Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This inconsistency of the narrative correlates with the ancient opinion that Herodian was biased against Alexander [73].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Perhaps the author prepared the reader for a completely different version of the results of the war than the one that Lampridius presented became official [74].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Lampridius obviously knows about Herodian's version, but rejects it, referring to the emperor's report to the Senate.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In it, Alexander lists the characteristics of the Persian army he defeated [75]:


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

“First of all, seven hundred elephants, they have towers with arrows and a load of arrows. Of these, we captured thirty, two hundred are dead, eighteen we brought here. A thousand eight hundred chariots equipped with sickles. We could bring two hundred chariots here where animals were killed, but since it could have been set up, we thought it unnecessary to do so. We defeated one hundred and twenty thousand of their horsemen — shell horsemen, what they call clibanaria — we killed ten thousand in the war; we armed our own with their weapons. We captured a lot of Persians and sold them. We have reclaimed the interfluve lands (that is, the lands of Mesopotamia) that this filthy monster did not care about.”


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In Rome, Alexander staged a triumph, during which, according to Lampridius, four elephants carried his chariot.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Of the other historians, Latin unanimously agree with Lampridius [76], and Greek writers mostly follow Herodian [77], although Zonara emphasizes that heavy losses were on both sides, and Zosima is silent on this issue. [78]


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As for Alexander himself, he officially called himself the winner on the coins he issued.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The celebration of his triumph is marked on a coin from 233.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Earlier, in 231, the legends of VICTORIA AVGVSTI (Russian: Victory of Augustus) appeared on the coins, although it is impossible to say for sure whether this legend has anything to do with the war [79].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The most definite of all coins is the coin of 233, on which the emperor, crowned with Victory, is depicted between two rivers.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

These rivers are the Tigris and the Euphrates, and although the figures are grotesque and roughly carved, their meaning is quite understandable.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is unlikely that such a rustic emperor would openly claim that he had won a glorious victory if in fact the opposite was true [78].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Similarly, the inscriptions testify to Alexander's success.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In December 232 or January 233, statues of Alexander and Julia Mamea were installed in the Greek colony of Antinople “for their victory and the eternal security of themselves and their homes.”


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In Pannonia, Julius Caninus erected the altar of Hercules “in honor of the safety and return of Emperor Alexander Severus” [78].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Contemporaries' assessments


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As mentioned above, Herodian and Lampridia have different information about the progress of the campaign, but this conflict is not difficult to explain.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The herodian was a contemporary of events and, having more opportunities to study the course of the war, could follow in detail the development of events where later historians were content with generalizations.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

There is no doubt about his story about Alexander's strategy.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The emperor apparently intended to break the enemy forces into parts, dividing his army into three units, but he was outsmarted by a more skillful and agile enemy [80].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Herodian hardly understood that the invasions of the barbarians in the 3rd century were much more destructive than before.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Most likely, the historian's own beliefs did not coincide with the rhetoric he attributed to Makrin in the style of “empire in danger” [81] about the Parthian threat.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The Herodian did not consider the Persians more serious opponents than the Parthians were; his assessments of the motives for their actions were most likely erroneous; he believed that it was only thanks to the fleeing supporters Niger's eastern barbarians “became more stubborn in hand-to-hand battles with the Romans” [82].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The defeat of the Romans is attributed by the historian more to the cowardice and cowardice of Alexander Severus [68] than the unreadiness of the army — after all, even after winning, the Sassanids suffered such losses that for several years they did not took up arms.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

And the enemy army itself, which “is neither orderly nor permanent, but is more of an unorganized crowd of people than an army” [83], according to the Roman historian, did not represent a worthy opponent.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The greatest danger, as the emperor believed at the time, was posed by the Germans due to their proximity to Italy [84].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In general, although Herodian saw his time as a period of significant instability, there is hardly a premonition in his writings of what was later called the “crisis of the third century” [85].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Strategic implications


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The conclusion of a peace treaty as a result of this clash is not known.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

An indirect sign that Roman Mesopotamia belonged to the Romans by at least 232 is, according to the opinion (with reference to the Chronicle of George Sinkell), information about the construction of a road between Singara and Carrami [86].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is further known that in 235, the year of the death of Alexander Severus, the Roman garrison was in Hatra, until the city was captured by Shapur I in 240 [86].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Sinkell also reports that Nisibis and Karrs were captured by the Persians under Maximin (235—238) [86], although 239] is more likely to resume the war.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, this time the status quo was restored, and although this first military confrontation did not bring a decisive victory to one side, in the West, the fact that the Persian advance was stopped, was seen by the Romans as an important achievement.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Perhaps the lack of clear strategic results of the campaign was due to the urgent need to take measures against the increased activity of the Germans on the Rhine and Danube borders.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Upon learning of this in Antioch, Alexander transferred part of his Mesopotamian army to [note 2], which he and his mother chose as their residence.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, instead of fighting the enemy and winning, as expected by the troops, the emperor chose to negotiate with the barbarians and achieve peace by paying tribute.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The discontent of the army led to the fact that in the spring of 235 Alexander Sever and Yulia Mameya were killed [87].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

comments


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Notes


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Literature


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Sources


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Herodian.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

/Per. A. AND. Dovatura (books 1, 2), N. M. Botvinnik (book 3), A. K. Gavrilova (book 4), V. S. Durova (book 5), Yu.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

K. Poplinsky (book 6), M. IN. Skrzhinskaya (book 7), N. IN. Shebalina (book 8), ed.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

A. AND. Dovatura.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Article by A. AND. Dovatura.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

//Herald of Ancient History.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

No. 1 — 1973.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

No. 1.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Reissue: Comm.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

M. F. Tall.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Otv.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

ed.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

L. P. Marinovich.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

(Classics of Antiquity and the Middle Ages series).


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

M., Rosspan.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

272 p. 3000 copies


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

explorations


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

in english


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

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Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

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Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


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Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

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Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

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Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

in german


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

in Russian


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

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Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Category:Roman-Persian Wars


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Category:3rd-century wars


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Emanuel Lasker (German: Emanuel Lasker, often written in Russian sources as Emanuel; December 24, 1868 — January 11, 1941) was a German chess player and mathematician, representative of the positional school, second world chess champion (1894—1921).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker retained the title of world champion for twenty-seven years, a record achievement for chess, and continued to perform at the highest level until the age of 68.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker had a versatile style of play, but his greatest strengths were positional flair and endgame.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Many biographers and researchers call Lasker the pioneer of the psychological approach to chess: it is believed that Lasker was often ready to deteriorate his position in order to direct the game to an inconvenient channel for a particular enemy.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

This point of view is still popular today, although some experts consider it a misconception and explain Lasker's achievements by a deep understanding of chess and the ability to assess the pros and cons of a particular continuation party.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Throughout his chess career, Lasker repeatedly stopped playing for several years to study mathematics and philosophy.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker defended his doctoral dissertation in mathematics in 1901, and his main achievement in mathematics was a theorem named after him and Emmy Noether, summarizing Lasker's original result.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In addition, Lasker has published several philosophical works and literary works.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Biography


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Youth and Career Beginning


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker was born on December 24, 1868 in the Prussian city of Berlinchen (now Barlinek, Poland) to a Jewish family, his father was a synagogue cantor and his grandfather was a rabbi [1] [2].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the age of 11, Emanuel moved to Berlin to live with his older brother Berthold to study mathematics.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Berthold, a strong chess player himself, taught Emanuel how to play, and then he began to improve on his own according to Dufreni's popular textbook [3].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker later started making money by betting in a cafe [2] [4].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1888, he graduated from high school and entered the Mathematics Department of the University of Berlin [1].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1889, Lasker won the tournament in Berlin and the side tournament of the 6th Congress of the German Chess Association in Breslau (present-day Wroclaw), and also took second place in Amsterdam behind Bern, but ahead Gunsberg and Mazon [5] [6] [7].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In Amsterdam, Lasker won the famous game against Bauer, using a combination later named for this game, when White destroyed the shelter of the black king as a victim of both elephants.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Returning to Berlin, Lasker won matches against Kurt von Bardeleben (+2 −1 =1) and Jacques Mises (+5 −0 =3), then played Bird (+7 −2 =3) and English (+2 −0 =3) in London [8].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker moved to Great Britain in 1891.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The following year, he won two tournaments in London with the participation of the strongest British chess players and matches against J.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Blackburn (+6 −0 =4) and Bird (+5 −0 =0) [8] [9].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the end of 1892, Lasker challenged Sigbert Tarras, one of the strongest players in the world, who had just won the tournament in Dresden.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Tarras refused, saying that he was ready to play with Lasker no earlier than he won a major international tournament [9] [10].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

After that, Lasker went on tour to the United States; during 1893, he finished first in the Masters Tournament in New York, winning all 13 games and beating Albin by 4½ points [11], and defeated J.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Shovalter with a score of 7:3 (+6 −2 =2) [8].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Winning a title


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Successful performances allowed Lasker to call Wilhelm Steinitz to the match for the World Championship.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The match took place from March 15 to May 26, 1894 in New York, Philadelphia, and Montreal, winning the first to win ten games.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

After the first six games, the score was equal (two victories for each side), and the turning point was the seventh game, which Lasker won in a double-edged struggle [8].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

He then won four more victories in a row, and scored the decisive point in the 19th game.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In general, winning the championship was unexpectedly easy for Lasker [4].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Many contemporaries believed that Steinitz's age played an important role (he was already 58 years old), and Steinitz himself complained of insomnia that tormented him [2] [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

However, according to Kramnik, Lasker won because Steinitz understood chess much deeper and was generally ahead of his time in this [12].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

World champion


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Subsequent performances in the competition confirmed the high class of Lasker's performance.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the Hasting tournament (1895) with the participation of Steinitz, M. Chigorin, Blackburn and other famous players Lasker finished third, despite the fact that he did not fully recover from his recent typhoid fever [2] [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker was in the lead three rounds before the end, but the end of the tournament was heavily played by young Harry Pilsbury, who became the first, and Lasker, who lost to Tarrash, fell to third place (the second was left for Chigorin) [13].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In St. Petersburg (1895—1896), Lasker won a quadruple tournament in 6 rounds (Lasker, Steinitz, Pilsbury and Chigorin participated), and in Nuremberg he won a tournament with the participation of Steinitz and 18 other chess players, including of all major contenders for the title of world champion.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In November 1896 — January 1897, a rematch against Steinitz took place in Moscow, which ended in a confident victory for Lasker (+10 −2 =5).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the next tournament (Paris, 1900), Lasker won with a very strong squad with a score of 14½ out of 16.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Pillsbury was second, two points behind, with Marshall and Maroci sharing third and fourth places.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

After the Paris tournament, Lasker returned to the University of Erlangen to complete his education.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1902, he defended his doctoral dissertation [14].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker continued to compete in tournaments only in 1904 — in Cambridge Springs (USA), he lost two games at the start and eventually shared second place with Yanovsky, and that was only thanks to a face-to-face victory in last round [13].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The tournament was won by American chess player Frank Marshall, for whom this victory was the highest achievement.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker also began publishing Lasker's Chess Magazine in 1904.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The issues were published every six months, the last (double eighth and ninth) - in January 1909.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1902, Lasker met Martha Kohn, nee Bamberger, wife of Emil Kohn, the owner of the musical instrument factory, in Berlin.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Martha came from a dynasty of bankers of Jewish origin, and on her mother's side was the granddaughter of composer Giacomo Meyerbeer.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Emanuel and Marta immediately became sympathetic to each other, but Marta did not want to leave her husband, who was seriously ill.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

It was not until 1911, when Emile Cohn died, that Martha married Lasker [15] [16].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

They lived together all their lives, Marta followed her husband, took care of him, and was constantly present at competitions.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Between 1907 and 1910, Lasker defended his world title five times.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

After winning Cambridge Springs, Marshall called Lasker to the match, but the champion set financial conditions that Marshall could not fulfill at the time [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The match took place in the United States only in early 1907.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

To win, it was necessary to score eight points first without taking into account draws, Lasker won by an overwhelming margin of +8 −0 =7.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The following year, Lasker played Tarrasch under the same conditions and won convincingly again: after the seventh game, the winning score was 5-1, and Lasker took the eighth point in the sixteenth (total score +8 -3 =5).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1909, a 10-game match took place between Lasker and Yanovsky, over the status of which there are disputes [17].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker won seven games with one defeat and two draws.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the beginning of 1910, a match took place against Austrian chess player Karl Schlechter.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

According to the preconditions, the match was supposed to consist of 30 games and Schlechter needed a two-point lead to win [8] [18].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Due to financial difficulties, the number of games was reduced to ten, so some researchers consider the match not a title match, but a series of exhibition games [19].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Schlechter won the fifth game, eight more ended in a draw, and in the last game Schlechter, having won the position, lost both the victory and the draw [20].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the same year, there was a second best-of-eight match against Yanovsky, which was won by Lasker even more convincingly — in just 11 games and without defeat.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Later, Lasker's biographers repeatedly expressed regret that with the large number of matches played by Lasker, his rivals did not become two of his most outstanding contemporaries, Pillsbury and Rubinstein [21] [22].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Also in 1909, Lasker and Rubinstein shared first place at the Chigorin Memorial Tournament in St. Petersburg, scoring 14½ points out of 18.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Spielman took the third place with 11 points, followed by Duras, Teichman, Schlechter and a number of other chess players [23].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the same time, Lasker, who lost two games (Rubinstein and Duz-Khotimirsky), caught up with Rubinstein only in the last round thanks to the victory over Teichman [24].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

When twenty-three-year-old Cuban Jose Raúl Capablanca won his first tournament in Europe in San Sebastian (1911), ahead of almost all the strongest chess players of his time, negotiations began his match against Lasker.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker set a condition that the challenger must win by at least two points, which Capablanca did not agree to [25].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In further correspondence, Capablanca described one of Lasker's conditions as “obviously unfair”, after which Lasker stopped negotiations and demanded through the press apologies [26] [27].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The feud between Capablanca and Lasker continued until the St. Petersburg tournament [26].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

One of Lasker's biggest tournament successes was his victory at the St. Petersburg International Tournament in 1914, which was Lasker's only competition in the past five years [2].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In addition to Lasker, ten chess players took part in it, including the two main contenders for the match for the World Championship — Jose Raúl Capablanca and Akiba Rubinstein [8].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Capablanca won the preliminary round, beating Lasker by half a point, but in the two-round final round, which included the top five chess players, Lasker scored against Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall 7 out of 8 (six wins and two draws).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

As a result, Lasker was half a point ahead of the Cuban on the aggregate of two rounds.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The victory over Capablanca in the endgame in the bargaining version of the Spanish game is considered one of Lasker's main creative successes [12] [28].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

On the eve of the First World War, negotiations were held for a match between Lasker and Rubinstein, but the war put an end to these plans [5] [8].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker lived in Berlin during the war.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

During this period, he played a six-game match against Tarras (1916) and won a two-round mini-tournament with Tarras, Rubinstein and Schlechter (1918) [29].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The match against Capablanca and the loss of the title


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Negotiations between Lasker and Capablanca, which resumed after the First World War, ended with the signing of an agreement in The Hague on January 23, 1920. [30]


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The match was scheduled for 1921, but Lasker published a letter to the press in June informing him that he voluntarily renounced the title in favor of Capablanca, as the chess world did not support the conditions for whom Lasker agreed to defend the title [30] [31].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

However, Capablanca and the public insisted on the match, and a new agreement was concluded on August 10, according to which a match for most of the 24 games was to take place in Havana in early 1921.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the same time, the agreement stipulated that Capablanca is the world champion at the start of the match [30] [32].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The match took place from March 15 to April 28, 1921.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The first four games ended in a draw, Capablanca won the fifth, then he won the tenth, eleventh and fourteenth games, and ten more ended in a draw.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

After the fourteenth game, lost by a rough yawn, Lasker passed the match ahead of schedule.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Despite the fact that Capablanca played the match as world champion under the terms of the agreement, after the match he was declared the “new world champion” [30] and it is generally believed that the title passed to Cuban only after the match in Havana.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The sports value of the match is assessed differently


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Euwe and Prince call Lasker's game very weak, noting the unsuitable tropical climate for him and the general reluctance to play [33].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the same time, Kramnik believed that, with the exception of the last game, the match as a whole was at a very high level, just Capablanca was younger and stronger [12].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In total, Lasker held the title of champion for 26 years and 337 days, which is an absolute record in the history of chess.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Ex-champion


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Despite losing to Capablanca, Lasker continued to perform successfully in competitions.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1923, he won the tournament in Ostrava without defeat (1923), ahead of a number of strong chess players, including Reti, Bogolyubov and young Euwe [34].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

A year later, he won in New York, where Lasker immediately took the lead and won the first round with a score of 7½ out of 10, confidently ahead of Capablanca.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Despite losing to the Cuban in the second round, Lasker retained the first place, while winning all other micromatches [35] [36].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the First Moscow International Tournament (1925), Lasker fought for leadership with Bogolyubov.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the 12th round, Lasker won a position against Torre, but then made a mistake several times and allowed his opponent to make a spectacular winning combination with the queen's victim, known as the “mill”.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

This is often explained by the fact that during the part Lasker received a telegram informing him that his philosophical play “This Story About Man” together with his brother Berthold was accepted for production by one from Berlin theaters [37] [38].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The play was not a success, and it is currently not highly rated by critics [39].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker played poorly in the second half of the tournament, losing to Levenfish after the game with Torre, and later drew several draws with the underdogs.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

However, this did not prevent him from winning second prize and scoring half a point more than Capablanca.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1927, the organizers did not invite Lasker to the tournament in New York.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Since the tournament was considered by many as a competition between the strongest chess players in the world for the right to match the champion Capablanca, Lasker took it as an insult and stopped participating in tournaments [40] [41].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1933, Lasker and his wife were forced to leave Germany due to the establishment of a Nazi dictatorship there and the launch of a campaign to persecute Jews.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

After moving to Great Britain [8], Lasker resumed his participation in the competition in 1934 after a long break, finishing fifth in the Zurich tournament (Alekhine won the tournament).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1935, Lasker took third place in the Moscow International Tournament, half a point behind Botvinnik and Flor, but ahead of Capablanca.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker's speech, who at the age of sixty-six did not lose any of the 19 games (+6 −0 =13) [42], while winning a beautiful victory in person with Capablanca, was called a “biological miracle” by the newspapers [ 43].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In August of the same year, at the invitation of the People's Commissar of Justice and organizer of chess tournaments Nikolai Krylenko, Laskers settled in the USSR.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker received a position at the Mathematical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, covered the match between Alekhin and Euwe in Holland as a correspondent for Sovetsky Sport and represented the Soviet Union in competitions [1] [3] [ 39].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1936, he played in two tournaments: in Moscow he was sixth, and in the Nottingham tournament he shared 7-8 places, where he took a place below Capablanca in the final table for the only time.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker played his last tournament game in Nottingham against K. Alexander [44].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1937, the Laskers went to the United States to see relatives, in particular Martha's daughter Lotta.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

They spent some time in Chicago, then moved to New York with his wife's relatives.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

According to one version, the trip was planned as temporary, all Laskerov's belongings remained in a Moscow apartment, and even return tickets to Moscow were bought [45].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

On the other hand, the Laskers took everything with them except furniture, clearly not going to return [46].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

One way or another, the couple did not return to the USSR again.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Martha fell ill in America, and doctors categorically forbade her to go on a long journey.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

There is an opinion that the Laskers decided not to return, fearing a wave of repression that rose in the USSR, one of the victims of which was Krylenko [39].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

However, it is known that when applying for a residence permit in the Soviet Union, Lasker from the very beginning indicated the period of stay in the USSR “about two years” in order to complete scientific work, for which he needed mathematical literature available in Soviet libraries.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

So the trip could simply be the implementation of the original plans [46].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Recent years


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the United States, Lasker made a living by playing simultaneous games, lectures and playing bridge [2] [39].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

For example, during his stay in Chicago in 1938, Lasker played a number of games at the newly opened local chess club named after him, including two simultaneous games (with results +21 −1 =5 and +23 −0 =2), and two consulting games in which the Chicago masters played against him (Lasker won both).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In May 1940, he began an exhibition match against Marshall, but after the second game (+0 −1 =1) he stopped the match due to health problems.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the first days of 1941, Lasker fell seriously ill with a kidney infection and was admitted to Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, where he died on January 11, 1941.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker was buried at Beth Olom Cemetery in Queens [47] and the farewell ceremony was attended by about 200 people, including Fine and Ed.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker [48].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Contribution and impact


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Most researchers who studied Lasker's work noted that Lasker was the first world-famous chess player to attach importance to psychological factors.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

According to Botvinnik, he “always assessed the position from a practical point of view and tried to create a situation on the board in which the partner would feel insecure” [49].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Even at the cost of weakening its position or losing material, “directing the party directly to the abyss” (R. Reti), Lasker created a situation that was inconvenient for this particular opponent due to his personal psychological characteristics and his inherent style of play.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Thus, he deprived opponents of the opportunity to approach its assessment in a standard way, thereby making them make mistakes [50].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker's biographer B.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Weinstein explains this by Lasker's ethical philosophy, according to which decisive initiative actions are required to change the situation on the board, often expressed in weakening one's own position [51].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the same time, some modern chess players challenge the conclusions about a special psychological approach.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Vladimir Kramnik believed that Lasker's strength was in a deep understanding of his position, the ability to allow weakening in one place in order to gain an advantage in another [12].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker was a very versatile, almost versatile player, equally skillful at middlegame and endgame, strong in both positional and combination games [52] [53].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

According to Capablanca, he “never adhered to a type of game that could be classified as a particular style” [54] [55].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Weinstein identified three principles on which Lasker, who developed Steinitz's teachings, built a positional game: acting according to plan, forming weaknesses in the enemy's camp, avoiding weaknesses, especially long-term, in its own position [52].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker also developed the doctrine of combination.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

According to Lasker, the combination always follows from the logic of the previous game, and does not appear on the board by chance.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Thus, in order for the prerequisites for the combination to appear (the motive of the combination), one of the parties must gain an advantage.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

On the contrary, a successful combination is evidence that one of the parties has achieved such an advantage [56].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker repeatedly successfully sacrificed the queen, taking in return the opponent's rook, bishop and pawn, as a result of which such a positional sacrifice was called “Lasker compensation” [57].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker paid less attention than other aspects of chess to his debut, preferring simple reliable positions [58].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

However, one of the sequels in the queen's gambit is named after him, and defending for black in Evans's gambit took this debut out of use for decades [53] [59].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker wrote several chess textbooks, the most famous of which is the German Chess Textbook (German: Lehrbuch des Schachspiels, 1925), which has undergone many publications (including in Russian).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

M. Shibut rated it as “the most philosophical chess book ever written” [60].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

During his life in the USSR, Lasker published the novel “How Victor Became a Chess Master” [61].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker is known for his consistent struggle for decent payment for the performances of chess players.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

While most of his contemporaries did not perceive chess as a full-fledged profession capable of ensuring a comfortable existence, Lasker believed that a chess player should be able not to combine chess with some other activity [62].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

He regularly set increased fees as a condition for his participation in a tournament or match, and also advocated the protection of the copyright of chess players in games.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The idea of a chess player's exclusive rights to the game has been known since the middle of the 19th century, but Lasker was one of its most active supporters.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

He has repeatedly insisted on including a condition on the right to publish the game in the match agreements, including declaring himself the sole copyright holder [63].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker explained his demands by the fact that he was shocked by the poverty in which Steinitz, Zuckertort, Mackenzie and some other chess players died [62].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Mathematical works


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Chess wasn't Lasker's only hobby.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

His parents, noting his intellectual abilities, especially mathematics, sent teenager Emanuel to study in Berlin (where he also discovered his talent for chess).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker graduated from high school in Landsberg an der Warth, Prussian and then continued his studies in mathematics and philosophy at the universities of Berlin, Göttingen and Heidelberg [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1895, Lasker published two articles on mathematics in Nature [64].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

On the advice of David Hilbert, he enrolled in postgraduate studies at the University of Erlangen (1900—1902) [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1901, he presented in Erlangen his dissertation Über Reihen auf der Convergenzgrenze (On Rows at the Boundary of Convergence), written under the direction of Max Noether, and in the same year it was published by the Royal Society [65].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker received his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1902 [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

His most famous mathematical work, which he published in 1905, proved for rings of polynomials an analogue of decomposition into prime factors: the existence of primary decomposition, that is, decomposition of an arbitrary ideal into the intersection of a finite number of primars.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

This theorem was later generalized by Emmy Noether (daughter of Max Noether) for the case of arbitrary commutative Noether rings and was called the Lasker-Noether theorem [66] [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker was mainly engaged in science on his own and did not have academic positions [39].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1893, he briefly taught a course on differential equations at Tulane University in New Orleans [5], and in 1901 he lectured at Manchester Victoria University (one of the predecessors modern Manchester University) [67].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In 1906, Lasker published the brochure “Struggle” (Kampf), in which he offered his vision of game theory, extending it to various areas of human activity, in particular economics [68].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Presumably, this work influenced a number of mathematicians working in the field of game theory, including Zermelo and von Neumann [68].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Among the ideas voiced by Lasker in Wrestling was the division of games into “equilibrium” and “games with a margin”, that is, games in which the right of the first move gives an advantage.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker, following Steinitz, denied the advantage of white and attributed chess to equilibrium games [69].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Other mind games


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker was very interested in bridge and go and achieved great success in both games.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

In the 1930s, he was a member of the German bridge team [5].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

At the beginning of the 20th century, Lasker was one of the first popularizers of Go in Europe.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

There is a story about how he, together with Eduard Lasker and older brother Berthold, met in one of the clubs in Berlin with a Japanese amateur who offered them a head start of 9 stones (a very large handicap for go, a similar handicap in a queen in chess).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Despite such a great advantage and the opportunity to consult, the trio lost to the nines (by the way, the two namesakes Lasker, who played both chess and go, are often confused).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

They say it was after this batch of Em.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker assessed Go as strategically very deep and interesting.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker also invented a game that combined the features of checkers and military strategy.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The game was called “weasel” and its rules were published in 1911 [70].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

results


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Tournaments


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

matches


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The results of personal meetings with the strongest chess players in 1889—1936


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Etudes


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

1.Krb7 (b8) Lb2+ 2.Kra7 Lc2 3.Lh5+ Kra4!


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

The black king can only move vertically a.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

If he retreats to line b, White easily wins by playing Krb7.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

4.Krb7 (b6) Lb2+ 5.Kra6 Lc2 6.Lh4+ Kra3!


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

7.Krb6 Lb2+


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

8.Kra5 Lc2 9.Lh3+ Kra2 10.l:H2!


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

, and white wins [71].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

This study is still considered classical and has given rise to many imitations [72] [73]


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

1.c4 Kd2 2.c5 Kb3 3.c6 Kd4 4.c7 Kb5 5.c8k!


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

and three horses, according to theory, win against one [74].


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

L:G8 2.Krf7!


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

L:G6 3.fg h5 4.g7+ Krh7 5.G8f+ Krh6 6.Fg6# [74]


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker books


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Chess


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Common Sense in Chess (published in English as Common Sense in Chess), 1896, Russian translation 1897.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker's How to Play Chess: An Elementary Text Book for Beginners, Which Teaches Chess By a New, Easy and Comprehensive Method, 1900.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

“International Chess Congress in memory of M. AND. Chigorina St. Petersburg, 1909” (1910)


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

(Mein Wettkampf mit Capablanca), 1922, Russian translation 1926.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

(Lehrbuch des Schachspiels), 1926, Russian translation 1926.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Lasker's Chess Primer, 1934.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Math


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

— Lasker's Ph.D.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

thesis.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Another


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

“Fight” (Kampf), 1911, Russian translation 2007.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

“Understanding the World” (Das Begreifen der Welt), 1913.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar (Philosophy of Infinity), 1918.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

“This Story of Man” (Vom Menschen die Geschichte), 1925 is a play written together with Berthold Lasker.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

“How Victor Became a Chess Master” is a story for children written in the 1930s in Moscow, first published in 1973 by the Children's Literature publishing house (translated from German by Ilya Maizelis).


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

“The Community of the Future” (The Community of the Future), 1940.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Notes


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Literature


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Emanuel Lasker Games 1889-1903, Chess Stars, 1998, ISBN 954-8782-07-3.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Emanuel Lasker II Games 1904—1940, Chess Stars, 1998, ISBN 954-8782-10-3.


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

References


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

on 365chess.com


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

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Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

(january 1905)


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

Category:World Chess Champions


Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

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Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

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Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

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Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

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Emanuel Lasker

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Question: Who was the first world chess champion before Emanuel Lasker?

Emanuel Lasker

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Emanuel Lasker

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Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Flavius Claudius Jovian [1] (Latin: Flavius Claudius Iovianus, 330 (331) — February 17, 364) was a Roman emperor from 363-364, often referred to simply as Jovian.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian came from Singidunum.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

After the death of Julian the Apostate, he was proclaimed the new ruler of the Roman Empire.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian concluded a peace treaty for a period of 30 years with the Persian king Shapur II, according to which he abandoned five Mesopotamian provinces and Armenia.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

While professing Christianity, Jovian restored Christianity in the Roman Empire, which was curtailed by his predecessor, and returned all its privileges to the church.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, he tolerated paganism and all areas of the Christian religion.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

7.5 months after the beginning of his reign, Jovian died in Bithynia on his way to Constantinople under circumstances that were not fully clarified.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Origins


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian was born in 330 (or 331) in Singidunum (present-day Belgrade) in the family of Varronian (Latin: comes domesticorum) [2] (one of the two chiefs of the Imperial Guard Constantine II) .


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Pagan authors, following ancient tradition, cite prophetic dreams of his father, which promised Jovian power.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Thus, the author of Excerpts on the Life and Customs of the Roman Emperors writes that he “was instructed in a dream that his son, whose birth in his family was already expected at that time, should be named Jovian” [3], since the name is formed from one of the imperial epithets (since the time of Diocletian) - “Jobius”, that is, “Jupiter”.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Ammian Marcellin says that “his father Varronian knew the fate of his son in advance from a revelation received in a dream” [4].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Ammian also sees Jovian's prediction of imperial rank in the fact that Jovian, who accompanied the embalmed corpse of the recently deceased Constantius II to Constantinople, “was provided samples of grain allowances of soldiers, or, as it is called, samples, were put up for review of horses of the state post, and the people, according to custom, greeted him in crowds” [5].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The orator Themistius also saw this as a divine omen [6].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The merits of his father played an important role in the fate of the future emperor.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian did not achieve noticeable success, was not endowed with any outstanding merits and was known in the army precisely because of Varronian [2] [7] (although, for example, Theodorite Kirsky writes that Jovian “was known her husband is excellent and famous and gained fame for many reasons” [8], but he does not give these reasons).


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

He made a career in the Imperial Guard, being a domestic protector (Latin: protector domesticus) under Constantius II and Julian, and rose under the latter to the primicerie of domestics (Latin: primicerius domesticorum) - chief of the guard.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Christian sources spread a version that Jovian was dismissed from service by Julian II for his adherence to Christianity [9] [10] [11].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Modern researchers recognize this legend as having no real basis [12] [13] — Jovian accompanied Emperor Julian II in his Persian campaign against Shapur II as chief imperial bodyguards.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Appearance and personal qualities


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The most complete description of Iovian's appearance and personality was left by Ammian Marcellin:


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

“His posture during movement was distinguished by dignity, his face was very friendly, his eyes were blue, he was very tall, so for a long time they could not find any royal clothes suitable for him. ... sometimes did serious business in the afternoon and had a habit of joking fun in the company of loved ones. ... he was of low education; he was friendly in nature and, as far as could be judged from the few cases of appointments made by him, cautious in choosing dignitaries. He made excesses in food, had a tendency to wine and love pleasures, vices that he might have gotten rid of out of respect for the imperial rank” [14].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

At the same time, Ammian calls it “stooped” [15].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian's tall stature and stately build are emphasized by other authors.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Christian writers add apologetic characteristics to this:


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

“He was very tall and had a great soul, was usually distinguished in wars and exploits even more important, because he boldly spoke against wickedness, was not afraid of the power of the tyrant [that is, Julian II — Wiki] and We were jealous of the martyrs of our Savior” [8].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The situation in the Roman Empire


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian's predecessor, Julian II, pursued an active domestic and foreign policy.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

After coming to power, he organized judicial investigations into the activities of former associates of Constantius II, some of whom were executed and many dismissed, which created the emperor natural opposition.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The main direction in Julian's domestic policy was the rejection of state support for Christianity and a return to the old Roman religion (albeit in a somewhat reformed form).


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Christians were not executed, the main “persecution” consisted in removing them from teaching in schools and eliminating financial support from the state for the Christian Church.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This policy also undoubtedly contributed to the formation of the internal opposition.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In the field of foreign policy, Julian intended to end the long-lasting war with the Persians.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Having equipped the army at the beginning of 363, he moved to Persia.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The campaign was initially successful, Julian defeated the Persian army and occupied several fortresses.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, not daring to besiege the capital of the Sassanids, Ctesiphon, Julian was tricked into the desert by the Persians, and in battle was mortally wounded.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Elected emperor


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

When the highest ranks of the army gathered to choose the successor of the deceased Julian (since he did not leave an official heir), Jovian gained power (June 27, 363), although he could not hope for her.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Ammian writes in the most detail about his gaining power [17].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The historian reports that the army chiefs during the elections were divided into two parties:


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

“Arintheos [18], Victor [19] and the rest of the court state of Constantia were looking for a suitable person from their party; on the contrary, Nevit [20], Dagalife [21] and the noble Gauls were looking for one of their associates” [ 22].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

It is impossible to find direct information in the sources as to what their differences were.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, several main lines can be traced.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

First, the religious preferences of various army officials obviously affected — there were clearly two camps in society — pagan and Christian [23].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Secondly, there were some “territorial clans” within the elite — and the Pannonians were not in the least place — because both Jovian and his successor Valentinian came from Pannonia [24].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In addition, Ammian in one place directly speaks about the support of Valentinian by his countrymen [25].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Thirdly, an internal struggle can be observed between the former courtiers of Constantius II and Julian's associates.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

It is not known exactly how the internal struggle over the choice of the emperor went, it is only known that the title was offered to Praetorian Prefect Secunda Sallustia [26], a pagan by religion and ally of Julian, who was actually the second person in the state under Julian [27].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, he refused, citing his age. [28]


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Since the army was in a critical situation — in the desert, retreating in front of the attacking Persians, it was necessary to make a quick decision.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

According to Ammian, “... several hotheads, as is often the case in difficult circumstances, chose Jovian as Emperor” [2].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, it is likely that Dagalife resolved the difficulty — perhaps he supported Jovian's candidacy, leaving Nevitta's side [29] [30].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This is partly confirmed by the fact that Dagalife later held senior government positions, while none of the sources that have survived to us mention anything else about Nevitta's fate.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

So purple was given to Jovian.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

He was obviously elected emperor as a compromise figure who suited the rival commanders of the empire, and was not very independent in his decisions — Ammian calls him” a shadow of imperial power” [31].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

It is interesting [32] that only Ammian gives this interpretation of the election of the emperor.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

All other sources, both pagan and Christian, report that Jovian was elected not by some part, but by the whole army that demanded him king [8] [9] [33] [7] [34].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Researchers offer three main explanations for this contradiction.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

First, there may be some misinformation on the part of Ammian Marcellin.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The historian treated this emperor badly and, obviously, did not consider him a fully legitimate ruler, trying to convince his readers of this, attributing the election only to a certain army group [35].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Secondly, such misinformation is possible on the other hand: for example, Themistius delivered his speech just before Jovian and the whole court, so he could well replace some not quite pleasant for the emperor's moments for more beneficial to him.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Similarly, later Christian writers, in order to justify Jovian's coming to power, could write about his unanimous election by the army [35].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Thirdly, it is possible that the authors of the sources simply recorded the granting of power to Jovian by the army, and, without going into details, wrote about the army, and not about some part of it or the highest army superiors [27].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Christian historiography did not dwell on the analysis of the election of a new emperor, only welcoming the acquisition of the throne by a Christian.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, Christian authors all cite the following episode as one: “When, brought to power, he saw the imperial insignia, went out to the army and said: “I cannot rule you, for I Christian.” Then they all answered with one voice: “And we are Christians.” And he agreed to take power no earlier than he heard it” [36] [8].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This legend appeared at the end of the 4th century [37] — Grigory Nazianzin does not mention it yet [38].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, this story may have some real grounds: coupled with reports that Jovian's purple owed much to the merits of his father, who was once the commander of the Jovian Legion, this information suggests that he was chosen primarily by this legion, after which Jovian was recognized by others.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jobias were, for the most part, obviously Christians — their flag bearers refused to remove the labarum from the banners during the reign of Julian and were replaced by others.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This version may, according to some researchers, confirm the fact of flight after the election of Jovian the flag bearer of this legion to the Persians.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This standard-bearer was in bad relations with the father of the new emperor [31] and probably opposed the support of Jovian by the legion [37].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

It is also possible that the main force that advocated the election of Jovian was the detachments of domestic protectors [39].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Ammian, in contrast to Christian authors, writes that when the new emperor began to bypass the army,


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

“then the vanguard troops, hearing the shouts of “Jovian Augustus”, repeated them even louder. Misled by the similarity of his name to that of Julian, since the difference lies in just one letter, they thought that it brought Julian to recover with cries of joy and glee, as It used to be normal. But when we saw that this tall and stooped man was coming up, we guessed what had happened, and everyone burst into mournful groans and tears” [15].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

John Lead, the only one, cites the version according to which Julian called Jovian his successor before his death [40].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Management Board


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Foreign policy


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Having gained power, Jovian continued the retreat of the army, especially since Shapur II learned from the defector about the death of Julian [41] and began to press even more on the Romans.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Crowded on all sides by the Persians, the Roman army retreated first to Sumera, and then to Kharha, where it was surrounded by the enemy.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Exhausted by poor food, the soldiers began to demand an immediate crossing over the Tigris, despite the fact that at this time the river overflowed greatly, and the opposite bank was occupied by the enemy.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In order to calm the soldiers, the emperor ordered Gallic and German soldiers, numbering about five hundred, to cross the river.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This adventure was successful and the Roman detachment occupied the opposite bank.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Nevertheless, it was not possible to quickly build a crossing and transfer the main part of the troops.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Under these conditions, King Shapur offered peace on difficult conditions for the Romans.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In exchange for the passage of the Roman army and the conclusion of peace for 30 years, the Persian king was to receive five regions for the Tiger: Arzaken, Moxoen, Zabdicen, Regimen and Corduin with fifteen fortresses, and in addition to Nisibis, Castra Mavrorum (Latin: Castra Maurorum) and Singara.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The emperor also had to abandon the alliance with the Armenian king Arshak II [12].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian was very concerned about rumors that, before going on a campaign, Julian had left his relative Procopius a purple imperial cloak and bequeathed to seize power in the event of his death, Julian.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Fearing for his position, Jovian accepted all Shapur's conditions, stipulating only that before the surrender of Nizibis and Singara, residents must leave the cities.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This decision caused sharp condemnation from contemporaries.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Even Christian writers who praised Jovian recognize the disadvantage of the treaty, however, noting its necessity, and sometimes directly presenting it as an achievement [9] [33] [42] [43] [44].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Pagan authors — Ammian, Zosim, Eutropius — directly condemn the emperor for him [45] [46] [47].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Moreover, he was imprisoned, according to Ammian, not in such a hopeless situation; Jovian needed him, because Augustus feared the performance of some usurper in Gaul or Illyric.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In order to prevent hostile actions, the parties exchanged hostages.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Despite this, the Persians, according to Ammian [48], planned to attack the lagging Romans, but were exposed of their intentions and abandoned them.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

During the retreat, many warriors died of hunger, drowned in the river while crossing, or, lagging behind, were captured by the Persians.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Peace between the Empire and the Persians was concluded for thirty years.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Domestic policy


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Upon arrival in Roman territory, Jovian appointed his father-in-law Lucillian master of cavalry and infantry and ordered him to go to Mediolan to prevent possible coup attempts.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian sent messengers to remote parts of the empire to find out the mood of the governors and, if possible, prevent the dissatisfied from speaking.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

These messengers were ordered to report in the provinces that the Persian campaign ended safely.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

These propaganda measures were supplemented by appropriate inscriptions, both on mile poles and on coins (on which the expressions “RESTITVTOR REIPVBLICAE” - “Restorer of the Republic” were engraved,” VICTORIA AVGVSTI” — “Victory of Augustus” and “VICTORIA ROMANORVM” — “Victory of the Romans” and the like [49]).


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

When the retreating army approached Nisibis, the emperor did not enter the city, but ordered to camp outside its walls, as he was ashamed to surrender the impregnable city to the enemy during his own stay there [50].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The inhabitants of Nisibis asked the emperor to allow them to defend their city themselves, without the help of the army, but the emperor refused them and ordered them to leave it within three days.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

August tried in every possible way to eliminate possible rivals — for example, his namesake, the primicerie of notaries Jovian, was killed [51], in whose favor several votes were heard in the elections [52].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

To strengthen his position, Jovian gave the famous commander Malarich [53] command of troops in Gaul, but he refused the honor granted.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

At the same time, Procopius [54], a relative of Julian, was sent forward with part of the army to Tarsus, with an order to bury the latter near this city (as Julian himself ordered during his lifetime).


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

After the funeral, Procopius disappeared, and appeared only after the death of Jovian, trying to seize power.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian spent some time in Antioch na Oronta, where he resolved religious issues.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Here he was visited by a delegation of the Senate of Constantinople (it was the first delegation, the second, perhaps, visited it in Ankira) [55].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Residents of the city, according to some reports [56], greeted the new emperor rather inhospitable — apparently due to the fact that Antioch was always under threat of invasion by the Persians, and the loss of the key to the East — Nisibisa — residents were perceived very anxious [57].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The mood of the inhabitants of the city was obviously influenced by the fact that Jovian ordered (prompted by his wife, as John of Antioch writes) to burn down a pagan temple built under Hadrian, which Julian turned to the library [58].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The hostility of the inhabitants of the city towards Jovian was so great that they, having later learned of his death, rebelled and ruined the estates of the Censory Dacian, an official close to the emperor [59].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

However, the Antiochians rarely had good relations with the emperors: they had previously clashed with Julian II and his brother Caesar Gall.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian did not stay long in Syria, and hurried to the West, trying to be in Constantinople as soon as possible.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

After passing Tars, where he demonstratively took care of decorating the grave of Julian, the emperor arrived in the Cappadocian city of Tianu, where some of the messengers he had previously sent to the West arrived to him.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In particular, he was informed that his father-in-law Lucillian, who went to Germany after Mediolan, died as a result of a riot in Remach (modern day. Reims), who caused his untimely actions (see below) [12].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Augustus was informed about this by Valentinian, the future emperor who managed to escape during the riot.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

In addition to this unpleasant news, Jovian was also told that the legions in Gaul had recognized him.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Augustus moved on and, arriving in Ankira, entered the consulate with his young son Varronian, about which a big speech was given to him and the whole court by a well-known rhetor Themistism, in which he praised the new Augustus in every possible way.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

There are few laws left over from Jovian's time.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The period of his reign in the Code of Theodosius marks 6 laws (of which three are designated as belonging to Emperor Julian, two to Valentinian and Valent), in the Code of Justinian - 1 law, marked as owned by Valentinian and Valent.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

At the same time, researchers consider to belong to Jovian the law marked by the drafters of the code of Theodosius as his, but with the date of February 19, 364 (that is, two days later than the most mentioned date of death).


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

The greatest attention of modern researchers is attracted by laws related to the religious policy of the emperor.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Religious policy


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Jovian's work in religious matters was rather cautious.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Despite his obvious sympathy for Christianity, he did not immediately take any drastic actions in favor of this religion after coming to power.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Moreover, according to Ammian Marcellin, he began his reign by turning to the haruspics, who conducted divination by the insides [60].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

As soon as Jovian set foot on empire territory, he


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

“first of all, he issued a law announcing the return of bishops from exile and together commanded that churches be given to those who preserved the Nicene faith intact” [44].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

By doing so, the emperor actually continued the policy of Julian, who had previously ordered the return of the Nicaeans from exile in order to oppose them to the Arians, who occupied a dominant position under Constantius II [61].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This law has been preserved only in narrative sources.


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Socrates Scholastik reports that at the behest of the emperor, “pagan temples at the same time were all closed, and the pagans themselves were hiding where it happened”, but this information is obviously inaccurate, for example, the famous pagan sophists Maxim and Prisk, who were friends and advisers to Julian, remained at court [62], and Themistius in his speech a little later praised the tolerant religious policy of Augustus [63] .


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Obviously, the destruction of pagan temples occurred, but they were unofficial in nature, undertaken by individuals with the tacit consent of the authorities [64].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

This obviously explains the inscription dedicated to Iovian from Corfu, in which the author says that he destroyed a pagan temple and erected a church in its place [12].


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

Hermius Sozomen, recounting Jovian's stay in Antioch, says that in addition to restoring all the privileges and benefits given to churches by Constantine the Great and his sons, Augustus also


Question: What are the main results of the reign of Flavius Claudius Jovian?

Iovian

“A second, who held the post of Praetorian prefect, was given a general law that imposed the death penalty on anyone who dares to marry a virgin dedicated to God, or even look at her shamelessly, or kidnap her. This law was given because during the reign of Julian, other insidious people with such virgins entered into marriage and dragged them to corruption either by violence or by belief, which usually happens when faith is neglected and contempted, and when shameful passion can dare to do so unpunished” [65].