development of mankind.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Both types of human development are repeated in the development of a child: biological and cultural-historical.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In other words, these two types of development are in dialectical unity.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

A significant contribution to pedagogical psychology is the concept of a zone of immediate development introduced by Vygotsky.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The zone of immediate development is “an area of unripe, but maturing processes”, encompassing tasks that a child at this level of development cannot cope with on his own, but which are able to solve with the help of adult; this is the level achieved by the child so far only in the course of joint activities with an adult.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky's influence


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky's cultural and historical theory gave rise to the largest school in Soviet psychology, from which A. N. Leontyev, A. R. Luria, A. IN. Zaporozhets, L. AND. Bozhovich, P. ME.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Halperin D. B.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Elkonin P. AND. Zinchenko L. IN. Zankov et al.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In the 1970s, Vygotsky's theories began to arouse interest in American psychology.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In the next decade, all of Vygotsky's main works were translated and, along with Piaget, formed the basis of modern educational psychology in the United States.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The name of a Soviet psychologist in North America is associated with the emergence of social constructivism.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The current situation in the study of Vygotsky's heritage in Russia and abroad is characterized as the “cult of Vygotsky”, associated not only with systemic falsifications of his texts, but also with uncritical and a distorted idea of his concepts and ideas in the works of his self-proclaimed followers and admirers.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky's cult and the revisionist movement in Vygotsky studies


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The cult of Vygotsky is the main obstacle to the critical study, development and further development of ideas related to the name of this researcher and author.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Thus, according to the famous Russian philosopher and methodologist V. M. Rozin, “there was a period of development of Soviet psychology and humanitarian thought, when the work of L. S. Vygotsky was hushed up and was actually banned. Today we are dealing with the opposite trend: L. S. Vygotsky is almost canonized and criticism against him seems, if not indecent, then at least strange. Today, the thinking and creativity of the creator of Soviet psychology are considered as exemplary, certainly not devoid of search and problems, but still correct in their essence, which have withstood the test of time. But is this really the case?” [99]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The current state of affairs in critical international studies of the 21st century is characterized as overcoming the cult of Vygotsky and the “revisionist revolution in Vygotsky studies” [14] [16] [17].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Criticism of Vygotsky's scientific heritage and its various interpretations began back in the 1960s in the Soviet Union [100] [101] [102], and continued occasionally but continuously, despite Soviet censorship, until up to the 1990s [103] [104] [105].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In this regard, the expectations of the author of the first post-war Soviet critical work on Vygotsky's legacy and the reaction of the Soviet psychological community to it are very characteristic: “With a sinking heart, I expected a possible discussion in the press based on the results of my analysis, but the answer to it was almost complete silence...” [106]


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

One of the earliest truly innovative revisionist assessments of Vygotsky's legacy and his place in world psychology took place in the early 1990s, although it was largely ignored Russian-speaking psychological community: “L. S. Vygotsky was not a lonely hero from Nietzschean-Bolshevik mythology; moreover, he was not a messiah who came out of nowhere to save psychology and immediately found faithful apostles in it. He was a man of culture, an intellectual who acted in the main line of aesthetic, philosophical, political and simply life ideas that were modern to him. Not the founder of new principles, who took them from the depths of his talent, but one of the representatives of the most fashionable trends that owned the minds of his generation. Not a prodigy born by a Marxist, but a writer of the post-Symbolist era, who came to psychology and Marxism along complex and characteristic ways. Not Mozart of Psychology, but a man of his time, who successfully applied his cultural experience in a new and unexpected field” [105].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Outside Eastern Europe, a wave of literature criticizing the “Vygotsky” heritage originated, compared to the USSR, with some delay and arose as a reaction to the growing popularity during decade of the 1980s, which followed the publication in the West in 1978 of a thoroughly edited collection, according to its editors, “constructed” from the texts of Vygotsky himself and others, unnamed authors, published under the name of Lev Vygotsky and under the name Mind in society.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The first critical publications of the Western Vygotskiana appeared in the 1980s and 1990s.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

[107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114], and especially in the 21st century [115] [116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The number of critical publications has been steadily increasing all this time and only in the 2000s did it finally take shape during the “revisionist revolution” in Vygotsky studies [126] [127] [16] [17] [128] [18].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Audits are subjected to both the quality of translations by Vygotsky [129] [130] and numerous members of Vygotsky's circle [131] and the authenticity of his texts published in the Soviet Union in Russian [19] [20] [4] [ 21] [22], as well as the main theoretical postulates and scientific “innovations” of Lev Vygotsky [18].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

All this critical literature makes a great contribution to the reassessment of Vygotsky's historical role and theoretical heritage in the context of modern science.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The revisionist movement includes scientists from Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China (Hong Kong), Germany, Greece, Israel, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Russia, South Africa and Ukraine, and the United Kingdom, and is growing rapidly these days [123] [127] [16] [17] [128] [18].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky's Complete Works


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

An essential component of the revisionist movement in Vygotsky studies is the work on the voluntary, non-profit scientific and publishing project PsyAnima Vygotsky's Complete Works (PsyAnima Complete Vygotsky” project) [132], during which a number of Vygotsky's texts for the first time become freely available to a wide range of readers, and in a form cleared of censorship, editorial interventions, distortions and falsifications in posthumous Soviet publications of a later time [133] [134] [126].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

This publishing and editorial work is supported by a stream of critical studies and scientific publications on textology, history, theory and methodology of Vygotsky's psychological theory and participants Vygotsky-Luria Circle [16] [18].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

memento


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

A network student scientific community and a discussion group to study and discuss the problem of the “Vygotsky bubble”: “vygo_bubble” [28].


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Community slogans: “Truth is something worth fighting for!” and “if Vygotsky were alive, he would be proud of us!”


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Facsimile editions published and available free of charge as part of a non-profit publishing project


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Institute of Psychology named after L. S. Vygotsky RSUH


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Gomel State Pedagogical College named after L. S. Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

A street in the Novinki microdistrict in Minsk and a lane in the center of Moscow (2015) are named after Lev Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

comments


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Notes


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Scientific bibliographies of L. S. Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Van der Veer and Yasnitsky bibliography (2016): Van der Veer & Yasnitsky (2016).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

In: Yasnitsky, A. & van der Veer, R. (Eds.) (2016).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

(pp. 243-260).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

London and New York: Routledge


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Lifanova bibliography (1996): Lifanova (1996).


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

— Traditional and outdated bibliography, includes 275 titles


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

see also L.S.


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

The works of L. S. Vygotsky


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Lifetime original editions


Question: Where did Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky get his primary education?

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky

Vygotsky, L. S. (1929, 1930 and 1931).