Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On October 4, 1973, the Soviet Tu-16 collided with the American F-4, and both aircraft were able to return to base.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Egyptian Tu-16s took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war of 1973.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

At that time, Egypt had 31 Tu-16s (Tu-16T, Tu-16KSR-2-A, Tu-16KSR-2-11, Tu-16R and Tu-16K) consisting of:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

34th bae (11 Tu-16) AB Janaklis.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Ahmed Samir Syed Ahmed Komesk;


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

35th bae (11 Tu-16) AB Aswan.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Ali Ati Salama Komesk;


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

36th bae (10 Tu-16K) AB Cairo-West.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Komesk Mohammed Rauf Helmi.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The first strike on October 6, 1973 involved 7 Tu-16 missile carriers.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

One of the rockets hit a field camp near Beluza, destroying the headquarters of the 9th Tank Battalion.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Another missile destroyed a large warehouse [6].


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In the evening of the same day, a pair of Tu-16 cruise missiles destroyed the radar near Sharm el-Sheikh - four operators and a driver were killed.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In the following days, the Tu-16s carried out a number of successful attacks on enemy targets.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

So on October 14, a single Tu-16 destroyed an Israeli radar by launching cruise missiles, killing two operators.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16 bombers carried out several night strikes on front-line and rear targets of the Israelis.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In particular, several bombs fell on the location of the 890th battalion of Israeli paratroopers.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

A total of 25 CRS-2 and CRS-11 missiles [7] were fired, of which only 5 reached their targets [8].


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Information about losses is contradictory.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

According to some sources, not a single Tu-16 was lost from enemy fire, according to others, of the two lost aircraft, one was shot down by its anti-aircraft gunners and one crashed for technical reasons, both crews were killed.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

According to V. Ilyin, two Tu-16s were shot down by Israeli F-4 Phantom fighters over the Mediterranean Sea [9] [10] [11].


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The Israelis themselves claimed that they shot down one Tu-16 [12].


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16 bombers also took part in the 1980 Iran-Iraq war, based at Al-Waleed Air Base near the Syrian border and periodically participating in raids on Iranian cities, as well as were used as jammers.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

At the beginning of the war, Iraq had 6 Tu-16 bombers as part of the 10th Squadron [13].


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On September 22, 3 Iraqi Tu-16s took off to strike at the Iranian airfield Ishafan.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

One plane collided with a mountain (killing all six crew members, including the squadron commander), the other two bombed the runway of the Iranian airfield and reinforced concrete shelters.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On October 4, 1980, an Iranian F-4E fighter tried to pursue an Iraqi Tu-16 returning from an attack on Iranian territory.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

While approaching Basra, an Iranian plane was shot down by an S-75 SAM missile. [15]


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On April 21, 1985, four Iraqi Tu-16s carried out carpet bombing of Iranian military facilities near Tehran, as a result of the strike, Iran lost 78 killed and 325 wounded.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

All four Tu-16s successfully returned to the airfield in Tammuz.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

At the beginning of 1987, the Tu-16 was used for carpet bombing of the advancing Iranian troops near Basra.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On January 9, 4 Tu-16s flew to bomb a cluster of manpower east of the Shatt al-Arab River.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

During the approach, one aircraft was shot down by a HAWK air defense missile, 5 crew members were killed and 1 was taken prisoner.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Three other bombers successfully carried out carpet bombing on concentrations of Iranian troops.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

By the end of the war, 4 Chinese H-6D (Chinese version of the Tu-16) with 50 C-601 Sylkworm missiles (the Chinese version of the P-15 Termit air-launched) were purchased through Egypt.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In 1988, these Iraqi aircraft fired about 30 missiles at ships off the Iranian coast, sinking and damaging at least 15 of them.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On February 5, 1988, the Iranian cargo ship Iran Entekhab (displacement 20,691 tons) was hit by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The ship was seriously damaged, 1 Iranian sailor was killed.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On February 9, 1988, the Iranian supertanker Shir Kooh (displacement 285,700 tons) was seriously damaged by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The ship failed and was towed for repair.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On February 12, 1988, a pair of Iraqi Tu-16s attacked a convoy of tankers covered by ships of the US Navy.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Two Sylkworm missiles were fired at the American destroyer Chandler.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Fortunately for the American crew, both missiles did not hit the target.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Another missile was fired at the Danish supertanker Kate Maersk (displacement 339,204 tons), the ship was seriously damaged, 1 Danish sailor was killed and 3 were injured.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The media initially stated that the attack was carried out by Iranian boats or helicopters, American sailors from the destroyer indicated that the Tu-16 was attacked. [19]


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On February 15, 1988, the Soleiman transport ship was hit by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The ship was severely damaged and four crew members were killed.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On March 8, 1988, the Tenacity tanker was hit by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The ship was badly damaged.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On March 15, 1988, the Liberian tanker Trade Fortitude (displacement 66,602 tons) was seriously damaged by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On March 30, 1988, the Cypriot supertanker Anax (displacement 259,499 tons) was seriously damaged by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On July 1, 1988, the Iranian supertanker Khark 4 (displacement 284,299 tons) was seriously damaged by a C-601 missile fired by an Iraqi Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In the Afghan war, the Tu-16A, as well as the Tu-16KSR-2-5 and Tu-16KSR-2-5-11 missile carriers, Tu-16R reconnaissance aircraft and Tu-16P jammers equipped with bomb weapons, were used to strike at bases and clusters mujahideen.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The typical load included 12 FAB-500, in some cases bombs of other calibers (250-, 1000-, 3000-, 5000- and 9000-kg) were used.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

During the last three months of the war, Soviet Tu-16s dropped 289 FAB-9000 bombs.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The bombing was carried out during the daytime with the help of optical sights.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The actions of the Tu-16 provided the Tu-16P, which interfered with the radar means of the air defense system of Pakistan.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Almost all regiments that operated the Tu-16 in the European part of the USSR were involved in the operations.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

They flew to Central Asia and made combat sorties from Khanabad, Mary and Karshi airfields in detachments of 3-4 or squadrons of 8-10 aircraft each.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On April 22, 1984, during the Panjshir operation, one of the most massive Tu-16 raids on Mujahideen bases took place.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was attended by 24 Tu-16KSR-2-5 missile carriers armed with FAB-250.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Aircraft equipped with BDZ-16K beam holders carried 40 bombs each, and those unfinished for increased bomb load carried 24 bombs each.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Two squadrons of the 200th Guards were involved.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

TBAP is from Bobruisk and one from the 251st Guards.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

TBAP from Bila Tserkva.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The squadrons marched in battle formation “bearing” one after another.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The first eight was led by the commander of the 200th regiment, kennel Panin.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Initially, the bombing was planned to be carried out from an altitude of 6000 m, but the aircraft flying in a dense battle formation fell into the clouds, and due to the danger of collisions, the train was increased to 8700-9500 m. Due to the lack of visibility of targets, bombing was carried out using the RSDN system.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The top eight came under anti-aircraft fire, but the shells did not reach the aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The anti-aircraft guns were immediately destroyed, and the next two squadrons did not meet opposition.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Four hours after returning to Karshi, the crews made a second flight.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Now each group had separate goals — squads of spooks that left in different directions.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Bombs were dropped from a height of 1500-2000 m on an enemy clearly visible against the background of snow.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Objective control was carried out with the help of the Tu-16R.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The photos clearly showed that the bombers did an excellent job.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In the summer of 1986, Long-Range Aviation was tasked with suppressing the strongholds of the Mujahideen located in the caves.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Bombing with conventional calibers did not bring results, as the caves were hollowed out in stone and concreted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was decided to use the heaviest of the serial conventional bombs, the FAB-9000.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

By that time, the only Soviet Air Force aircraft that could carry the FAB-9000 was the Tu-16 (all 3M and M-4 were converted into tankers, and the TU-95 could theoretically load the FAB-9000, but almost everything the aircraft were missile carriers and required re-equipment).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The task was set for the 251st heavy bomber regiment from Bila Tserkva.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Bombing with heavy land mines on the slopes had an impressive effect: the descent of hundreds of tons of stones buried the mouths of the caves and approaches to them, cornices fell to the bottom of the gorges, a few roads and paths rested on piles of rock blocks.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was assumed that the enemy had to spend weeks looking for workarounds.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Modifications


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It should be noted that combat aircraft have been converted into various versions several times during their operation and an accurate calculation of all modifications is probably no longer possible.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

There were also many aircraft of the same modification, but with different equipment — for example, you could not find two identical aircraft in the jammer squadron.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Some of the aircraft were converted for specific tasks and could be in service only in one particular regiment.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

88 Prototype.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

At the beginning of 1952, two aircraft were manufactured.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16 (product H, Badger A) Medium bomber, the first production modification.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It has been produced since 1953.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16 Cyclone-N The aircraft were designed to actively influence clouds, as well as to study the thermodynamic parameters of the atmosphere.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Two missile carriers from the Navy were converted to the ARZ in St. Pushkin in 1977.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The special equipment complex consisted of KDS-155 cassette holders for shooting PV-50 meteorological squibs with silver iodide, a container for bulk substances (mainly cement of grade 600).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On external pylons, it was supposed to hang containers of type K-76 (l) with reagent or containers of the KMG-U type.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Both aircraft were based at Chkalovsky airfield.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

They were used during the Olympic Games-80, during the liquidation of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and for “dispersing clouds” in central Russia.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16A (HA product) A strategic bomber is a carrier of nuclear weapons.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by a bomb bay with thermal insulation.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It has been produced since 1954.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The most popular modification — 453 vehicles were built.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

One of them dropped the first Chinese thermonuclear bomb on October 27, 1967.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16AFS Aircraft for special aerial photography.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The AFA-42/20 was installed in the cargo hold.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

One aircraft was re-equipped and was used to photograph the Baikal-Amur Mainline.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16B Medium bomber, experimental modification with M-16-15 (RD16-15) engines.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was made in 1957.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16V Strategic bomber.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Built in triplicate, the aircraft is the carrier of a hydrogen bomb similar to the heavy-duty device exploded on October 30, 1961 on Novaya Zemlya (Tsar Bomb, Kuzkina Mother).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The Tu-16G, the only aircraft numbered USSR-L5411, was converted into a training aircraft for training GA crews on the Tu-104, and passed according to the documentation as the Tu-104G.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16E “Azalia” (Badger K) Electronic reconnaissance and electronic warfare aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was equipped with an active jamming station “Azalia”.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16e-HR The aircraft was intended for photographic, radio engineering, radiation and chemical reconnaissance and was close to the Tu-16RR in terms of equipment, containers were installed under the planes for taking air samples.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The crew consists of seven people.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16Z (Tu-16Yu, Tu-163 [20], NZ product) Refueller.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was equipped with a wing refueling system.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was developed in 1955.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

More than 100 Tu-16A aircraft have been re-equipped.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16za Bomber with in-flight refueling system.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by the presence of a fuel receiver on the left wing (later on both).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16zsch Refueller.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Unlike the Tu-16Z, it had a refueling system used for refueling through a “cone”.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was used to refuel the Tu-22.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K Three experimental missile carriers (for K-10S missiles) with RD16-15 engines with extended flight range.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The tests were successful, but the aircraft did not go into production.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-10 (Badger C) Long-range bomber-missile carrier of the K-10S guided missile.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by an elongated nose radio-transparent fairing for the parabolic antenna of the EN radar.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It has been mass-produced since 1959.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was adopted for service only by the Navy aviation, in 1961.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

216 vehicles have been built or converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-10 (ZA) Missile carrier with in-flight refueling system.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by the presence of a fuel receiver on the left wing.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-10-26 (Badger C (mod)) Long-range bomber-missile carrier.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The carrier of the K-10S, KSR-2 and KSR-5.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-10-26B A modified version of the Tu-16K-10-26.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In addition to missiles, it could carry bombs of caliber 100-1500 kg on 12 holders under the wing and fuselage.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-11-16 (Badger G) Long-range bomber-missile carrier of guided missiles K-16 (KSR-2) and K-11 (KSR-11).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was developed in 1963.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by the presence of the radio reconnaissance station “Ritsa” and the absence of a bow gun.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16, Tu-16A, Tu-16Z, Tu-16KS aircraft were converted to the Tu-16K-11-16 standard.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-16 (Tu-16KSR, Tu-16KSR-2, product NK-3) UR K-16 carrier (KSR-2).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was developed in 1956-1958.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was adopted for service in January 1962.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16KS aircraft were converted into Tu-16K-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-16-26 (Tu-16KSR-2-5) The carrier of the UR K-26 (KSR-5).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

This designation was received by Tu-16K-11-16 aircraft after conversion to the Tu-16K-26 type.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-22 X-22 Rocket carrier.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

These aircraft were armed with the only regiment in the USSR stationed in Primorsky Krai.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-26 (Badger-G (mod)) Long-range bomber-missile carrier.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The carrier of the K-26 SD (KSR-5).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was adopted for service on December 4, 1969.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16K-26P (product NK-26P) KSR-5P missile carrier.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was developed in the early 70s.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16KRM Target rocket carrier.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Could carry targets KRM-1, KRM-2, KSR-5NM, KSR-5NV.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

By order of the air defense, several aircraft were converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16KRME Variant of the MV-1 target carrier (KRM-2), converted from the Tu-16E jammer.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The aircraft was equipped with SPS-1 and SPS-2 stations.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Lilac and ASO-16 assault rifle.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

When launching targets, the Tu-16KRME could further complicate the operation of the air defense system by setting active and passive interference.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The crew, as well as on the Tu-16E, consisted of seven people.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16KS (Badger-B) KS-1 Kometa long-range bomber-missile carrier of anti-ship missiles.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The Cobalt-M guidance radar is installed in the bomb bay.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was not adopted for service, although it was operated in Navy aviation and exported (about 40 aircraft of this version were delivered to Indonesia and Egypt).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16KSR (KSR-2) (product of NKSR-2, Badger-G) Long-range bomber-missile carrier for DAC and KSR-2 missiles.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16KSR-2-11 Missile carrier aircraft could carry KSR-2 and KSR-11 missiles in any combination, as well as free-falling bombs.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

156 Tu-16A and Tu-16A (ZA) bombers were converted into this version, and the Tu-16KSR-2A missile carriers were also finalized.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In some cases, the Tu-16KSR-2-11 was designated as the NK-11-16 product or the NK-2 product.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16LL Flying laboratories for testing various engines.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

A hydraulically driven unit was mounted in the cargo compartment, which released the engine down.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

For emergency cases, there was a reset mechanism.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

A total of 9 aircraft were converted to test engines.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The aircraft were in operation for 30 years, and almost all Soviet turbojet engines of the 2nd and 3rd generations were tested on them.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

There were also several Tu-16s with other experimental devices, all of them passed as “flying laboratories”.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

On February 1, 1971, Hero of the Soviet Union Amet-Khan Sultan was killed twice on one of these aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16M Radio-controlled target converted from the exhausted Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Only aircraft converted by the Kazan Aircraft Plant had the name Tu-16M.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Khabarovsk ARZ No. 12 was also engaged in target aircraft, while interference stations were left on the aircraft, and depending on the configuration, they were called M-16-1, M-16-2, M-16-3.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The target was designed for five flights — four with a crew.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

After starting the engines and taxiing out to the start, the crew left the car, then the last flight of the target was carried out by radio commands from the ground.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In case of a miss by anti-aircraft gunners or non-fatal damage when a missile hit (this was also the case), self-liquidators began to be installed on the targets.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16N (NN product) Tu-22 refueller.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was equipped with a hose-cone refueling system.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

To facilitate the maintenance of the formation when refueling on the Tu-16N, a red stripe was applied along the fuselage from below.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Since 1963, at the Kazan plant, some of the bombers have been converted into Tu-16N refueling trucks.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16NM D-5NM and D-5MV target carrier


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16NKRM A variant of the target carrier, created in 1964. Under each of the consoles of its wing, one high-altitude high-speed target (target simulator) of the IC-59 “Deer” weighing 540 kg, equipped with a liquid propellant rocket engine, was suspended.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In 1980, improved IC-59V Magnit targets weighing 1052 kg entered service.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16P “Buket” (Badger J) Electronic warfare (group protection) aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was equipped with an active jamming station “Buket”.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In the early 1970s, the Tu-16P Yolka was converted into this modification.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16P “Yolka” (ed. “NOT”, “Badger H”) The electronic warfare aircraft is a passive jammer, containers with half-wave ASO-16 and ASO-2B dipoles were installed in the cargo compartment.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It could be used as a bomber after dismantling the ASO-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Since 1960, all Tu-16SPS have been converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16PL (PLO) Anti-submarine.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

One squadron was experimentally converted to the Northern Fleet and the Pacific Fleet.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It could carry dropped sonar buoys and anti-submarine weapons, and there was Baku equipment on board.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The experiment was considered unsuccessful.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16R (“product 92") Long-range reconnaissance aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by 7 cameras, an active jamming station, SRS-3 radio reconnaissance equipment in suspended containers under the wing.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was developed in 1955.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16RM Reconnaissance and target designation aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

AFA-41/20, AFA-42/20, AFA-42/75, AFA-42/100, NAFA-MK-75 aerial cameras, SRS-4 radio reconnaissance station and Rubin-1 K radar were installed.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Several Tu-16K-10s have been converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16RM-1 (RM-2) Naval electronic reconnaissance and electronic warfare aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The EN-R radar, SRS-1 and SRS-4 stations, AFA-33/20M and AFA-42/75 cameras were installed.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Some cars had jamming stations.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Converted from the Tu-16K-10 were called Tu-16RM-1, and from the Tu-16K-10D - Tu-16RM-2.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

A total of 23 aircraft were in operation.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16RR Radiation reconnaissance aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by hanging containers with equipment for taking air samples.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was developed in 1970.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

7 Tu-16R were converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16RT Aircraft measuring point for testing the Tempest cruise missile.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In 1956, six Tu-16R aircraft were converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16RC Flying laboratory for testing the P-6 missile guidance system.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was made in 1964.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16S Marine Search and Rescue.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was equipped with a dropped boat “Fregat”.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

At the end of the 60s, several Tu-16T were converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was in service until the mid-80s.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16SP Anti-submarine aircraft.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16SPS Electronic warfare aircraft (jammer) - SPS-1 and SPS-2 stations were installed on board, and an additional special operator cabin was installed in the cargo compartment (the crew consisted of 7 people).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It has been produced since 1955.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Later they were converted into the “Bouquet” version.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16T (NT product) Torpedo bomber.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was produced since 1957 by the Voronezh plant.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

76 vehicles have been built or converted.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The aircraft could carry two RAT-52 rocket torpedoes, six 45-54VT high-altitude torpedoes (or low-altitude 45-56NT), two VB-2F depth charges, 12 AMD-4-500 aircraft bottom mines or four AMD-4 - 10OO.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

RM-1 and RM-2 rocket-surfacing mines, UDM universal bottom mines, MDM-3, MDM-4, MDM-5, Serpey bottom mines, Lira anchor mines, AMD-2M, IGD-M, Desna mines, training mines could also be suspended UPAMB-100/80 bomb mines, 45-36MAV torpedoes.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The total weight of the weapon reached 8.7 tons. In addition, the Tu-16T could take a full set of weapons for a conventional bomber - up to 9 tons. Despite the emergence of much more effective missile carriers, it was in service until 1972.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16TRZhK Aircraft for transporting liquid oxygen.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-104 Passenger plane.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by a fuselage of increased diameter.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

First flew on June 17, 1955.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In 1956-1960, 201 aircraft were manufactured.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

A number of Tu-104 modifications.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-107 Military transport aircraft based on Tu-104.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was distinguished by a larger diameter fuselage.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It is made in one copy.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Xian H-6 A variant of the Tu-16 medium-range bomber produced in China under license.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

At least 200 aircraft have been manufactured.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Xian H-6A Chinese strategic bomber carrying nuclear weapons


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Xian H-6-IV Chinese naval bomber is a missile carrier for anti-ship missiles of the Shangyu type (export index - C-601, NATO designation - Silkworm).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

“97” is a project for modifying the Tu-16 for two VD-5 engines and an increased wing sweep to 45 degrees.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

“103” is a project to modify the Tu-16 for four VD-7 or AM-13 engines.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was supposed to create a supersonic bomber.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The performance characteristics of the Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

(initial configuration)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Technical specifications


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Crew:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

6-7 people, depending on modification:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

ship commander


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

assistant ship commander


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

navigator


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

navigator-operator (second co-driver)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Air gunner radio operator (HRV)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

firing unit commander (COU)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

on certain modifications, in particular Kedr, is the operator of radio-electronic countermeasures (REP)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Wingspan: 33.0 m


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Length: 34.8 m


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Height: 10.4 m


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Wing area: 164.65 m²


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Weight:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

empty aircraft: 37,200 kg


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

normal take-off: 72,000 kg


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

maximum take-off: 79,000 kg


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Fuel weight: 36000 kg


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Engines:: 2× TRD RD-3M or RD-3M-500


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Thrust: 2×9650 (2x10650 emergency mode) kgf


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Flight performance


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Speed:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

maximum: 1050 km/h


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

cruising: 850 km/h


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Distillation range, km: 7200


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Flight range, km: 5925


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Combat radius: 3150 km


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Service ceiling: 12,800 m


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Wing load: 460 kg/m²


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Thrust-to-weight ratio: 0.24


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Arming


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Cannon: PV-23 system (9-A-036) — 7×23 mm AM-23 cannons (three remote-controlled twin turrets and one fixed cannon in the bow).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16-K-10 — 6 AM-23 cannons (three twin tower mounts with remote control).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Bomb load: 8900 kg in the weapon compartment (ability to carry a FAB-9000 or a nuclear bomb).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Missile weapons:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In the naval version, the Tu-16-K-10-26 missile carrier flew with two KSR-5 missiles (one under the wings), and one K-10S missile under the fuselage (half-sunk in the bomb bay).


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The combat load in this version was 12,410 kg.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

In service


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It is in service


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

CHINA:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The PRC Air Force — 120 H-6 (Chinese licensed copy of the Tu-16), as of 2012 [21]


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The Chinese Navy — 14 H-6 and 26 H-6DU, as of 2012 [21]


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

It was in service


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

The USSR was in service until the collapse of the country in 1991.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Tu-16 bombers remained in the following countries formed after the collapse of the USSR:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Russia - about half of the Tu-16 remained in Russia after the collapse of the USSR, but by 1995 bombers of this type were withdrawn from service.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Ukraine — 121 planes.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

By the end of 1993, 19 were flying, 49 were on conservation.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

They were withdrawn from service in the mid-1990s.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Belarus — received 18 cars.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Georgia — withdrawn from service in the mid-1990s.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Azerbaijan — withdrawn from service in the mid-1990s.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Armenia — withdrawn from service in the mid-1990s.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Egypt


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Indonesia


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Iraq


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

List of Soviet garrisons that operated the Tu-16.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Long-range aviation - Tartu, Soltsy, Shaykovka, Kalinin, Baranovichi, Bobruisk, Balbasovo, Machulishchy, Zyabrovka, Bila Tserkva, Nizhyn, Priluki, Poltava, Ozerne (Zhytomyr), Stryi, Mozdok, Engels, Belaya, Zavitinsk, Spask-Dalny, Vozdvizhenka.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Naval aviation - Olenya, Veretye, Severomorsk-1, Severomorsk-3, Pristan, Elizovo, Bykhov, Oktyabrskoye, Lakhta, Gvardeyskoye, Knevichi, Kamenny Ruchey, Khorol, Cam Ranh.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Incidents


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

According to unofficial data, during the period of operation in the armed forces of the USSR, 145 Tu-16 aircraft were lost as a result of flight accidents, killing 709 people [22].


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Preserved specimens


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

One Tu-16, used as a flying laboratory, is presented in the exposition of the UMMC Museum of Military Equipment in St. Verkhnaya Pyshma


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

See also


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Long-range aviation of Ukraine


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Bomber


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Aircraft list


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Fedor Golovashko


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Chronology of nuclear tests of the USSR (1949—1962)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Related developments:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Xian H-6


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Analogues:


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Vickers Valiant


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Boeing B-47 Stratojet


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Notes


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Sources


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Nikolay Yakubovich, Anatoly Artemyev.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

“Tupolev Tu-16. A long-range bomber and missile carrier.”


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

M.: AST, 2001 ISBN 5-271-02214-5


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

CS1 maint: Date and year (link)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

CS1 maint: Date and year (link)


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Rigmant V. Creation of the Tu-16 aircraft — from idea to series (to the 60th anniversary of the first flight of the Tu-16 aircraft) //Krylya Rodiny, No. 1-2, 2012.


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

References


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Category:Soviet aircraft


Question: How many Tu-16 aircraft were produced?

Tu-16

Category:Bombers


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The Persian campaign of Alexander Severus is a campaign undertaken by the Roman Emperor Alexander North in the early 1930s to Mesopotamia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The purpose of the campaign was to repel the aggression of Ardashir Papakan, who seized power in the territory of the former Parthian kingdom in 226.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The possessions of the Roman Empire in Mesopotamia expanded significantly after the campaigns of Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries. Even the unsuccessful completion of the Caracalla campaign — the last in the almost 300-year history of the Roman-Parthian wars — did not seem to change the balance of power, which had shifted markedly in favor of the Roman Empire.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The coming to power in Parthia of a new dynasty full of strength and desire to restore the greatness of ancient Persia went unnoticed in Rome, plunging into a political, financial and military crisis.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Neither young Alexander Sever nor his mother Yulia Mameya, who actually ruled the state, had military talents sufficient to resist Ardashir.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Nevertheless, the army inherited from Septimius Severus and the large-scale program carried out by this active emperor to strengthen Roman Mesopotamia did not allow the Persians to achieve significant success.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This campaign, like most other wars of the 400-year confrontation between Rome and the Sassanid state, ended with the preservation of the status quo.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The successors of Alexander Severus could not succeed in wars with Ardashir's talented successor, Shapur I (241—272).


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It was only under Emperor Galeria, who concluded the Treaty of Nisibis in 298, that the Roman Empire was able to achieve lasting peace on its eastern border.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Background


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Roman-Parthian Relations by the End of the 210s


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In the civil war that began in the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Commodus, Septimius Severus's opponent in the East was Pescenny Niger.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

After losing 20,000 soldiers in the decisive battle, the latter fled to Antioch and was killed at the end of April 194 at the border while trying to escape to Parthia [1].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Around May of the same year [2], the North arrived in Syria and for some time was engaged in organizing public administration of the provinces of Asia Minor, the situation of which was quite alarming, since a significant number of Niger troops took refuge behind the Euphrates, and some provinces of northern Mesopotamia previously showed sympathy for the usurper.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In addition, there were other considerations in favor of continuing the Eastern War.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Nisibis, an important city far across the Euphrates, but probably home to a Roman garrison, was jointly attacked by the armies of Osroena, Adiabena, and Arabs.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

After the emperor expressed indignation at the incident, an embassy was sent to him to try to prove that the attack was directed against supporters of Niger who had settled in the city.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

But this explanation was rejected.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The discipline in the army, weakened by the civil war, forced the emperor to give legions, who opposed each other in three battles, the opportunity to fight a common enemy.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

From a strategic point of view, it was important that the eastern border of the empire received a reliable natural barrier, such as the Euphrates River [3].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In the spring of 195, Septimius Severus launched an invasion of Mesopotamia, regardless of the fact that “this will only be a source of constant wars and large expenses and will not bring any benefit to the state” [5].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

After crossing the y border, the North immediately annexed most of the kingdom of Osroena, forming a new province extending to the Tigris River.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

At the beginning of the campaign, before the first serious clashes took place, the emperor adopted the titles Arabicus and Adiabenicus, reflecting the subordination of these peoples to Mesopotamia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, the full form of these titles, which traditionally began with Parthicus, was not used to avoid conflict with the Parthian king, who had not yet been declared war.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

After a difficult crossing of the desert, the army reached Nisibis, from where Latin: felicissima expeditio Mesopotamena (“the happiest Mesopotamian expedition”) was launched and successfully completed, the course of which no information has been preserved [6].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Probably, the successes achieved were considered sufficient, and in 196 the emperor returned to Rome to continue the fight against Claudius Albin [7].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The following year, 197, the riots in the empire were put to an end, and Septimius Severus again decided to launch a campaign against Parthia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

During this time, the Parthians went on the offensive, and their Tsar Vologda V besieged Nisibis.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Protected by Latin: Julius Laetus, the fortress survived until the arrival of the emperor.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Accompanied by the brother of the Parthian king, the North, at the head of the Roman army, met without resistance, occupied Babylon, Seleucia and Ctesiphon.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

On the hundredth anniversary of the accession to the throne of Emperor Trajan, on January 28, 198, Septimius Severus proclaimed the conquest of Parthia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is not clear whether it was planned to annex all territories before the Persian Gulf.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

On the way back by another road, the emperor unsuccessfully tried (perhaps twice) to capture the important Hatru caravan center.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The rest of 198 was devoted to the development of the eastern provinces, after which the emperor went to Egypt and did not return to Parthian affairs again [8].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

With the accession to the throne of Septimius's eldest son, Caracalla, plans to conquer Parthia began to be made again.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The rulers of Osroena and Armenia were arrested and their kingdoms annexed.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

At this time, the son and successor of Vologda V, Vologda VI, was in conflict with his brother, who independently ruled in Mussels.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Caracalla took advantage of the differences between the brothers, while trying to find an excuse for war.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

When the war broke out in 216, Caracalla's army marched through Mesopotamia, capturing the city of Arbela and rich loot [9].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In the spring of 217, before the start of a new campaign, Caracalla was killed as a result of a Macrin conspiracy.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Upon learning of the death of Caracalla, Artaban gathered a large army and demanded that Macrin liberate the province of Mesopotamia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Negotiations did not lead to anything, and the two armies met in the fall of 217 at the walls of Nisibis.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In this battle, the Romans were defeated, and Macrin had to buy the world at a price of 200 million sesterces, an amount comparable to an eighth of the empire's annual budget [10].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, the growing pressure from the Sassanids did not allow the last Arshakids to build on this success [11].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The coming to power of the Sassanids


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Persian written sources, modern to the fall of the Arshakid dynasty, have not survived [12].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Based on the analysis of a few later Persian and Arabic sources, as well as epigraphic, numismatic, archaeological and other evidence, researchers proposed several versions of the chronology of events, about which not much is known either.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is well known that during the weakening of the Parthian state due to the campaigns of Septimius Severus, the ruler of Pars Papak strengthened his power so much that around 205 he was able to proclaim himself an independent ruler [13].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Probably, this rebellion was suppressed by Vologda VI, and the expansion of the power of the Sassanids beyond central Pars occurred after Papak was succeeded by his youngest son Ardashir.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The defeat of Parthia could be the result of both the formation of a coalition of Ardashir with the rulers of Adiabena, Kirkuk and other small states, as reported by the Syrian Chronicle of Arbela, and the intra-Parthian internecine struggle, when Vologda VI was opposed by his brother Artaban V. The first year of Ardashir's reign, counted from the death of the last Parthian king in the Battle of Hormuz, falls either in 226, or for 223 [14].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

After the defeat of the last Arshakid king of Parthia and the pacification of most of the satraps, the most serious opponent of Ardashir remained Armenia, whose king was Khosrov, the younger brother of the deceased Artaban.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In 228, he was able to inflict a number of sensitive defeats on Ardashir, while advancing deep into Persian territory to Ctesiphon.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Moreover, he may have even sought an alliance with Rome.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, in the end, Armenia fell and was temporarily included in the possessions of Persia [15].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Until about 230, some northern districts were held by Artaban's son, Artavazd [16].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Ardashir's success is due not only to the fact that he was a man of outstanding personal virtues, as depicted by later historical tradition.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Movses Khorenatsi in his History of Armenia explains the arrival of the new dynasty by the fact that “two Pekhlev (Parthian) industries, called Suren and Aspakhpat in Pakhla, envious of the reigning [in Parthia] industry, [ coming] from their own kind, that is, Artashes, voluntarily agree that Artashir, the son of Sasan, reign” [17].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Important was the desire of the country's influential forces to create and maintain a strong state and improve the economic life of the country, which was in devastation.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Of no small importance was the fact that, after becoming kings of Pars, the Sassanids closely connected themselves with the Zoroastrian center of the country [16].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The Roman Empire from Caracalla to Alexander Severus


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Macrin, who had just concluded a peace treaty with Parthia, was not in a firm position.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

His mere horsemanship, Moorish origin, and unpopular appointments did not bring him the support of the Senate, and he did not have enough money to gain the support of the army that Caracalla enjoyed.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The death in Antioch of Septimius Severus's widow, Julia Domna, increased sympathy for the former dynasty.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Her sister Julia Mesa, who lived in Emes at the time, initiated an uprising in favor of her eldest grandson Heliogabal, the son of her daughter Julia Soemia, who was declared the illegal son of Caracalla.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

On May 16, 218, Heliogabal was represented in this capacity by the army in Emes, and on June 8, Macrin was defeated and fled [18] [19].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Despite the fact that the way of life and behavior of the new emperor had very little to do with the established traditions, the reign of Heliogabal lasted almost four years.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The situation, dangerous for the preservation of the dynasty, forced Yulia Mesa to take measures to transfer power to her other grandson, Alexian Bassian, the son of her other daughter, Julia Mamei.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

On June 26, 221, Heliogabal adopted his cousin, who took the name Alexander, and on January 1, 222, their joint consulate began.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Realizing the danger to their power, the emperor and his mother tried to intrigue against Alexander, but to no avail.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

On March 13, 222, they ordered the army to arrest Alexander, but were killed by rebellious troops [20].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Roman sources tell about the extremely benevolent attitude of the people, the army and the Senate to the fact that in fact power in the empire was in the hands of sixteen of the most respectable senators or that more likely the emperor's mother and grandmother.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Distinguished by his calm and gentle disposition, the emperor willingly engaged in legislative activity.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Among the statesmen who influenced him are the outstanding lawyer Ulpian, historians Dion Cassius and.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, Mamea's influence on the emperor was decisive.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Distinguished, according to Herodian, by extreme love of money, she, despite Alexander's indignation, “took away the fortunes and inheritance of some people on the basis of slander” [20].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It appears on numerous coins and inscriptions with a variety of titles that have not been encountered before, such as, for example, [matri domini n. sanctissimi imp. Severi Alexandri Pii Felicis Aug. et castrorum et senatus et patriae et universi generis humani] error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (“mother of our lord, the Holy Emperor of the North Alexander Pius Felix Augustus and military camps, and the Senate, and the fatherland, and the entire human race”) [21].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As a result, with external well-being, the regime was internally weak, the emperor and his advisers failed to establish discipline and respect for power in the army.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

During the reign of Alexander Severus, there were numerous riots in provincial armies, especially in the east.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In Rome, where Ulpian was killed in 223 and the Praetorians threatened to kill Dion Cassius, who demanded discipline in 229, the situation was no better [22].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Forces of the parties


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Roman army under the North


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Army composition


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The main characteristics of the Roman army by the 3rd century remained unchanged since the time of Octavian Augustus [23].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In the middle of the 2nd century, the regular army, which included 28 legions, Praetorian and urban cohorts, and equites singulares Augusti, numbered 160,000 people, including 5,000 cavalry.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

To this number, we must add 156,500 auxiliary infantry, 53,000 horsemen in alas and 27,500 in cohorts.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Thus, the total number of the army reached 311,500 infantry and 85,500 cavalry.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, data on the actual number of units are not fully known, so the exact size of the army is not known.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Two new legions (II and III Italica) were formed by Marcus Aurelius, and 3 more (I, II and III Parthica) by Septimius North, while maintaining the same proportion of regular troops and auxilias [24].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

After the victory of Septimius Severus in the Civil War, the former composition of the Praetorian Guard, which compromised itself by the trade in imperial titles, was disbanded, and the new one was recruited from loyal to the new Emperor of the Danube Legions.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As a result, Rome, according to Dion Cassia, was flooded with barbarians, and the garrison became four times larger [25].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The size of urban formations also increased — urban cohorts now consisted of 6,000 soldiers, and vigilia of 7,000.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Although immigrants from Italy continued to serve in leading army posts, the provincials have long prevailed.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

During the reign of the First North, officer positions became more accessible to lower social strata [26].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Of great importance for the formation of the Roman army was the edict adopted by Emperor Caracalla in 212, which granted Roman citizenship to the entire free population of the empire.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Regardless of whether the emperor was guided by the desire to benefit his subjects or greed, as Dion Cassius believed, the law caused various changes in Roman society, eliminating, in in particular, the distinction between major and auxiliary legions [27].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Military administration in Mesopotamia


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The province of Mesopotamia, organized by Septimius North in 198, was located east of the new province of Osroena and the remnants of the Kingdom of Edessa and stretched further beyond the Khabur River to the upper current of the Tigris River.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Two of the three new legions were based in this province: I Parthica in Singara and III Parthica, possibly in Nisibis.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It was ruled by a prefect with the rank of horseman.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Compared to the short-lived province that existed under Trajan, the province founded by Septimius North made it possible to solve long-term strategic tasks and became a reliable protection for Syria.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The completion of the formation of the system of eastern provinces occurred with the abolition of Caracalla of the formally independent kingdom in Edessa and its annexation to the province of Osroena in 212 [28].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Papyrus archives discovered in 1931—1932 during excavations at Dura Europos indicate that there were numerous Roman fortifications and settlements north and south of the city, as well as along the Khabur River.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Legions III Cyrenaica, X Fretensis, XVI Flavia Firma and IV Scythica were located in the city itself at different times.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The largest amount of information has been preserved about the XX Palmyrenorum cohort [29] [30].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

These documents show that Dura Europos was an important center of civil administration for the entire region back in the Parthian period, and that with the arrival of the Romans, garrison soldiers who were in the city and dispersed in the surrounding settlements [31], significantly contributed to the romanization of northern Mesopotamia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The intensive militarization of the region during the reign of the North and the construction of a dense chain of fortifications were designed to withstand a large-scale invasion, but the forces for this were not enough [32] [33].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is also known about other garrisons in the lower reaches of Khabur - papyri mention the cohorts III Augusta Thracum (under 227) and XII Palestinorum (in the early 1930s) [34].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

There is also epigraphic evidence of the stay in, where the bridge over the Euphrates was located, of the vexillations of the XVI Flavia Firma Legion [35].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Persian army under the first Sassanids


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Iranian society under the Sassanids was divided — possibly by Ardashir I — into four estates, the second of which (Arteshtaran) included horse and foot warriors [36] [note 1].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Ardashir, who began his career as a commander, was well aware of ancient and modern military science.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Using the Achaemenid military organization, Parthian cavalry and siege technologies borrowed from the Romans as a model, he laid the foundations for an army that served his successors for four centuries [37].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The army (spāh) was based on heavy cavalry [38], the first descriptions of which, included in Ammian Marcellin's Acts and in the novel Ethiopica [39], date back to the middle of the 4th century [37].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Heliodor, “Ethiopica”, Book IX, trans. A. AND. They are armed with this kind: people who are selected and stand out for their bodily strength wear a solid helmet, poured out of one piece, reproducing, like a mask, a human face.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Covered from the crown to the neck, except for the eyes to see, they arm their right hand with a spear larger than an ordinary spear, while the left hand is occupied with a bridle.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

By tying a dagger on the side, they protect not only the chest, but also the entire body with a shell.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The shell is made as follows: quadrangular plates are cast from copper and iron the size of a span on all sides and, overlapping them one on top of the other with edges so that each time the upper one goes to the lower one, bind them together at the junctions, and thus a scaly shirt is obtained that does not squeeze the body, but covers it from all sides and, fitting the limbs, tightens and stretches, does not restricting freedom of movement.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The shell has sleeves and falls from the neck to the knees, leaving only the hips uncovered, because you have to sit on horseback.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This is this shell, the best shock reflector that protects against all kinds of injuries.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As for the leggings, they reach the knees from the foot, in contact with the shell.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The Persians also supply the horse with similar armor, wear legs with leggings, completely clench their heads with foreheads, cover the horse with a blanket trimmed with iron and descending on the sides from the back to the abdomen, so that she protects the horse, and at the same time does not interfere with it or make it difficult to run.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The rider sits on the horse equipped in this way, as if squeezed into his decoration, but he does not jump himself, but because of the weight he is hooked by others.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

When the time of battle comes, having weakened the reins and the hot horse with a battle cry, he rushes at the enemy, like some iron man or a moving forged statue.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The tip of the spear protrudes strongly forward, the spear itself is attached to the horse's neck with a belt; its lower end is held on the horse's croup with a loop, the spear does not lend itself in fights, but helping the rider's hand, only guiding the blow, strains itself and rests firmly, inflicting a severe wound and, in its rapid onslaught, stabs anyone, often piercing two with one blow.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is known that the Sassanid army of Indian elephants as a means of transportation for shooters and spearthrowers, as well as siege and psychological weapons.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The History of Augustus details the number of enemy elephants killed and captured (more on this below).


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Researchers question this news and is associated with the desire of the authors of the chronicle to emphasize the similarity of Alexander Severus with his famous namesake, who defeated the Persians with their elephants at Gaugammela [40 ].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The beginning of conflict


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Sassanid historical ambitions


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Herodian, a contemporary of the events under consideration, reports in his History [41] that


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This point of view, which links Persia's conquest activity in the western direction with the desire to restore the greatness of the Achaemenid monarchy, is shared by Greek historians, starting with Ammian Marcellin [ 42], and Muslim, after Al-Tabari [43].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Until the end of the 19th century, this theory was dominant, until it was first criticized by the German orientalist Theodor Nöldeke, who claimed that by the 3rd century Iran no longer had its own memories about the era of Alexander the Great, and legends that have come down through Muslim sources are a reflection of the novel “The Story of Alexander the Great”, known in the late Sassanid period [43].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This view was also shared by the greatest German historian Theodor Mommsen.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The new theory was widely recognized only after the publication in 1971 of an article by Y.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Ehsan “Were the Sasanians Heirs to the Achaemenids?” [44].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As a result of the surge of interest of researchers in this topic, a significant number of arguments were put forward both in favor of the fact that the Achaemenid tradition continued during the Sassanid period, and against this [45].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As a result, most scientists accepted a compromise point of view that did not deny both of these alternatives, namely that the Sassanids by their ancestors in this case understood the legendary Avestan dynasty, although they may have known through Hellenistic, Talmudic and Christian traditions about the existence of the Achaemenids in the past [46].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

There is also a point of view that the first Sassanid kings knew about the Achaemenids, and the reorientation to the Cayanids occurred only in the 5th century [47].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In this regard, it should also be noted the theory proposed by the Italian historian, according to which it was during the reign of Ardashir I that the concept of “Iran” was formulated.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Prior to that, the term Ērān-vēž was understood in a religious sense as the cradle of humanity, while Ardashir gave it a political meaning, reflecting the idea of reviving the nation-state [48].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This point of view may well explain the territorial claims of the Sassanid state to the Roman Empire due to its specific Zoroastrian view of geography behind it.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Shahnam tells how the hero Faridun divided his kingdom between three sons — who inherited lands in the north and east, who received the west, and the youngest Iraj, to whom his father bequeathed the central part of the state.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The cunning brothers killed Iraj and took possession of his lot.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Thus, in this case, the emergence of “Iran” could be considered by the Sassanids as a restoration of historical justice [44].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Ardashir I Mesopotamian Campaign


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In the late 1920s, Ardashir I had not yet fully consolidated power in the area previously controlled by Parthia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

A number of territories, such as Harakena on the Persian Gulf coast and Adiaben in upper Mesopotamia, remained unconquered until at least 260, judging by the fact that they are not mentioned in the inscription Shapura I.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The priority areas of expansion for Ardashir were states that were clearly supported by the Roman Empire.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Hatra, incorporated into the empire between 198 and 217, maintaining relative independence under the rule of its king Sanatruk II, controlled the Arab tribes in the region [49].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Around 229, Ardashir tried to capture the city, wanting, according to Dion Cassia, to make it a base for his operations against the Romans [50] [51].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, the defense of the city, whose defenses, according to archaeological data, reached 30 meters and made it possible to withstand the siege of the army of Septimius Severus twice, this time turned out to be impregnable for the army young Sassanid state [52].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The main center of resistance to Ardashir for a long time — eleven years, according to Agafangel [53], or even until the death of Emperor Philip Arab (249) according to Movses Khorenatsi [54] — was Armenia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The chronology of Ardashir's actions against Armenia is difficult to accurately determine, but it is likely that his first campaigns against Armenia were undertaken at the same time as the first campaign against Khatra, and were just as unsuccessful .


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Agafangel's detailed story, which is a compilation of the 5th century [55], including a description of the raids in and capture of Ctesiphon, probably exaggerates the scale and significance of the events in Armenia in the 220-1930s [56].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In 230 [57] or 231, Ardashir, considering the resources at his disposal sufficient to clash with the Roman Empire, led his troops to Mesopotamia and Syria [41], besieged Nisibis and even reached Cappadocia [58].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

According to Dion Cassius, Emperor Alexander Severus was not ready for such a development of events, and his army in that part of the empire was in unsatisfactory condition [59].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The herodian reports that an embassy was sent to the “king of kings” with a message from the emperor, proposing to adhere to the existing borders and reminding of the great victories of Augustus, Trajan and Septimius Severus.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Ardashir ignored this warning and continued to ruin Mesopotamia [41].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Campaign progress


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Preparations


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

This response was, in fact, a declaration of war, and without further formalities, Alexander began preparations and left Rome to personally lead the campaign.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

According to Gerodian, Alexander, whose previous years of reign passed in the world, did not want to start military affairs and would gladly stay in the capital, but the impudence of the enemy and urgent requests his commanders in the East forced him to gather combat-ready legions from Italy and the provinces and prepare for the campaign.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Having gathered an army on the Champ de Mars, he turned to the army with a story about Ardashir's insidiousness and his attempts to solve the problem peacefully.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

He then made a similar speech before the Senate, after which, having properly performed religious rituals, he left Rome with tears in his eyes [60] [61].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In a quick march, gathering additional troops on the way to Illyria, Alexander Severus arrived in Antioch, from where he began to lead the processes of training troops and repairing roads [62].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

At the same time, trying to find ways for a peaceful settlement, he again sent ambassadors to the Shah, but again failed to achieve his goal.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Following the imperial embassy, an embassy of 400 luxuriously dressed Persians arrived in Antioch.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

They conveyed the message of Ardashir, which demanded that the emperor leave “Syria and all Asia lying against Europe, and allow the Persians to own all lands up to Ionia and Karia and the peoples , separated by the Aegean Sea and Pontus, for these are the hereditary possessions of the Persians” [63].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Instead of answering, Alexander settled the envoys in Phrygia, “providing them with villages for residence and land for cultivation, imposing only on them punishment so that they do not return to their homeland, for he considered it dishonest and unnoble to kill those who did not fight against him” [64].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

At this point, Alexander faced a rebellion among his soldiers who had arrived from Egypt, but the unrest was quickly suppressed and preparations for the campaign continued.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

At the same time, Alexander managed to reach an agreement with Hatra on the introduction of Roman troops into it as an ally [65].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Fighting


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

When Alexander considered that the Roman army had become numerically equal to the enemy's army, he divided it into three parts.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The first detachment was sent north through Armenia to the “country of the Medes”.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The second was to fight in southern Mesopotamia.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The third, which included the best troops, under the command of the emperor himself, was to deliver the main blow in northern Mesopotamia [66].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The plan of the operation was probably well thought out, and simultaneous strikes from the north and south could interfere with the actions of the enemy and open the way for Alexander.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The northern detachment, having invaded Armenia, successfully engaged in the ruin of Mussel, and the Persian cavalry, not accustomed to operating in rocky terrain, could not prevent them.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

At this point, Ardashir learned about the appearance on its territory of a southern detachment, which was advancing without observing combat order, hoping that Alexander and his most powerful detachment at the right time will come to the rescue.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Leaving minor forces in the north, the Shah and his main army quickly moved south [67].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

However, Alexander, for an inexplicable reason, was unable to join the southern army.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Herodian explains this slowness by the cowardice and influence of his mother, Julia Mamei, who “restrained his courageous impulses, convincing that others should endanger themselves for him, and not for him to join the battle yourself.”


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

As a result, the southern part of the Roman army was completely destroyed, and this defeat was of great psychological importance for both sides [68].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The advance of the detachment under the command of the emperor can be traced from archaeological data, on the basis of which it can be concluded that at first he went to Palmyra, where such an important event is the second the visit of the Roman emperor (the first was Adrian around 129) was marked with an inscription.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It is also known about staying in winter apartments in the winter of 232 in Katna of the XII Palaestinorum cohort [69].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

When the news of defeat reached Alexander in his camp, he was seriously ill “either from decay or from unusual air” [70].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

There was no limit to his chagrin, as well as the discontent of the army, which saw the emperor's inability to adhere to the plan developed earlier.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Seeing that the army, like its leader, was suffering from heat and unusual food, the emperor ordered to retreat to Antioch.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

While retreating, the northern detachment suffered, in addition to combat, heavy losses from disease and cold.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

In Antioch, Alexander quickly recovered from his despondency and drowned out the murmur in the troops by distributing cash gifts.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

He again began to gather troops for the campaign, but news came that Ardashir had decided to end the war and dissolved his army.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

It turned out that the dead northern and southern detachments fought courageously and inflicted losses comparable to the Roman ones on the Persians [71].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The herodian concludes his story by concluding that Persia was forced to remain within its borders again and abandon its plans to conquer Roman territory for 3-4 years [72].


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

The consequences


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Win or lose?


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Herodian's final conclusion looks somewhat unexpected.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Throughout his story, he talks about the inept leadership of the Roman army; that Roman strategy was surpassed by the mobility of the Persians; that the army preferred staying in Antioch to combat actions.


Question: Did you use 602-628 years of elephants in the Iran-Byzantine War?

Alexander Severus's Persian campaign

Nevertheless, the victorious Persians themselves were almost defeated, and their losses were huge; they were unable to start the next campaign and finally abandoned their plans territorial expansion in the West.