Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The anthem of the Olympic Games is performed when the Olympic flag is raised during the opening of the next Games, as well as at their end and in some other cases.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Written by Greek composer Spyros Samaras.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The Oath


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

One of the outstanding athletes takes an oath of fairness in the competition on behalf of all competitors.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Then one of the judges takes an oath of honest and objective refereeing.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

It was proposed by de Coubertin in 1913.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

It revives an oath similar to the ancient one.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

It was first officially pronounced in 1920 at the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Mottos and slogans


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The Olympic motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius, which means “Faster, Higher, Stronger” in Latin.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

It was invented by the French priest Henri Dido, proposed by Pierre de Coubertin when creating the International Olympic Committee in 1894, and presented at the 1924 Olympic Games in Paris.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

There is a motto “The main thing is not victory, but participation”, the authorship is attributed to de Coubertin.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

In fact, this phrase is related to the tragedy of runner Pietri Dorando, who was disqualified from running a marathon (London, 1908) because of assistance provided to him at the finish line.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Help he didn't ask for.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The next day, a solemn ceremony of awarding prizes took place.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

One of the members of the royal family invited the Italian to the podium and presented him with a gold cup for outstanding sporting achievement.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

On this day, the Bishop of Pennsylvania uttered the following words from the pulpit of St. Peter's Basilica: “The main thing at the Olympics is not victory, but participation.”


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

According to writers Laszlo Kuhn and V. IN. Stolbov, participation is in the sense of empathy for an athlete who fought with the last of his strength, but could not win.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Medals


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Olympic medals — gold, silver and bronze — are awarded to three athletes who showed the best results in the competition.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

In team sports, all team members receive medals of equal value.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The design of medals awarded to athletes at the first eight Summer Olympic Games was completely different and was developed by each Organizing Committee independently.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

From 1920 to 2000, the obverse of Olympic medals used a standard design: the goddess Nika with a palm branch in her right hand, honoring the winner.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The reverse of the medal changed depending on the wishes of the country where the Games were held [6].


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Since 2004, this tradition has been abandoned, and both sides of the medal are made according to the unique design of the organizers of the Games.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The medal diameter of the 2008 Games was 70 mm, the thickness was 6 mm.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Gold medals, as a rule, are made mainly of silver.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Thus, at the 2008 Games, the gold medal weighed about 150 grams, which included about 6 grams of gold.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Silver medals are made of silver, bronze medals are made of copper [8].


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

At the Games of 1896 and 1900, only athletes who took 1st and 2nd places were awarded medals.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

There was no gold medal at that time, but only silver and bronze medals were awarded.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Moreover, at the 1900 Games, medals were not awarded in many types at all, and instead, the organizers awarded participants with cups and diplomas.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Nevertheless, for a uniform approach in the reference literature, gold, silver and bronze medals are used for these Games as well.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Until 1960, medals were made without fasteners and were awarded to the winners directly into their hands.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The organizers of the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome for the first time made thin bronze chains in the shape of an olive branch so that medals could be hung around the necks of athletes.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Introducing this innovation not provided for by the rules, the organizers insured themselves and handed the girls who took out medals for the award with scissors to quickly cut the chains in case of objections.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

However, I liked the idea, and since then chains or ribbons have been attached to Olympic medals. [9]


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Ogon


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The Olympic race was first lit at the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The Olympic flame is lit on the territory of the ruins of the temple of the goddess Hera in ancient Olympia in Greece from a parabolic mirror.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The torch race is passed from athlete to athlete during a multi-day symbolic relay race that takes place across all 5 inhabited continents of the Earth.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The flame arrives at the venue of the Olympic Games on their opening day.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The finalist of the relay lights the flame of the Olympic fire with a torch.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

This symbolizes the beginning of the games.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

At the end of all competitions, the Olympic fire of the campfire is extinguished, which symbolizes the closing of the games.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The first Olympic torch relay from Olympia and the Olympic bonfire ceremony were held at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The flame was lit at Olympia on July 20, 1936, and the relay ended in Berlin on August 1, 1936.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Karl Diem, a sports official in Germany and Secretary General of the Organizing Committee of the 1936 Games, is considered to be the author and founder of the relay tradition, as well as the author of the idea of lighting a torch in Greece.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Dima came up with the idea of the relay race in preparation for the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1916, canceled due to the First World War.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Laurel branch


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The laurel branch, or “kotinos”, is a branch rolled up in the form of a wreath, which is awarded to the winner along with a gold medal.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The tradition of awarding it was revived at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

salute


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The Olympic fireworks are a type of Roman fireworks, but with a higher raise of arms.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

This greeting was used at the 1924 Olympic Games in Paris and 1936 in Berlin.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

After the end of World War II, due to its great similarity to the Nazi fireworks, it was no longer used, although it was not officially banned.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Mascots


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The mascot for each Olympics is chosen by the host country at its discretion.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Usually, the mascot is chosen as an animal or other stylized image that is associated in the view of most people with the host country.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Initially, the revived Olympic Games had only an emblem and flag.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Talismans appeared quite recently, in 1968.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Moreover, some believe that the progenitor of all Olympic mascots was the funny alpine skier Schuss, who became a symbol of the White Olympics in Grenoble.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Others believe that the first jaguar mascot appeared at the Olympic Games in Mexico City.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Be that as it may, the first official mascot was recognized as Valdi's dachshund, born at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Valdi (a male name because the word “dachshund” is masculine in German) was chosen as the mascot of the games because, as it is written on the website of the International Olympic Committee, “he has the qualities of the present athlete: perseverance, perseverance and dexterity.”


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Valdi is also famous for being the only pet that has become a mascot in the history of the Olympic Games.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Games Emblem


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Each Olympic Games has its own unique emblem, symbolizing the city and the host country.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Usually, but not always, Olympic rings are an element of the emblem.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The official Olympic emblem consists of an Olympic symbol and an Olympic motto: the symbol is five intertwined colored rings on a white background, and the official motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius (“Faster, higher, stronger!”) , which has changed in recent Games, or we can say, in addition to the official one, came up with another one.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Only the IOC and the NOC have the right to use the Olympic emblem.


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

The National Olympic Committees each time had their own


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Lausanne, Switzerland


Question: When did the Olympic rings appear?

Olympic symbols

Notes


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Volga Germans (also Volga Germans, self-named. Wolgakolonisten, Wolgadeutsche) is one of the peoples that was formed in Russia by the beginning of the 20th century from descendants of immigrants mainly from German states, resettled on the basis of manifestos Catherine II in the Lower Volga region in the 1760s and lived there until 1941.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After 1917, they received territorial autonomy — the ASSR of the Volga Germans.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In 1941, they were deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The deportation of Germans to the USSR led to the decline of the national language and culture, to accelerated assimilation with the rest of the population of the USSR.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The consequences of the deportation led to the emergence of a resettlement movement to Germany, which especially intensified in the 1990s.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Currently, people with ethnic roots from Volga Germans live mainly in Russia, Germany, Kazakhstan, the USA, Canada and Argentina.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Relocation


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Catherine II's Manifestos


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

g. Catherine II signed the manifesto “On allowing foreigners to settle in Russia and the free return of Russian people who fled abroad” [1].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

An organic continuation of this document was the manifesto from St. “On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in different provinces of their choice, their rights and benefits” [2].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Under the terms of the Manifesto, those wishing to come to Russia as colonists, if they did not have money for travel, should contact Russian diplomats or their residents, who undertook ensure that colonists are sent with travel money.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

IDPs who arrived in Russia were exempt from “all taxes and burdens” for various periods.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In particular, foreigners who settled in colonies on lands designated in the register as free for settlement were exempt from taxes for 30 years.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The 1763 Manifesto promised an interest-free loan for ten years for the construction of houses, the purchase of food before the first harvest, livestock, agricultural tools and tools for artisans.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In addition, full self-government in the colonies was allowed, without interference in the organization of the internal life of settlements by state officials.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

To manage the processes of arrival, accommodation and resettlement of foreigners, it was planned to operate in St. Petersburg as a board of the Office of Guardianship of Foreigners.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Count Grigory Orlov, Adjutant General and Chamberlain, was appointed President of the Chancellery.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Later, the Saratov Foreign Office was established in Saratov [3], which in its activities was directly subordinate to the Office of Guardianship of Foreigners in St. Petersburg.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Recruiting and transporting colonists to Russia


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The manifestos were translated into different languages and distributed through printing in separate copies and in newspapers.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Oral campaigning was organized by the Russian authorities, for which purpose posts of commissioners were established in Ulm and Frankfurt am Main.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

They were supposed to recruit and send colonists to Lübeck.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In addition, private entrepreneurs (summoners in the terminology of that time) were also engaged in the recruitment and sending of colonists to Russia, who concluded an agreement directly with the Office of Guardianship.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

They received the right to recruit colonists, organize private settlements in Russia, manage them and take part of the income in their favor.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In total, from 1763 to 1766, more than 30,000 people were transported to Russia.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The callers were able to scare and send 14,960 people to Russia, which accounted for half of the total number of colonists who arrived in Russia, or 56% of those settled in the Saratov area [4].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The colonists who arrived in Russia in 1763 settled in St. Petersburg itself, and later decided to temporarily place them in the suburbs of the capital, in Oranienbaum.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

They stayed here for an average of 1-2 months.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In Oranienbaum, colonists were introduced to Russian laws and traditions, and then they took an oath of allegiance to the Russian crown, the so-called oath promise, the text of which was approved by the Count Orlov on August 3, 1763.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Delivery to the Volga region and the creation of the first colonies


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The transfer from St. Petersburg and Oranienbaum to the Volga region was carried out mainly by river transport and took several months.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The road was a difficult test for the colonists.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Of the 26,676 people sent to settle in the Saratov area, 3,293 colonists died on the way, which accounted for almost 12.5% of the total number [4].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After a series of preparatory measures, lands for settlement were identified and in the period from 1764 to 1773 105 colonies were formed in the Saratov Volga region, the first of which was founded on June 29, 1764. Nizhnyaya Dobrinka.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

42 colonies were founded by the state, 63 by summoners.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By a government decree of February 26, 1768, Russian names (with some exceptions) were officially assigned to the colonies, which were used in official documents, until the creation German autonomy on the Volga.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

XVIII—XIX centuries


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Economic development of Volga Germans


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

One of the main tasks of the government when resettling colonists from Western countries to Russia was the development of agriculture.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

German settlers had to complete this task.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The colonists brought with them a plow, a braid, a wooden thresher from their homeland, almost not used in Russia, and used a three-field turnover during processing.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Russia produced mainly rye and a small amount of wheat.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The colonists have significantly expanded the number of crops.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

They introduced White Turk, potatoes, increased flax, hemp crops, grew tobacco and other crops.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

However, unlike the German colonists of Southern Russia, the Volga Germans did not improve the general culture of Russian agriculture, but, on the contrary, mastered the Russian communal land use system [5].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By the end of the 18th century, the cultivation of meadow wheat and tobacco, rye, oats, barley was finally established by colonists.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Almost all colonists grew vegetables.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The three-field land use system remained unchanged, and where there was an urgent need for land, a four-field was used.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By the end of the 19th century, wheat production reached ten million pounds [5].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

With the development of agriculture and the growth of prosperity of the colonies, their own colonist industry appeared.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the beginning of the XIX century, flour production in nearby water mills, the oil industry, the manufacture of agricultural tools, as well as production woolen fabric and harsh cloth.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After that, tannery appeared, which later became large in Goly Karamysh, Sevastyanovka, Karamyshevka and Oleshnya.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By 1871, there were 140 tanneries and 6 salotopene factories in the colonies [5].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Industrial weaving in the German colonies of the Volga region began to develop in Sarepta, which is why the name of the local fabric - sarpinka - came from.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Cotton fabrics and scarves were produced there, yarn for which was delivered from Silesia and Saxony, and silk was produced in Italy.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The demand for these products was so great that already in 1797 a second stone building was built at this factory.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Difficulties in obtaining raw materials from abroad caused the need to produce yarn at home, from Persian cotton paper delivered through Astrakhan.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In addition to Sarepta itself, spinning mills arranged in Popovka, Sevastyanovka, Norka, Lesnoy Karamysh participated in the production.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In Sarepta itself, a dye house was set up for painting in a variety of colors.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The profitability of sarpine production and increased competition forced Sarepta to move production to Saratov in 1816, where local German entrepreneurs, the Shekhtel brothers, drove the Sareptyans out of the sphere weaving production [5].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In the 1850s, sarpine production was concentrated in the hands of three major entrepreneurs — Schmidt, Borel, and Reineke.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Having numerous enterprises not only in their own, but also in neighboring colonies, they used the services of a lot of small manufacturers.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In 1866, there were 69 sarpine factories, where there were up to 6,000 looms, and materials were produced in the amount of 1,156 thousand rubles. In the 1870s, sarpine production experienced a decline and large entrepreneurs transferred fixed capital to the milling industry [5].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Goly Karamysh remained the center of sarpin production.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

A new round in the development of this fabric production is associated with the activities of A. L. Stepanov, who realized that there can be competition between a manual sarpina and a machine one only if manual production becomes cheaper and approaches modern fashion standards.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The entrepreneur organized a partnership from scattered Sarpinsky factories and achieved the improvement of looms.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Thanks to this, semi-silk and even silk things began to be produced, and the quality of manufactured goods in general has significantly improved.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Within five years, sarpin production from Goly Karamysh has received all-Russian recognition and distribution.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The profitability and importance of sarpin production is emphasized by the fact that the center of this type of production (by the beginning of the 20th century), Sosnovskaya volost, despite the lack of land, was one of the most thriving in the region even in the years of hunger [5].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Religion and Freedom of Faith of Volga Germans


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Early period


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The main benefit, among other privileges, was freedom of religion for colonists.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

However, it was provided to German colonists in such a way as not to infringe on the interests of the Orthodox Church [6].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The construction of church buildings and the maintenance of the required number of paters and pastors was allowed only in places where foreigners settled in colonies, that is, mainly of the same faith.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

This rule did not apply to colonists settled in Russian cities [6].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The colonists were forbidden “under pain of the strictness of Our laws” to persuade the Orthodox population to accept their faith [6].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the same time, it was freely allowed to persuade Muslims to convert to Christianity and even take Muslims as serfs [6].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Since the community of Volga Germans itself was created as a result of several groups and waves of immigrants, which represented various social groups of people, from different countries and regions, who came to Russia for various reasons, it is not possible to talk about any monotony in the religious life of the Volga Germans.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The main groups of colonists who came to Russia as a result of an invitation to live by Catherine II were Lutherans and Catholics of the Roman rite.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Thus, in Saratov, the very center of the future territory of residence of the Volga Germans, three-quarters of the Germans living there at the end of the 18th century (but after the looting of the city by the Pugachev rebels in 1774 Only 20 of the settlers survived) were Protestants and only one quarter were Catholics [7].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

19th century


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In the 19th century, the situation with the Catholic community of Volga Germans was a rather complex picture.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the time of the appearance of Catholic colonists in Russia, there was not a single Catholic bishop on its territory, and the government of the empire assumed 6,000 representatives of the Catholic confession, located in 40 different colonies of the Volga region, to limit themselves to only one father [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After the authorities of the region realized that it was impossible to spiritually care for all Catholics with only one father, the government gave permission for the arrival of an additional number of clergymen, but strict restrictions on functions and quantity [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Thus, the initial immediate supervisor over the Catholic churches of Catholic settlers was a prior, appointed from local paters by the Justice College.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

With the establishment of the Belarusian eparchy, an independent chapter was formed from the Volga colonies, headed by Father Prefectus, replaced at the beginning of the 19th century by the Jesuits with the title of Father Senior [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Subsequently, after the establishment of the Tiraspol eparchy, which now took over the colonies, they were headed by “the dean of the Roman Catholic churches of Saratov, Samara and Astrakhan provinces” [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After a significant increase in the number of parishes and their size, the Volga colonies were divided into several decanations: Saratov, Kamenskoye, Ekaterinstadt and Rivne [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In general, the position of the Catholic Church in Russia was determined by the “Regulations for the Spiritual and Ecclesiastical Government of the Roman Catholic Law” of November 13, 1804 [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Protestant religions were also under the jurisdiction of the College of Justice.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The pastors she assigned to the colonies often did not differ in knowledge or impeccable morality [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

There were no special regulations in Russian legislation regarding the organization of Protestant religions, so for a long time they used Swedish laws and regulations that were in force on Livonia.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the end of the 18th century, Johann Jeanette was elected the first father [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Numerous complaints from believers about the disturbances in the management of the Lutheran Church forced the authorities to change the entire system of government.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In 1810, a special body was created — the Main Directorate for Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Religions.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By decree of Alexander I, on July 20, 1819, the rank of bishop was introduced in the Evangelical Lutheran Church with the same powers as in Sweden, Denmark, Prussia: the bishop governs all Protestant churches and by their clergy [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In addition, the Evangelical Lutheran General Consistory was created in St. Petersburg, to which all the functions of the Judicial Board were to be transferred [8], it was created by the royal decree of October 25, 1819 years in Saratov; the full name of the organization was as follows: Evangelical Lutheran consistory for the management and supervision of Protestant communities; its functions included the leadership of communities of Saratov, Astrakhan, Voronezh, Tambov, Ryazan, Penza, Simbirsk, Kazan, Orenburg provinces, and Ignaty Aureliy Fessler, Doctor of Theology, was appointed Bishop and Superintendent of Saratov [8].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In 1832, Russian Emperor Nicholas I officially took the post of superintendent of the Lutheran Church on the territory of the Russian Empire.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

He considered and approved not only general organizational issues, but also issues such as amendments to the procedure for worship, the removal of the rank of the pastor, and even issues of faith.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

XX century


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After Christian clergymen, after the defeat of the peasant uprisings of 1920—1921 by the Communists, were subjected to brutal repressions by the official authorities [9], as well as those that followed Thus, the mass requisition of church values in 1921-1922, the church was forced to take a neutral position towards the communist regime and not interfere in the political life of the region.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to the text of one of the secret reports of the Prosecutor General's Office,


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Atheistic propaganda, actively carried out by party and Komsomol organizations among the Germans of the Volga region, had practically no success [9].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On the contrary, the result of all the suffering suffered by the population was an increase in the religiosity of the community [9].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Moreover, this religiosity did not develop in the direction of religions traditional for the Volga Germans [9]: Lutheranism, Catholicism, but in the direction of sectarianism within the existing movements themselves (“singing brothers ”, “dancing brothers”, etc. [9].)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the Volga Germans


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Creating


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On October 19, 1918, by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, the first autonomous region in the RSFSR was formed from part of the territories of the Saratov and Samara provinces - the autonomous region of the Volga Germans ( name labor commune of the Volga Germans) with an administrative center in the city of Saratov (from October 19, 1918 to May 1919), then the administrative center was the city of Marksstadt (from May to June 4, 1919 year name Ekaterinenstadt).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On July 24, 1922, the administrative center of the autonomous region was moved to the city of Pokrovsk, annexed to the autonomy on June 22 (in 1931 it was renamed Engels).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The existence


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Collectivization in a German village had unfortunate consequences [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to historians, thousands of the most productive farms were destroyed, while their owners were shot, arrested, imprisoned, deported, or, at best, became state laborers in “kulatsky” special settlements [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The weak collective farms that had just been created, especially in the early years, were unable to make up for the losses of agricultural production, especially since the state did not give them the opportunity to grow stronger, turning it into a convenient tool for withdrawing food from the village [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The colossal scale of procurement sharply worsened the already tense food situation in the regions inhabited by Germans [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The state did not take into account the changed situation in the village and did not reduce the norms for the procurement of bread and other products [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Less and less food was left for the farmers themselves.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

German villages were in danger of famine, and the poorest farms were already starving or going to beg [11].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

There was chaos within collective farms [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The collective farmers themselves were deprived of the opportunity to solve their problems, they only had to accurately comply with the instructions received from above [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Free peasant labor has become a labor duty of mercenaries [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

All this was exacerbated by constant abuses on the ground, blatant violence and lawlessness [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The famine of 1931—1933


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

During the winter of 1931—1932, many villages of Pokrovsky, Fedorovsky, Marksstadt, Krasnokutsky and a number of other cantons were famine due to the fact that almost the entire harvest was handed over to the state [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The bodies of the Prosecutor General's Office of the ASSR NP reported to the regional committee on the facts of swelling from hunger, exhaustion, eating garbage, corpses of dead sick animals in these villages [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In turn, the Regional Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (b) of the Republic of Germans of the Volga Region reported to Moscow that


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In connection with the famine, peasants performed in some villages, which were diverse.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Residents of some villages came out with banners of approximate content “Welcome the Soviet authorities, please do not refuse bread to the hungry population”, other collective farmers attacked carts with food; barns were broken and bread was taken out without permission [10] [12].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Absenteeism was also widely and widely practiced as a way of protest [10] [13].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In many villages of the German Republic at that time, secret informants of the OGPU recorded “anti-Soviet rebel conversations” [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By the summer of 1932, famine was already clearly felt in the cities and most villages of the German Republic.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Fleeing from hunger, people were forced to take away bread that had not yet ripened in the fields [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Due to the nature of the process for the entire USSR [10], on August 7, 1932, the government issued a special law on the protection of public property, which provided for penalties before execution even for minor theft of grain, popularly called the “law on five spikelets”.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On the basis of this law, according to archival documents, 474 people were convicted in the Republic of Germans of the Volga Region from August 7 to December 1, of which 32 were sentenced to death, and 325 to 10 years in prison [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

A significant number of convicts were women who stole grain from the fields to feed their hungry children [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In the autumn of 1932, the bulk of bread was once again exported from the Republic of Germany for grain procurement, while the collective farmers got almost nothing.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Second Secretary of the Regional Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (b) of the ASSR Pavlov, speaking at the plenary session of the regional party committee in the fall of 1932, frankly said:


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

This recognition clearly confirms the fact that in the winter of 1932—1933, the peasantry of the USSR itself was left without means of subsistence [10], that is, it was deliberately doomed to starvation [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Mortality from hunger was clearly political in nature.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

First of all, individuals deliberately left without means of subsistence, families of the repressed, that is, “enemies of Soviet power” died out [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

However, the fact of the death of “drummers of labor” loyal to the regime indicates that the hunger has grown to such a extent that the leadership at all levels lost control over the situation [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Parcels from “kulak” relatives sent earlier to Kazakhstan and Siberia with food and money transfers did not reach the addressees [10] due to the OGPU's prevention of assistance from “class hostile elements ” [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In the coming 1933, cases of attempts to board wagons with grain by hungry women and children became more frequent; as a rule, these precedents were brutally suppressed by police squads and OGPU units [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

However, at the very height of the famine of 1933, the Republic of Germans of the Volga region had to fulfill the export supply plan [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

That year, several thousand tons of grain, 29.6 tons of bacon, 40.2 tons of butter, 2.7 wagons of beaten poultry, 71 tons of black currant, etc. were exported from the republic [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

One of the ways to escape from hunger was the mass exodus of peasants from their homes, from collective farms to cities and construction sites.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The flight of peasants from the village began in 1930, and in subsequent years rapidly intensified, reaching more than 100 thousand people in 1933 [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The table below shows the mortality rate (people) in the Republic of Volga Germans by the years of collectivization and famine of 1931—1933 [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

It is quite clear from the above data that with the completion of the NEP and the deployment of collectivization, which caused serious social upheavals, a steady increase in mortality of the population began, which reached its peak in 1933.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Quite often there were cases of cannibalism, killing of one's own babies for the purpose of cannibalism, etc.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Since September 1933, collective farms that completed the implementation of the grain delivery plan (significantly reduced compared to 1932) for all types of tasks that created seed, insurance and feed funds were allowed distribute the remaining grain among collective farmers [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the same time, it was ordered to follow Comrade Stalin's instruction to make collective farms Bolshevik, and collective farmers wealthy [10] and accompany the distribution of income between collective farmers with mass celebrations [10]


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In the autumn of 1933, the Republic of Germans of the Volga region and German districts in other regions of the country completed the implementation of the state plan for the new grain procurement system earlier than ever; the party bodies it is mandatory to provide peasant families with bread and fodder [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the same time, the initiative of local authorities to create additional funds and adopt counter increased plans for grain procurement was strictly prohibited [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In November-December 1933, the party and Soviet leadership of the country provided assistance to a number of cantons of the ASSR NP [14] with fodder to feed weakened cattle, which to some extent contributed to the preservation livestock in the winter months of 1933—1934 [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

All the above measures have led to a gradual overcoming of the negative consequences of famine in German places [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Thus, according to archival data, in the Republic of Germans of the Volga region, the number of deaths in November 1933 decreased to the indicators that existed in prosperous years, although in October of the same year, mortality the republic exceeded this figure by almost 1.5 times [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

However, all this was accompanied by a drop in consumption; malnutrition among the German population of the USSR continued for a number of years [10].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Repressions of the 1930s


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

As relations between the USSR and Germany worsened, the attitude towards the Soviet Germans also deteriorated.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In 1935-1936, more than two hundred thousand Germans were evicted from the border zone in Ukraine to Kazakhstan [15] [16].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In 1937-1938. The NKVD carried out the so-called “German operation”.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to the order of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of the USSR No. 00439 of July 25, 1937, all Germans who worked at defense industry enterprises (or have defense workshops) had to be arrested.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On July 30, arrests and dismissals began, and in the fall of 1937 began a mass operation.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

With the greatest force, it affected the border zones and the environment of the capital cities; the ASSR itself suffered disproportionately poorly.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to the directive of the People's Commissar of Defense of the USSR 200sh, all Germans, including representatives of all nationalities that are not part of the Soviet Union, were dismissed from the army (some were later restored) [17].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the end of the 1930s, outside the ASSR of the NP, all national-territorial entities - German national village councils and districts - were closed, and schools teaching in their native German were translated into russian.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Deportation of Volga Germans


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After the issuance of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR “On the Resettlement of Germans Living in the Volga Region” of August 28, 1941, the Autonomous Republic of Volga Germans was liquidated and total deportation of Germans from the ASSR.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

For this purpose, in advance (according to the recollections of residents of the ASSR NP, on August 26), NKVD troops were introduced into the territory of the ASSR


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The Germans were ordered to prepare for resettlement within 24 hours and arrive at the collection points with a limited amount of their property.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

German residents of the republic were taken to remote areas of Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to this decree, 446,480 [18] Soviet Germans were deported in September-October 1941 (according to other sources, 438,280 [19]).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In September 1941, many persons liable for military service of German nationality were sent from the front to the rear units.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In the following months, the deportation affected almost the entire German population living in European Russia and Transcaucasia, not occupied by the Wehrmacht [20] [21].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The resettlement of the Germans was carried out gradually and was completed by May 1942.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In total, up to 950,000 Germans were resettled during the war [22].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

367,000 Germans were deported to the east (two days were given for the training): to the Komi Republic, to the Urals, to Kazakhstan, Siberia and Altai.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

An attempt to create autonomy in 1979


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In June 1979, a proposal arose to create a new Autonomous German Republic in Kazakhstan, with Yermentau as its capital.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The purpose of this proposal to the authorities was to raise the issue of the current conditions for the existence of the Volga Germans.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At that time, about 936,000 ethnic Germans lived in Kazakhstan, and they were the third largest ethnic group in the republic, after Kazakhs and Russians.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On June 16, 1979, a demonstration against this proposal took to the streets in Tselinograd.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

As a result of these protests, fearing a negative reaction from the ethnic majority of the republic, as well as fearing the creation of a precedent (also at that time there was a possibility of similar trends among the Uighurs), the Central Committee of the CPSU rejected the proposal to create autonomy for the Volga Germans in Kazakhstan.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The current situation


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The Volga Germans failed to return to the Volga region in the amount in which they were taken from there by the Soviet authorities.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

They haven't been allowed to settle there for decades.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After the war, many Volga Germans stayed in the region where they were distributed by the NKVD at the time of deportation — the Urals, Siberia, Kazakhstan (178,400 people in 2009 — 1.07% [23] of the total population modern Kazakhstan — self-determine as Germans), Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan (about 16 thousand — 0.064% of the country's population).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

After a long period of persecution, the Germans restored their lives to their new places of residence, their numbers grew naturally, and they managed to preserve their unique cultural identity, its own cultural traditions.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Decades after the war, some of them increasingly raised the issue of resettlement back to where the Autonomy of the Volga Germans previously existed.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

However, in the places of their former residence, the IDPs themselves met with a tough rebuff from the population, who had invaded their old homes by the same Stalinist regime at the same time and occupied their native lands.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The collapse of the USSR and migration


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Since the late 1980s and the fall of the communist regime in the USSR, some ethnic Germans in small numbers (relative to the entire population of the city) returned to the city of Engels, but a much larger number emigrated to Germany.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The majority who left used the German Law of Return, a legislative document that allows immediate German citizenship to those who would be able to prove their refugee status or repatriate with German national roots, or is a descendant of such a citizen of a country.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

This resettlement took place despite the fact that many Volga Germans by that time already spoke German very poorly or did not speak the language at all.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In October 1991, the First Congress of Germans of the USSR, which had previously been repeatedly postponed by the authorities, took place, on which hopes were pinned on resolving the issue of resettling Germans back to the Volga region, as well as compensation Pereslenki people who suffered during the deportation, but in fact the delegates to the congress did not have any opportunity to solve the problems that arose.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

[24] The symbolic “result” of the forum was the signing in November of the same year between Kohl and Yeltsin of a formal statement on mutual support for the Germans resettled in the Soviet Union and not preventing them from leaving from the country.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Yeltsin himself did not attend the congress [25]


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Since the Baltic states gained independence, many ethnic Russian Germans have begun to return to Kaliningrad Oblast (formerly part of East Prussia) for permanent residence; this process has become particularly widespread among Volga Germans from the Siberian parts of Russia and from Kazakhstan.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

This movement only increased after Germany suspended the widespread practice of granting the right to free return and acquisition of citizenship to persons of German nationality from countries of the former Soviet Union.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At the time of the All-Russian census of 2002, 8,340 Germans lived on the territory of the Kaliningrad region, which is 0.87% of the total population of the region.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

By the end of the 1990s, Germany had made it more difficult to grant citizenship to descendants of ethnic Germans, especially those who did not speak the Volga dialect of German.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

A number of German families who had previously immigrated to Germany have moved to a number of other places, such as the Canadian province of Manitoba (Steinbach), where they are now formed the world's largest ethnic German Mennonite habitat [26].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to the 1989 census of the USSR, 2,038,603 Germans lived in the USSR, including 842,295 people in the RSFSR and 957,518 in the Kazakh SSR [27].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to the All-Russian Population Census of 2002, 597,212 Germans lived in Russia [28].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

According to the 2010 All-Russian Population Census, 394,138 Germans and four Mennonite Germans lived in Russia [29].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Customs


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The remarkable customs of the Volga Germans include the so-called.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

“wedding of the dead” (German: Totenhochzeit).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The peculiarity of this funeral ceremony was that dead babies and girls were considered future angels, “brides of the Lord”, so they were buried in wedding dresses.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Such ceremonies were considered solemn and devoid of mourning entourage [30].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The dead were buried naked and the open expression of grief was condemned [31].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

In addition to general Christian holidays, the Volga Germans, like other Germans, celebrated the Harvest Festival in October.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

At Easter, it was believed that the Easter bunny brings sweets to children [32].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Christmas was celebrated by more religious people.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The house was decorated with a Christmas tree and services were held, where, in addition to reading the Bible and preaching, poems were read in the form of questions and answers related to Christmas that evening (December 24).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Children were given sweets and fruits for reading the rhyme.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Volga German cuisine


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Among the features of the cuisine of the Volga Germans are chicken noodle soup, dumplings, schnitzel, mashed potatoes, sausages.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Strudel or sweet croutons are popular among desserts [33] with coffee (or its imitation) [34].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On holidays, goose with stewed cabbage was often cooked [35].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Volga German clothes


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

The traditional women's clothing of the Volga Germans was a white shirt, a blue skirt, an apron apron, a laced corsage bra and a cap.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Men's clothing consisted of a white shirt with a turn-down collar, a vest, tight knee-length trousers, a jacket (blue half-caftan) and buckle shoes (or boots).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

On the head is a black wide-brimmed hat [36] or cap [37].


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Filmography


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Refugees (German: Flüchtlinge) is a German propaganda film of 1933


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Literature


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Traditional culture and confessionality of the Volga Germans//“Staraya Sarepta” and the peoples of the Volga region in the history of Russia (Proceedings of the conference of the II Sarepta meetings).


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

A collection of abstracts.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

— Volgograd: VolSU, 1997.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Toman I.B.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

From the history of the secondary school of the ASSR Germans of the Volga region//School and the world of culture of ethnic groups.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Vol. 2.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

M., 1995.


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Notes


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

References


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

“” is a popular science historical site (in Russian)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

(in English)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

(in English)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

(in English)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

(in English)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

(in English)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

(in English)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Category:Russian Germans


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Category:Volga Germans


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Category:Peoples of Russia


Question: To which country were the Volga Germans deported?

Volga Germans

Category:National minorities


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

A cell is a structural and functional elementary unit of the structure and vital activity of all organisms (except viruses and viroids - forms of life that do not have a cellular structure).


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

It has its own metabolism, is capable of self-reproduction.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

An organism consisting of one cell is called a unicellular organism (many protozoa and bacteria).


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

The branch of biology that studies the structure and vital functions of cells is called cytology.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

It is also common to talk about cell biology, or cell biology.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Discovery history


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

The first person to see the cells was the English scientist Robert Hooke (known for the discovery of Hooke's Law).


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

In 1665, while trying to understand why the cork tree floats well, Hooke began to look at thin sections of the cork with the help of a microscope he had improved.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

He discovered that the cork was divided into many tiny cells that reminded him of honeycombs in honey bee hives, and he called these cells cells cells (cell means “cell, cell” in English).


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

In 1675, the Italian physician Marcello Malpighi confirmed the cellular structure of plants, and in 1681, the English botanist Nehemia Grew.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

They began to talk about the cell as a “bubble filled with nutritious juice.”


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

In 1674, Dutch master Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, using a microscope, first saw “animals” in a drop of water — moving living organisms (ciliates, amoebas, bacteria).


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Levenhoek also observed animal cells for the first time — red blood cells and spermatozoa.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Thus, by the beginning of the 18th century, scientists knew that plants had a cellular structure under high magnification, and saw some organisms that later became known as unicellular organisms.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

In 1802-1808, the French researcher Charles-Francois Mirbel found that plants consist of tissues formed by cells.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

WELL. B.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Lamarck in 1809 extended Mirbel's idea of cellular structure to animal organisms.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

In 1825, the Czech scientist J.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Purkin discovered the nucleus of an egg of birds, and in 1839 coined the term “protoplasm”.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

In 1831, the English botanist R. Brown first described the nucleus of a plant cell, and in 1833 found that the nucleus is an obligatory organoid of a plant cell.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Since then, the main thing in the organization of cells is not the membrane, but the content.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

Cell theory


Question: What does the cage consist of?

Cage

The cellular theory of the structure of organisms was formed in 1839 by German scientists, zoologist T. Shvanny and botanist M. Schleiden, and included three provisions.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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In 1858, Rudolf Virchow supplemented it with another provision, but there were a number of mistakes in his ideas: for example, he assumed that cells were weakly connected to each other and each existed “on its own.”


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Only later it was possible to prove the integrity of the cellular system.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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In 1878, Russian scientist I. D. Chistyakov discovered mitosis in plant cells; in 1878, V. Flemming and P. AND. Peremezhko detects mitosis in animals.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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In 1882, V. Flemming observed meiosis in animal cells, and in 1888, E.


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Strasburger is in vegetable.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Cell theory is one of the fundamental ideas of modern biology, it has become an irrefutable proof of the unity of all living things and the foundation for the development of disciplines such as embryology, histology and physiology.


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To date, the theory contains the following statements:


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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A cell is an elementary unit of the structure, functioning, reproduction and development of all living organisms, there is no life outside the cell.


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A cell is an integral system containing a large number of elements connected to each other — organelles.


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Cells of different organisms are similar (homologous) in structure and basic properties and have a common origin.


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The increase in the number of cells occurs by dividing them, after their DNA replicates: the cell is from the cell.


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A multicellular organism is a system of a large number of cells combined into systems of tissues and organs interconnected by humoral and nervous regulations.


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Cells of multicellular organisms have the same full fund of the genetic material of this organism, all possible potencies for the manifestation of this material, but differ in the level of expression (work) of individual genes, which leads to their morphological and functional diversity — differentiation [1].


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The number and formulation of individual provisions of modern cell theory may differ from source to source.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Cell research methods


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For the first time, cells were seen only after the creation of optical (light) microscopes.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Since then, microscopy has remained one of the most important methods for studying cells.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Light microscopy, despite its low resolution, made it possible to observe living cells.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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In the 20th century, electron microscopy was invented, which made it possible to study the ultrastructure of cells.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Various biochemical methods are used to study the functions of cells and their parts, both preparative, for example, fractionation by differential centrifugation, and analytical.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Cell engineering methods are used for experimental and practical purposes.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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All of these methodological approaches can be used in combination with cell culture methods.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Optical microscopy


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In an optical microscope, the magnification of an object is achieved by a series of lenses through which light passes.


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The maximum magnification is more than 1000 times.


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Resolution is also an important characteristic — the distance between two points that are still recognized separately.


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The resolution characterizes the clarity of the image.


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This value is limited by the wavelength of the light, and even with the shortest wavelength light, ultraviolet light, it is possible to achieve a resolution of only about 200 nm; this resolution was obtained back in the late 19th century.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The smallest structures that can be observed under an optical microscope are mitochondria and bacteria.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Their linear size is approximately 500 nm.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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However, objects smaller than 200 nm are visible in a light microscope if they emit light themselves.


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This feature is used in fluorescence microscopy, when cellular structures or individual proteins bind to special fluorescent proteins or antibodies with fluorescent tags.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The quality of an image obtained with an optical microscope is also affected by contrast — it can be increased using various methods of coloring cells.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Phase-contrast, differential interference-contrast and dark-field microscopy are used to study living cells.


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Confocal microscopes improve the quality of fluorescent images [2] [3].


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Optical microscopy images


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Electron microscopy


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In the 30s of the XX century, an electron microscope was designed, in which a beam of electrons is passed through an object instead of light.


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The theoretical resolution limit for modern electron microscopes is about 0.002 nm, but for practical reasons, only about 2 nm is achieved for biological objects.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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An electron microscope can be used to study the ultrastructure of cells.


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There are two main types of electron microscopy: scanning and transmission.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Scanning (raster) electron microscopy (SEM) is used to study the surface of an object.


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Samples are often covered with a thin film of gold.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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SEM allows you to obtain three-dimensional images.


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Transmission (transmission) electron microscopy (TEM) is used to study the internal structure of a cell.


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An electron beam is passed through an object pretreated with heavy metals that accumulate in certain structures, increasing their electron density.


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Electrons are scattered in areas of the cell with higher electron density, as a result of which these areas appear darker in images [2] [3].


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Cell fractionation


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To establish the functions of individual components of the cell, it is important to isolate them in their pure form, most often this is done using the method of differential centrifugation.


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Methods have been developed that make it possible to obtain pure fractions of any cellular organelles.


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The production of fractions begins with the destruction of the plasmalemma and the formation of a cell homogenate.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The homogenate is sequentially centrifuged at different rates, at the first stage four fractions can be obtained: (1) nuclei and large cell fragments, (2) mitochondria, plastids, lysosomes and peroxisomes, (3) microsomes - bubbles of the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum, (4) ribosomes, proteins and smaller molecules will remain in the supernatant.


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Further differential centrifugation of each of the mixed fractions makes it possible to obtain pure organelle preparations, to which a variety of biochemical and microscopic methods can be applied [1].


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Cell structure


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All cellular forms of life on Earth can be divided into two superkingdoms based on the structure of their constituent cells:


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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prokaryotes (pre-nuclear) - simpler in structure, arose in the process of evolution earlier;


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eukaryotes (nuclear) - more complex, appeared later.


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The cells that make up the human body are eukaryotic.


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Despite the variety of forms, the organization of cells of all living organisms is subject to uniform structural principles.


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The cell contents are separated from the environment by a plasma membrane, or plasmalemma.


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Inside, the cell is filled with a cytoplasm, in which various organelles and cellular inclusions are located, as well as genetic material in the form of a DNA molecule.


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Each of the organelles of the cell performs its own special function, and together they all determine the vital activity of the cell as a whole.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Prokaryotic cell


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Prokaryotes (from Ancient Greek: prr — 'before', 'to' and — 'nucleus') are organisms that do not have, unlike eukaryotes, a formed cell nucleus and other internal membrane organoids (with the exception of flat cisterns in photosynthetic species, for example, cyanobacteria).


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The only large ring (linear in some species) double-stranded DNA molecule that contains the bulk of the genetic material of the cell (the so-called nucleoid) does not form a complex with histone proteins (so-called chromatin).


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Prokaryotes include bacteria, including cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), and archaea.


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The descendants of prokaryotic cells are organelles of eukaryotic cells - mitochondria and plastids.


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The main content of the cell, which fills its entire volume, is a viscous granular cytoplasm.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Eukaryotic cell


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Eukaryotes (eukaryotes, from Ancient Greek: ε' 'good', 'completely' and — 'nucleus') are organisms that, unlike prokaryotes, have a formed cell nucleus delimited from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The genetic material is contained in several linear double-stranded DNA molecules (depending on the type of organisms, their number per nucleus can range from two to several hundred), attached from the inside to the membrane of the cell nucleus and forming in the vast majority (except dinoflagellates) a complex with histone proteins, called chromatin.


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Eukaryote cells have a system of internal membranes that form, in addition to the nucleus, a number of other organoids (endoplasmic network, Golgi apparatus, etc.).


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In addition, the vast majority have permanent intracellular symbionts-prokaryotes - mitochondria, and algae and plants also have plastids.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Prokaryotic cell structure


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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The cells of the two main groups of prokaryotes - bacteria and archaea - are similar in structure, their characteristic features are the absence of a nucleus and membrane organelles.


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The main components of a prokaryotic cell are:


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The cell wall that surrounds the cell from the outside protects it, gives it a stable shape that prevents osmotic destruction.


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In bacteria, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan (murein), built from long polysaccharide chains interconnected by short peptide bridges.


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Two groups of bacteria are distinguished by the structure of the cell wall:


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Gram-positive bacteria (for example, the genera Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Lactobacillus [4]) have a simpler cell wall structure, consisting almost exclusively of murein;


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Gram-negative bacteria (e.g. Salmonella, Escherichia, Azotobacter genera [4]) — the cell wall contains less peptidoglycan and has an additional outer membrane that consists of phospholipids .


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The archaea cell wall does not contain murein, but is built mainly from a variety of proteins and polysaccharides [3].


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The capsule is a mucous membrane found in some bacteria, located outside the cell wall.


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It consists mainly of a variety of proteins, carbohydrates and uronic acids.


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Capsules protect cells from drying out, can help bacteria in colonies hold together, and individual bacteria attach to various substrates.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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In addition, capsules provide the cell with additional protection: for example, encapsulated strains of pneumococci multiply freely in the body and cause inflammation of the lungs, while unencapsulated are quickly destroyed by the immune system and are completely harmless [4].


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Drank or villi are thin hair-like outgrowths that are present on the surface of bacterial cells.


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There are various types of saws, of which the most common are:


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Fimbrias - drank, which serve to attach.


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For example, the causative agent of gonorrhea, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, uses fimbria to retain it on the host's mucosa.


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Sexual drinks (F-drinks) are involved in the process of conjugation in bacteria [3].


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Flagella is the organelles of the movement of some bacteria.


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The bacterial flagellum is much simpler than eukaryotic, and it is 10 times thinner, is not covered by a plasma membrane and consists of identical protein molecules that form a cylinder.


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In the membrane, the flagellum is fixed with the help of the basal body [3].


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Plasma and internal membranes.


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The general principle of the device of cell membranes does not differ from eukaryotes, however, there are many differences in the chemical composition of the membrane, in particular, there are no cholesterol molecules in prokaryote membranes and some lipids inherent in eukaryote membranes.


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Most prokaryotic cells (unlike eukaryotic cells) do not have internal membranes that divide the cytoplasm into separate compartments.


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Only in some photosynthetic and aerobic bacteria plasmalemma forms a bend into the cell, which performs the corresponding metabolic functions [3].


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A nucleoid is a part of the cytoplasm not bounded by membranes, in which the ring DNA molecule, the “bacterial chromosome”, is located, where all the genetic material of the cell is stored [3].


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Plasmids are small additional ring DNA molecules that usually carry only a few genes.


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Plasmids, unlike the bacterial chromosome, are not an obligatory component of the cell.


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They usually give bacteria certain properties that are beneficial to it, such as antibiotic resistance, the ability to absorb certain energy substrates from the environment, the ability to initiate sexual process, etc. [3] [4]


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Prokaryote ribosomes, like all other living organisms, are responsible for the translation process (one of the stages of protein biosynthesis).


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However, bacterial ribosomes are slightly smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (sedimentation coefficients 70S and 80S, respectively), and have a different composition of proteins and RNA.


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Because of this, bacteria, unlike eukaryotes, are sensitive to antibiotics such as erythromycin and tetracycline, which selectively act on 70S ribosomes [4].


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Endospores are structures surrounded by a dense membrane that contain bacterial DNA and ensure survival in adverse conditions.


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Only some types of prokaryotes are capable of endospore formation, for example, representatives of the genus Clostridium (C. tetani is the causative agent of tetanus, C. botulinum is the causative agent of botulism, C. perfringens - the causative agent of gas gangrene, etc.) and Bacillus (in particular B. anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax).


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To form an endospore, the cell replicates its DNA and surrounds the copy with a dense membrane, removing excess water from the created structure, and slows down metabolism in it [3].


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Bacterial spores can withstand rather harsh environmental conditions, such as prolonged drying, boiling, short-wave irradiation, etc.


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The structure of the eukaryotic cell


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Animal cell surface complex


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It consists of glycocalix, plasmalemma and the cortical layer of the cytoplasm located under it.


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The plasma membrane is also called plasmalemma, outer cell membrane, cytolemma, etc. It's about 10 nanometers thick.


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It ensures the separation of the cell and the external environment, as well as the passage of certain substances inside and out.


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The cell does not spend energy to preserve the integrity of its membrane: molecules are held according to the same principle by which fat molecules are held together — the hydrophobic parts of the molecules thermodynamically it is more advantageous to be located in close proximity to each other.


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Glycocalyx is a molecule of oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, glycoproteins and glycolipids “anchored” in the plasmalemma.


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Glycocalyx performs receptor and marker functions.


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The plasma membrane of animal cells mainly consists of phospholipids and lipoproteins with protein molecules interspersed with it, in particular, surface antigens and receptors.


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In the cortical (adjacent to the plasma membrane) layer of the cytoplasm there are specific elements of the cytoskeleton — actin microfilaments ordered in a certain way.


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The main and most important function of the cortical layer (cortex) is pseudopodial reactions: ejection, attachment and contraction of pseudopodia.


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At the same time, microfilaments are rebuilt, lengthened or shortened.


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The shape of the cell (for example, the presence of microvilli) also depends on the structure of the cytoskeleton of the cortical layer.


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Cytoplasm structure


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The liquid component of the cytoplasm is also called cytosol.


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Under a light microscope, it seemed that the cell was filled with something like liquid plasma or sol, in which the nucleus and other organelles “float”.


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In fact, this is not the case.


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The internal space of the eukaryotic cell is strictly ordered.


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The movement of organoids is coordinated with the help of specialized transport systems, the so-called microtubules, which serve as intracellular “roads”, and special proteins of dyneins and kinesins, which play the role of “engines”.


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Individual protein molecules also do not diffuse freely throughout the intracellular space, but are sent to the necessary compartments using special signals on their surface, recognizable transport systems of the cage.


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Ribosomes


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Ribosomes are organoids that a cell needs for protein synthesis.


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Their size is approximately 20—30 nm.


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There are several million of them in the cage.


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Ribosomes are formed from two subunits: large and small, consisting of four RNA molecules and several protein molecules.


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In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm, but also in mitochondria and chloroplasts.


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Ribosomes form in the nucleolus region, and then enter the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores.


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Endoplasmic reticulum


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In the eukaryotic cell, there is a system of intersecting membrane compartments (tubes, sacs and flat cisterns of different sizes) called the endoplasmic reticulum (or endoplasmic network, EPR or EPS).


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That part of the EPR, to the membranes of which ribosomes are attached, is referred to as a granular (or rough) endoplasmic reticulum, and proteins are synthesized on its membranes.


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Those compartments on the walls of which there are no ribosomes are referred to as agranular (or smooth) EPR, which takes part in the synthesis of lipids.


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The inner spaces of the smooth and granular EPS are not isolated, but pass into each other and communicate with the lumen of the nuclear shell.


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Golgi apparatus


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The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flat membrane tanks, slightly expanded closer to the edges.


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Some proteins synthesized on granular EPR membranes and intended for the secretion or formation of lysosomes mature in the tanks of the Golgi apparatus.


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The Golgi apparatus is asymmetrical - tanks located closer to the nucleus of the cell (cis Golgi) contain the least mature proteins, membrane vesicles - vesicles - are continuously attached to these tanks, budding off from the endoplasmic reticulum.


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Apparently, with the help of the same bubbles, the ripening proteins continue to move from one tank to another.


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In the end, bubbles containing fully mature proteins bud off from the opposite end of the organelle (Trans-Golgi).


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kernel


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The cell nucleus contains DNA molecules on which the body's genetic information is recorded.


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In the nucleus, replication takes place — doubling of DNA molecules, as well as transcription — synthesis of RNA molecules on the DNA matrix.


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In the nucleus, the synthesized RNA molecules undergo some modifications (for example, during the splicing process, insignificant, meaningless areas are excluded from messenger RNA molecules), and then go into cytoplasm.


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The assembly of ribosomes also takes place in the nucleus, in special formations called nucleoli.


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The compartment for the nucleus, the karyoteka, is formed due to the expansion and fusion of the cisterns of the endoplasmic network with each other in such a way that the nucleus has formed double walls due to the narrow ones surrounding it compartments of the nuclear envelope.


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The cavity of the nuclear shell is called the lumen or perinuclear space.


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The inner surface of the nuclear shell is underlaid by a nuclear lamine, a rigid protein structure formed by lamine proteins, to which chromosomal DNA strands are attached.


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In some places, the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear membrane merge and form so-called nuclear pores, through which material exchange between the nucleus and the cytoplasm takes place.


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Lysosomes


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Lysosome is a small body, bounded from the cytoplasm by a single membrane and having the form of a vesicle.


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It contains lytic enzymes that can break down almost any natural organic compounds.


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The main function is autolysis — that is, the cleavage of individual organoids, sections of the cell cytoplasm.


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Cytoskeleton


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The elements of the cytoskeleton include protein fibrillar structures located in the cytoplasm of the cell: microtubules, actin and intermediate filaments.


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Microtubules take part in the transport of organelles, are part of the organoids of movement - cilia and flagella, characteristic of some cells (for example, ciliates, spermatozoa), from microtubules a mitotic fission spindle is being built.


Question: What does the cage consist of?

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Actin filaments are necessary to maintain the shape of the cell, pseudopodial reactions.


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The role of intermediate filaments also seems to be to maintain cell structure.


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Cytoskeleton proteins account for several tens of percent of the cellular protein mass.


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Centrioles


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Centrioles are cylindrical protein structures located near the nucleus of animal cells (plants do not have centrioles, with the exception of lower algae).


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The centriole is a cylinder, the lateral surface of which is formed by nine sets of microtubules.


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The number of microtubules in the kit can vary from 1 to 3 for different organisms.


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Around the centrioles there is the so-called center of organization of the cytoskeleton, the area in which the negative ends of the cell microtubules are grouped.


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Before dividing, the cell contains two centrioles located at right angles to each other.


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During mitosis, they diverge to different ends of the cell, forming the poles of the fission spindle.


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After cytokinesis, each daughter cell receives one centriole, which doubles to the next division.


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The doubling of centrioles does not occur by division, but by synthesizing a new structure perpendicular to the existing one.


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Centrioles appear to be homologous to the basal bodies of flagella and cilia.


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Mitochondria


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Mitochondria are special cell organelles whose main function is the synthesis of ATP, a universal energy carrier.


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Breathing (oxygen absorption and carbon dioxide release) also occurs due to mitochondrial enzymatic systems.