Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Further, the weight of the train is checked under such conditions as the strength of the coupling devices (on the CIS roads it is the CA-3 automatic coupler) and for the possibility of starting the train from its place.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

After that, knowing the approximate share of each type of cars in the train, determine the number of cars in the train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Knowing the length of cars and locomotives, the length of the entire train is determined, which is already checked for the permissible placement conditions on the receiving tracks of the station, the train will simply be partially on the other track (it is enough to recall the film “Magistral”, where the acceptance of an extended train for a shorter journey led to tragedy).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The choice of a locomotive for driving a train [4] [4] [8] [8] also depends on a large number of parameters.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In fact, train calculations are quite important, because errors created at the design stage may later go unnoticed in practice.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

An example is the train accident that occurred on 12 in San Bernardino, California, USA, when determining the weight of the train, the employee who performed the calculations determined the loading of wagons is almost “by eye”.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

These calculations were not double-checked, and the total weight of the train was determined as 6,151 tons, when, in fact, it was 8,965 tons, or one and a half times more.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Further, six diesel locomotives led this train through the San Gabriel Ridge, one of which was disconnected.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The ascent was successfully overcome, and then, on the descent, the driver used rheostat braking on the locomotives.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

But electric brakes worked on only three locomotives, while all six were required for actual weight.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

As a result, the speed soon exceeded 30 mph (50 km/h), so air brakes were applied.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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However, not knowing the actual weight of the train, the driver increased the brake pressure gradually, which caused the brakes to quickly overheat and failed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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The uncontrollable train accelerated to speeds of more than 100 mph (160 km/h), after which it derailed at San Bernardino and crashed into residential buildings [9].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Formation


Question: When was the first train invented?

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The basis of a classic train is a train — a group of interconnected cars.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The composition is formed at stations, mainly sorting stations, while other trains are often disbanded [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Wagons can be moved from train to train with the help of small locomotives, but for a large number of trains this takes a considerable amount of time.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Therefore, a more high-performance method has become widespread - the use of a sorting hill, which, as the name implies, is a slide on which the disbanded train, after which the previously disengaged cars (unhooks) themselves roll downhill, while the duty officer only transfers them to the desired track in a timely manner, as well as with the help of those installed on a slope special retarders reduce the unhooking speed to an acceptable one.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Modern sorting hills can be automated when the process of distributing cars along the tracks, as well as slowing them down to the required speed, is controlled by a computer [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

As a result, about 7 trains can be processed per hour, that is, it takes an average of less than 9 minutes to disband one train [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is worth considering that it is not enough just to assemble a group of cars and hook them together.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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If there are empty cars in front of the train and loaded cars in the tail, then when braking due to the uneven operation of the brakes, it is likely that the heavier rear of the train will fly into a more light front, as a result of which light cars can be squeezed out and derailed will fall off the track.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Also, for safety issues, freight cars with dangerous goods should not be placed on passenger trains, and cars with explosive goods should not be placed after cars with flammable goods.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Explosive wagons are most safely placed in the tail and separated from the rest of the train by several cover cars (for example, empty freight cars).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

At the same time, when forming trains, it is taken into account that they will then be disbanded.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Therefore, if the cars are sent to different stations, they try to combine them into groups so that the cars heading to the same station are coupled together [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The rolling stock is inspected by special workers (inspectors) in order to identify malfunctions in the design of wagons or violations during the transportation of goods, as this can threaten traffic and even lead to a crash.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

After the locomotive is attached to the cars, the brakes are checked on the entire train, since if some of the brakes are faulty or disconnected, then during the journey the train is on the descent could get out of hand.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the absence of comments, documents for the train are issued and permission to follow is given [4] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Also, during the journey, an additional check of the brakes for efficiency is carried out, during which the train is braked to reduce the speed by a certain value, while the actual stopping distance should not exceed the calculated one.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Grading


Question: When was the first train invented?

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The classification of trains is quite diverse, including by the nature of the cargo, weight, length, speed, and so on [4] [1].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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They can be divided according to the following criteria:


Question: When was the first train invented?

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By the nature of the cargo


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Passenger — is formed from passenger cars; cars of other types of the passenger fleet can also be attached — luggage, mail, restaurant, etc. [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Tourist


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Guided tour


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Retro train


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Mail and baggage — is formed from baggage, mail cars, and individual passenger cars can also be attached [* 2];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Freight (obsolete — Tovarny, Tovarnyak) — is formed from freight cars;


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Lyudskaya is also formed from freight cars, but a significant number of which (10 or more) are occupied by people.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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At the same time, freight cars, as a rule, are converted for passenger transportation (see: Teplushka); passengers are transported according to cargo documents [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Refrigerated — formed from refrigerated wagons [4]


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Cargo-passenger — is formed from freight and passenger cars, while passengers are transported on railway tickets [4];


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Baggage cargo


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Military — transports military echelons, including troops (forces), weapons, military equipment and other military cargo [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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By speed


Question: When was the first train invented?

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High-speed is a train that travels above a certain speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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For example, in the countries of the European Union, this speed limit is set at 200 km/h for conventional railways and 250 km/h for specialized routes [10].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Similar speeds are set in Russia [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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High-speed — as in the case of a high-speed train, is a train moving above a certain speed, but the set speed bar in this case is much lower.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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For example, for Russia its value is 140 km/h [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Express is a train moving at higher speeds than those established for other trains of similar type of cargo [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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The term applies only to freight trains [4]; the concept of Express Passenger Train does not officially exist [11];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Fast — compared to conventional trains, it has a reduced number of stops, which, as a rule, are operated only at large stations [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Route speed over 50 km/h [12];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Branded


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Regular passenger is the slowest category with a route speed of less than 50 km/h and stops at most stations along the way and accompanying.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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By travel distance


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Long-distance route — the length of the route is more than 150 kilometers.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The definition applies to passenger trains [12].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Until 2004, this definition included trains with a route length of more than 700 kilometers [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Direct — the route passes along two or more roads [4] under one document [5];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Local — The route is less than 700 kilometers long and runs within the same road.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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The definition was applied to passenger trains [4]; since 2004 it has been abolished [12];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Prigorodny — the route length is less than 150 kilometers [4], in some cases up to 200 kilometers [5] [12];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Through — it should be without processing (disbanding — forming a train) through one or more technical (sorting or precinct) stations [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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District police officer — goes from one technical station to another [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Combined — delivers wagons to intermediate stations [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Collecting and dispensing;


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Export — takes out wagons from separate intermediate stations of the site;


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Transfer - the route passes within one node.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

By the regularity of the appeal


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is used, as a rule, for passenger trains, which differ in year-round, summer and one-time trains [5]


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

By length


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In this case, trains such as long-haul trains are distinguished, the length of which is higher than the norm established by the schedule on the section, and increased length, the length of which exceeds a certain value (in Russia — 20 wagons for passenger trains and 350 axles [87 standard cars] for freight trains).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This also includes connected trains, when several trains are coupled at once [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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By weight


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

By analogy with length, in this case, super-heavy trains and increased weight are distinguished.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In Russia, freight trains weighing more than 6,000 tons fall under the concept of overweight trains [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

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By the nature of the service


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Economic — is a mobile railway enterprise related to track facilities [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Snowplow;


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Firefighter;


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Flood control;


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Individual locomotives:


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Control room;


Question: When was the first train invented?

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The pusher.


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Sanitary.


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Armor (combat).


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Traffic organization


Question: When was the first train invented?

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Rail transport performs a large volume of traffic, but the train cannot physically transport this volume at once, as its size, and therefore weight, is limited by the ability of stations to place it on side track and rework (loading-unloading).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Daily unevenness of traffic also plays a role in passenger traffic, when passenger traffic increases significantly during peak hours, which leads to the number of trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Therefore, the railway must be able to pass a large number of trains, and the trains themselves must deliver goods quickly enough, that is, at a high route speed, to withstand competition with other modes of transport.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, trains must also run at intervals so that in the event of an accident with one of them, the train that follows has time to stop [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In order to organize this flow of trains, a traffic schedule was introduced on the mainline railways, starting with the Liverpool-Manchester (1830) and St. Petersburg-Moscow (1851) roads, which determines where which train is supposed to be when.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

And modern train schedules are a plan not only for the actual movement of trains, including crossings and crossings (on single-track railways), but also for the entire operational work of the railway roads, including determining the operating schedules of rolling stock and people, the processing of cars at stations and even the size of trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, “windows” are also provided for repair and construction work on the tracks.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Due to the importance of the traffic schedule, it is not allowed to violate it [4] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To organize traffic according to this schedule, each train receives a number, and depending on the direction it can be even or odd (it is possible to change the number during the journey).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Also, by the range of the number, you can determine what kind of train it is: suburban, express, economic or even a separate locomotive [4] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition to the number, each freight train at the formation station can be assigned a certain index that does not change until the disbandment station.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

If the train is not provided for by the traffic schedule, it is assigned a number when it is assigned [13].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On the subway, trains do not receive numbers, but instead, each train that operates on the line is assigned a route number that corresponds to the train schedule for the whole day [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Each train is serviced by a group of special workers — a locomotive crew.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The senior in this team is the locomotive driver, who also directly controls the train and monitors the safety of the track.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The locomotive crew also includes an assistant locomotive driver, who, like the driver, monitors the safety of the track, and also periodically, at the direction of the driver, visually checks the operation of some equipment of their locomotive or motor car train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

With steam traction, a fireman was also included in the locomotive crew, and a conductor on passenger motor-car trains [* 3].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On passenger trains, there is also a practice when the driver drives the train alone, without an assistant (“one-person work”).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This method is especially common on public transport — the subway and tram.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

With multiple thrust, as well as when using a pusher, the number of locomotive crews is equal to the number of locomotives, but at the same time, the drivers of auxiliary locomotives are directly subordinate to the driver of the leader ( first in the direction of travel) locomotive [4] [13].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On long - distance passenger trains, the locomotive crew cannot monitor the entire train and serve passengers, so a train crew is appointed, which consists of the train manager, train electromechanic and conductors [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Dining cars and mail cars are also serviced by their respective employees.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A work manager or his authorized person may be appointed to household trains, and a train compiler may be appointed for trains with which maneuvers are carried out [13].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the early years, trains on the railways were delimited by an interval in time.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

However, this method quickly proved to be ineffective, so they began to apply the delimitation by space [14].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Initially, only one train was allowed on the section between the two stations (stretch), for control of which semaphores were first used, as on ships, and later traffic lights.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the normal position, the traffic light shows a prohibiting signal, and allows traffic only if the drive behind it is free.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

When the length of one stretch became already long enough for separation and began to limit traffic, the stretch began to be divided into several segments — block sections.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The length of the block section depends on the calculated intervals between passing trains, the track profile, speeds, weight and length of trains, as well as the efficiency of the brakes.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Usually block sections are from 1 kilometer in length.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The first traffic lights showed only permissive and prohibiting signals, but modern traffic lights can already show how many block sections ahead are free, so drivers can know in advance the situation on the route, and therefore, if possible and necessary, drive trains at higher speeds [4] [4] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

However, since it is sometimes difficult for the driver to see the traffic light, which is especially important for high-speed traffic, automatic locomotive signaling has become quite widespread.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In this case, there is a small traffic light in the driver's cab, which duplicates the readings of the traffic light in front on the tracks.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The signal about the traffic light readings enters the cabin through the path in the form of an encrypted signal [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In order for the established train schedule to be observed, control is necessary.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To do this, first of all, the railway track is divided into certain sections (usually 100-150 km) — sections, for each of which a manager — a train dispatcher is appointed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This employee is obliged to ensure that the train schedule is met with all available technical means and, if there is a violation of the schedule, to put late trains back on schedule, for which purpose it can regulate the movement of other trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

That is why the orders of the train dispatcher are subject to unconditional execution.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, train drivers and other employees serving trains also obey the instructions of station duty officers, who in turn are also subordinate to the train dispatcher [4] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Hardware


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Energy


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The energy of the train is a combination of generating and energy-consuming installations, and at the same time systems that ensure operation.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The main amount of energy consumed by the train is used for traction, that is, driving the train (see above for self-propelled rolling stock).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Part of the energy is consumed by auxiliary systems, including heating, lighting and ventilation systems for passenger cars [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Most of them (lighting, heating, ventilation, cooking in dining cars) use electricity to operate.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

One of its sources is an autonomous power supply system, which includes an electric generator and a battery.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The DC generator is rotated from the axis of the wheelset through a belt or cardan drive.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The generator has a voltage of 50 V and its power is about 10 kW.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

If the car is equipped with an air conditioning system, the voltage on the generator is 110 V, and its power can reach 30 kW.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In this case, an alternator and a rectifier are more often used.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To obtain alternating current (to power fluorescent lamps, radio equipment, sockets for connecting electric shavers and other low-power devices), machine or semiconductor DC to AC converters.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The battery is designed to reserve the generator at low speeds, and also perceives load peaks.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The main drawback of such a system is an increase in resistance to movement to 10% [15].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On high-speed and high-speed trains, a power station car is used to supply power to the train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is equipped with a diesel generator set and is mainly installed in the front of the train, just behind the locomotive (on the Aurora and Nevsky Express high-speed trains, it is installed at the tail of the train) .


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On diesel trains, auxiliary generators are used to obtain low voltage, which are driven by a diesel generator set.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On DC trains, the generator is on the same shaft with the dynamotor located under the car, and high-voltage semiconductor converters are also often used.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On AC electric trains, low voltage is obtained from a traction transformer, where the voltage of the contact network is reduced to the required level (about 220 V).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Then the single-phase current in the machine converter is converted into a three-phase current.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Rectifiers are used to obtain DC from alternating current.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On subway cars, the control and lighting circuits are powered by a battery (it is also charged from a contact rail through a set of resistors) or from a static converter [15].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To power the heating circuits, a high voltage is required (on mainline railways - about 3000 V), which comes from the locomotive.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On a DC electric locomotive, power in the train heating circuit comes directly from the contact network, on an AC electric locomotive, the voltage of the contact network (25 kV), using an additional windings on the traction transformer, are reduced to 3 kV, after which it enters the heating circuit.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A diesel locomotive can have a special generator that generates a voltage of 3 kV; otherwise, passenger cars are heated with fuel (coal, firewood, peat).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In metro cars operating in open sections (for example, the Filyovskaya line of the Moscow Metro), as well as in tram cars, electric furnaces are connected directly to the contact network (or to contact rail).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

High voltage can also come not only from the locomotive, but also from the power train car.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Often, low voltage can also be supplied from the locomotive to the cars to power lighting, ventilation, etc., which makes it possible not to use an autonomous power supply system [15].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Refrigerated cars also require electricity for the operation of refrigeration units.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To obtain it, diesel generator sets are used, which are located either on the car itself or on a separate power station car, and often they transfer and refrigeration units [15].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Brake equipment


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Modern trains can weigh thousands or even tens of thousands of tons, which travel on rails at significant speeds, which for high-speed trains can reach more than 300 km/h.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

As a result, the train has tremendous kinetic energy (it is enough to recall the plot of films about uncontrollable trains, for example, “Uncontrollable”), despite the fact that it moves, as a rule, on smooth metal wheels on smooth rails.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

And in this situation, the effectiveness of the brakes is important, because it depends on them how long the stopping distance will be.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Railway brakes are distinguished by how to create braking force [4] [16].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The most common are friction brakes, which use the friction force formed by pressing the pads against the metal surface of the wheel to create a braking effect, or the brake disk.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On early trains, the pads were pressed manually by special brake workers.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

However, in this case, the braking efficiency depended on the physical strength of the workers, and the response speed was relatively low.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Therefore, handbrakes are currently used only as parking brakes.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Already in 1869, the brakes were replaced by compressed air, which is created by compressor units and stored in the main tanks.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Under pressure of several atmospheres (with normal service braking - about two), this compressed air from the tanks along the brake line enters the brake cylinders and then through the lever the transmission forces the pads to press against the wheels or brake discs with a force of several tons.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In 1872, George Westinghouse finalized the design of the air brake, creating an automatic one, which immediately applies emergency braking when the line breaks, for example, when a train breaks.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Also, at first, air brakes did not have the ability to regulate the air pressure in the brake cylinders, and therefore the braking force.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Subsequently, air brakes were created, which already made it possible to do this.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In particular, this type of brake of the Ivan Matrosov system used on the railways of the post-Soviet space, which has been used since the early 1930s.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A further improvement in the design was the electropneumatic brake, which uses electrical control of the air supply to the cylinders, so that the brakes on the entire train operate almost at the same time (with pure pneumatic braking, the air wave moves at the speed of sound, that is, with some delay), which is especially important on long freight trains, as well as passenger trains [4] [4] [5] [5] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The main drawback of pneumatic brakes is that the braking effect also depends on the friction force of the wheels on the rails, despite the fact that the latter can be contaminated.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, if pneumatic brakes are used incorrectly, the wheels may jam; at the same time, the rolling surface may be damaged (influx or grinding of metal).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Therefore, there are friction brakes in which the brake pads are pressed directly against the rails, and the braking effect is created due to the magnetic field, for which the pads (shoes) are equipped with coils inductance, thus becoming an electromagnet.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This type of brake is called a magnetic rail brake (Electromagnetic Rail Brake) and it is very effective, especially at high speeds.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is used on high-speed trains, industrial transport and, especially, trams [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

During dynamic braking, the braking effect is created by using the engine, which avoids wear of the brake pads [16].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A significant part of the traction rolling stock is equipped with electric traction motors that are reversible, that is, they can be used as electric generators, thereby converting the kinetic and potential energy of the train into electrical energy.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This is electric braking and regenerative braking is distinguished by the type of use of the generated electricity, when this energy charges the traction battery (a similar principle uses a hybrid car) or is given through a contact network (for contact electric locomotives and electric trains) to other consumers (for example, other trains on the section), rheostat, when electric energy is converted into thermal energy in special resistors (rheostats), as well as recuperative-rheostat, in which both of these types are combined (for example, at high speeds - regenerative braking, and lower — rheostat) [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On trains, reverse braking can also be used, that is, by counteractivating the engine.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Simply put, the driver switches the engine to reverse during this braking.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This braking was also used on steam locomotives (countersteam), where it turned out to be quite effective.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is possible to use it both on rolling stock and with electric traction motors, but it should be borne in mind that the countercurrent mode for electric machines is close to emergency, and therefore it can only be used at low speeds.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Nevertheless, this type of braking was used on AC electric locomotives with pulse control, including the most powerful serial locomotives in the USSR — the VL85 [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On high-speed trains, you can use an aerodynamic brake, as in aviation.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To do this, the cars are equipped with retractable shields, which, when braking, extend, acting similarly to spoilers on aircraft [16].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This brake is used on Japanese Fastech 360 electric trains, and due to the shape of the shields, this electric train is nicknamed the “Shinkansen with cat ears”.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Signals


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To ensure traffic safety, the train needs signals that would notify in advance of its approach, as well as warn which direction it is heading.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, with sound signals, the driver can exchange information with employees on the tracks, including issuing commands to train compilers and car inspectors [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The need to warn about the approach of the train was already shown at the opening of the first railway, the Liverpool - Manchester road, when on the same day the famous steam locomotive “Raketa” made a run over MP William Huskisson, as a result of which the latter died a few hours later.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Bells were used to sound signals on the first locomotives, which were later replaced by pneumatically driven whistles and typhons (steam (on steam locomotives) or compressed air).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Whistles are designed to give signals of low volume, typhons - for high volume signals.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The normal sound level of the typhon signal at a distance of 5 meters is about 120 dB at a tone frequency of 360 to 380 Hz, and the whistle signal at a distance of 5 meters has a sound level of 105 dB at pitch frequency of about 1200 Hz [* 4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

High volume signals should be reliably heard within the braking distance, that is, at a distance of up to a kilometer or more, but within settlements they try to use them rarely, only for prevent accidents, such as hitting a person [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Sound signals are distinguished by the number and duration of signals.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

For example, three short beeps have the value “Stop” and one long beep means “Train departure” [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Visible signals of trains are designed to indicate the head and tail of the train, that is, they show in which direction it is heading.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Visible signals also include a searchlight, which indicates the head of a train; it can also be supplemented by headlights.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The tail of the train, as a rule, is indicated by red lights, or by a red disc with a reflector [18].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Control and safety devices


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To improve safety, trains are equipped with various devices and devices, most of which are located in the driver's cab.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To monitor traffic light signals, the train is equipped with ALS — an automatic locomotive alarm.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It reads from the path special signals coming from the traffic light in front, deciphers them and duplicates the signals in front at the mini-traffic light (locomotive traffic light) located in the cabin of a standing traffic light.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To check the driver's vigilance, the so-called vigilance handle (RB, structurally it is made in the form of a button or pedal) is used.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

When changing the reading at the locomotive traffic light, as well as if the driver has not changed the position of the traction and brake controls for a long time, a beep sounds, which is often is duplicated by light (in some cases the light signal lights up before the sound signal).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

After hearing a beep (or seeing a light signal), the driver must immediately press the RB; otherwise, after a certain time (5-10 s), emergency braking will be automatically applied.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Periodic vigilance checks are also carried out when the train approaches a traffic light with a prohibiting indication.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Often, sensors are used to monitor the driver's vigilance, which measure his physiological data (pulse, pressure, head inclination) [13] [19] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To control the speed, a mechanical speed gauge is installed in the cab.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The ALS and the speed gauge constantly interact with each other: for example, if a traffic light with red light passes at a speed above 20 km/h, emergency braking will be triggered.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, the locomotive speed gauge acts as a black box [20].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A paper tape is installed in its upper part, on which a number of parameters are recorded: time, speed, distance traveled, pressure in the pressure and brake lines, as well as in the brake cylinder , locomotive traffic light readings.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Currently, the ALS and the speed gauge are being replaced on Russian rolling stock with a CLUB (complex locomotive safety device).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It acts as a speed gauge and ALS, and also monitors the speed [4] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Various sensors and relays (boxing relays, overload relays) are designed to monitor the condition of the equipment, the warning lamps from which are output to the driver's console.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Passenger trains are equipped with fire alarms, detectors of which are located in cabins and vestibules.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To monitor the running gear of cars and locomotives, various sensors are installed on the railway track.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

They make it possible to detect many defects, including: overheating of the axle boxes, damage to the chassis, violation of size.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Traffic safety, by reducing the load on the driver, is also increased by SAVP, a train driving system (driver).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Currently, most metro trains are controlled by automation, on suburban electric trains it is mainly used for prompts (warns of speed limits, readings traffic lights, and also announces stops) [21] [22].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Connectivity


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

To exchange information between train drivers and station attendants, train dispatchers, train compilers, as well as with each other, trains are equipped with radio communication devices.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Depending on the type of work, two types of radio communication are used on the subway and mainline railways — train and shunting.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The first is used to exchange information between train drivers and train dispatchers, as well as with each other, the second is used to exchange information from the duty officer at the centralization post with the train driver and train compilers during maneuvers [23] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Radio communication operates in simplex mode with a group call in the most common hectometer (~ 2 MHz) and meter (~ 151-156 MHz) bands.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Since the level of interference is quite high in the hectometer range, guide wires are pulled along the railway track to obtain a good signal, which can be placed on supports contact network, or on supports of overhead communication lines.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On mainline railways, radio communication between train drivers and train dispatchers is carried out via the dispatching train radio communication on the decimeter range (330 MHz, abroad - up to 450 MHz), the train serves to communicate train drivers with each other, with station attendants, as well as with the train chief (on passenger trains).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Locomotive radios are installed in the control cabin, often with two consoles (separately for the driver and for his assistant) [23] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On passenger motor-car trains, an internal communication system is installed, which is carried out via a wire line.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This system is designed to transmit messages to passengers in the cabin, as well as to exchange information between members of the locomotive crew (driver with assistant or conductor) who are in different cabins .


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

For emergency communication between passengers and the driver, the passenger-driver communication system is designed, the intercoms of which are located in the passenger compartments.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Often, driver-passenger and passenger-driver communication systems are combined into one whole [24].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Train records


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the world


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Fastest rail train: On April 3, 2007, the French TGV POS train accelerated to speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest average graphic speed of electric rail trains: the Japanese Nozomi train runs on a schedule every day at an average speed of 261.8 km/h (French TGV).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest average graphic speed of diesel trains: English InterCity 125 diesel trains run at medium speeds on the London-Edinburgh route.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The fastest air-suspended train: On March 5, 1974, the French L'Aerotrain 180 Haute vitesse reached speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Fastest maglev train: On December 2, 2003, in Yamanashi, Japan, the MLX01 train on the JR-Maglev line accelerated to.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest graphic speed of maglev trains: In China, a train runs between Shanghai and Pudong Airport, which accelerates to.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Fastest steam-powered train: On July 3, 1938, on a slight slope of Stoke Bank south of the English city of Gratham, an A4 class steam locomotive No. 4468 Mallard (Wild Duck) with a train of 6 passenger and of one dynamometer car accelerated to speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The fastest jet-powered train: On July 24, 1966, the American prototype railcar M-497, with jet engines mounted on the roof, reached speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest and heaviest passenger train: On April 27, 1991, one electric locomotive drove a passenger train of 70 cars from Ghent to Ostend in Belgium.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Its length was, and the total weight was equal.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest journey by one train: on the route Moscow — Pyongyang [30].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest regular year-round passenger train along the route was train No. 53/54 Kharkiv-Vladivostok, its route was [31].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The train that has not changed its name and route the longest: since 1862, the Flying Scot train has been running on the London-Edinburgh route.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest and heaviest freight train: On June 21, 2001, a train loaded with iron ore was carried in Australia.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The train consisted of 682 cars, it was driven by 8 diesel locomotives distributed along the length of the train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The weight of the cargo was 82,262 tons, and the total length of the train was 7,353 m. [29]


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest cargo-passenger train: In Mauritania, a train of about 3,000 meters runs between Zouerate and Nouadhibou. The main cargo is ore, and several compartment cars are also included in the train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest and heaviest narrow-gauge freight train () passed to Sishen-Saldanha, South Africa, from 26 to 27 August 1989. The train, which stretched over, included (each weighing) a tank car and a service car, which were driven by nine 50-kilowatt electric locomotives and 7 diesel locomotives with electric transmission.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The total weight of the train (without locomotives) reached.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The train covered the distance in 22 hours and 40 minutes.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

IN CIS


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The fastest rail train: in 1993, on the Spirovo-Likhoslavl section, the TEP80-002 diesel locomotive reached speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The fastest steam-powered train: on June 29, 1938, on the Likhoslavl-Kalinin section, a steam locomotive of type 2-3-2 of the Kolomna Zavod with a train of 14 axles reached speed (according to other sources).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The fastest electric train: EVS-1/EVS-2 Sapsan on regular flights of the winter schedule 2010/11 traveled 650 km from Moscow to St. Petersburg for, accelerating on the Bugra-Mstinsky stretch bridge to.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

During the experimental trips, these figures were exceeded.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Previous records: in July 2001, on a pilot flight on the St. Petersburg-Moscow line, the ES250 Sokol electric train reached speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

[33] An even earlier record belonged to the ChS2m electric locomotive — on February 26, 1971, when testing a new design of turnouts at the Pomeranie station, a train consisting of an electric locomotive and three conventional interregional (with seats) cars, developed speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

[34] [35] [36]


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The fastest jet-powered train: at the beginning of 1972, on the Novomoskovsk-Dneprovsky-Balovka stretch of the Pridneprovskaya Railway, the SVL [37] turbojet car reached speed.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest and heaviest passenger train: in the summer of 1988, a passenger electric locomotive ChS7-152 drove a passenger train of 32 cars from Moscow from Kursky Railway Station.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The length of the train was, the weight —.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest schedule speed of rail trains: the Aurora and Nevsky Express high-speed trains, as well as the ER200 electric train, run at maximum speed on the Moscow-Saint Petersburg line.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest average schedule speed of rail trains: in 1988, the ER200 electric train ran on the Moscow-Leningrad route at an average speed, covering the entire journey in 4 hours and 20 minutes.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Due to frequent delays, the running time was extended by 20 minutes in 1989.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest average block speed of rail trains: since December 3, 2000, for the ER200 electric train, the total travel time (taking into account the time of all stops) on the Moscow-Saint Petersburg route is 4 hours and 25 minutes, which corresponds to a route speed of 145.9 km/h (in 1988, the route speed of the EU200 was 4 hours and 30 minutes).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The highest block speed of rail trains: On December 19, 2001, on an experimental trip with passengers, the ER200 traveled from Moscow to St. Petersburg in 3 hours and 55 minutes, setting the route speed at 166 km/h.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The longest and heaviest freight train: On February 20, 1986, a coal train was sent from Ekibastuz to the Urals.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The train consisted of 439 cars.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The weight of the train was 43.4 thousand tons, and the total length was 6.5 thousand meters [42]


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

See also


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Rail transport


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Notes


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

comments


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Sources


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Literature


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

URL—wikilink conflict (help)


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Category:Railway rolling stock


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Category:Vehicles


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Artificial languages are specialized languages in which vocabulary, phonetics, and grammar have been specially designed to realize certain goals.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

It is purposefulness that distinguishes artificial languages from natural ones.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

These languages are sometimes referred to as fake languages.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

There are already more than a thousand such languages, and new ones are constantly being created [2].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The reasons for creating an artificial language are: facilitating human communication (international auxiliary languages, codes), giving fiction additional realism, linguistic experiments, communication in a fictional world, language games.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The expression “artificial language” is sometimes used to refer to planned languages and other languages designed to communicate with people.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Sometimes they prefer to call such languages “planned”, as the word “artificial” can have a disdainful connotation in some languages.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Outside the Esperanto community, “planned language” means a set of rules related to natural language in order to unify (standardize) it.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

In this sense, even natural languages can be artificial in some respects.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Prescriptive grammars described in ancient times for classical languages, such as Latin and Sanskrit, are based on the rules for codifying natural languages.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Such sets of rules are a cross between the natural development of a language and its construction through a formal description.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The term “glossopoeia” refers to the construction of languages for any artistic purpose, and also means these languages themselves [3].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Review


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The idea of creating a new language of international communication was born in the XVII-XVIII centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the role of Latin in the world.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Initially, these were mainly projects of a rational language, independent of the logical errors of living languages, and based on a logical classification of concepts.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Later, projects based on the model and materials of living languages appeared.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Perhaps the first such project was published by Rasmus Rusk in 1823 [4], followed by a universalglot published by Jean Pirro in 1868 in Paris.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The next project of the international language was Volapük, created in 1880 by the German linguist I. Schleyer.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

It caused a very great resonance in society.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto [5] (Ludwik Zamenhof, 1887), the only artificial language that became widespread and united quite a few supporters of the international language.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The number of speakers of artificial languages can only be named approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of native speakers.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

According to the Ethnologist handbook, there are “200-2,000 people who speak Esperanto since birth” [6].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

As soon as an artificial language has native speakers who are fluent in the language, especially if there are many such speakers, the language begins to develop and, therefore, loses its status as an artificial language .


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

For example, modern Hebrew was based on Biblical Hebrew rather than created from scratch, and has undergone significant changes since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

However, linguist Gilad Zuckerman argues that modern Hebrew, which he calls “Israeli”, is a Semitic-European hybrid and is based not only on Hebrew, but also on Yiddish (Yiddish) and other languages spoken by followers of the religious revival movement [7].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Therefore, Zuckerman approves of the translation of the Hebrew Bible into a language he calls “Israeli” [8].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Esperanto, as a modern spoken language, is significantly different from the original version published in 1887, so the modern issues of the Fundamenta Krestomatio of 1903 require many footnotes on syntactic and lexical differences between early and modern Esperanto [9].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Proponents of artificial languages have many reasons for using them.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The well-known but controversial Sepir-Worf hypothesis suggests that the structure of language affects the way you think.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Thus, the “best” language should allow the person who speaks it to think more clearly and intelligently, a hypothesis tested by Suzet Hayden Elgin when creating the feminist language Laadan, which appeared in her novel Native Tongue [10].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Artificial language can also be used to limit thoughts, like Newspeak in George Orwell's novel, or to simplify things like the Tokepon language.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

On the contrary, some linguists, like Stephen Pinker, argue that the language we speak is “instinct.”


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Thus, every generation of children invents slang and even grammar (see below). Language as an instinct).


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

If this is true, it will not be possible to control the range of human thought by transforming language, and concepts such as “freedom” will appear as new words when the old ones disappear.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Proponents of artificial languages also believe that a particular language is easier to express and understand concepts in one area, but more difficult in others.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

For example, different computer languages make it easier to write only certain types of programs.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Another reason for using artificial language is the telescope rule, which says that it takes less time to first learn a simple artificial language and then a natural language language than to learn only natural language.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

For example, if someone wants to learn English, they can start by learning BASIC English.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Artificial languages like Esperanto and Interlingua are simpler due to the absence of irregular verbs and some grammatical rules.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Numerous studies have shown that children who first learned Esperanto and then another language achieved a better level of language proficiency than those who did not previously learn esperanto.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

(see The pedagogical value of Esperanto)


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The ISO 639-2 standard contains the “art” code for artificial languages.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

However, some artificial languages have their own ISO 639 codes (e.g. “eo” and “epo” for Esperanto, “jbo” for lozhban, “ia” and “ina” for interlingua, “tlh” for Klingon, and “io” and “ido” for ido).


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Grading


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The following types of artificial languages are distinguished:


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Programming languages and computer languages are languages for automatic processing of information using a computer.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Information languages are languages used in various information processing systems.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Formalized languages of science are languages designed to symbolically record scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

International auxiliary languages (planned) are languages created from elements of natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Languages of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes, for example: the elven language invented by J.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Tolkien, Klingon [11], invented by Mark Oakrand for the science fiction series Star Trek, the Na'vi language [12], created for the film Avatar.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

There are also languages that have been specifically designed to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

For example, lincos.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages can be divided into the following groups:


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Philosophical and logical languages are languages that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: lozhban, tokipona, ilaksh.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Auxiliary languages — designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovenian, Lingua franca nova, Venusian


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Artistic or aesthetic languages are created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya and other fictional languages.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Languages for conducting an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language a person speaks limits consciousness, drives him into certain limits).


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

A priori languages are based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lozhban, ro, solresol, ifquil, ilaksh.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

A posteriori languages are languages built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Mixed languages — words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artificial languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapük, Ido, esperanto, neo.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

According to the degree of practical use, artificial languages are divided into the following projects:


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Widespread languages: Ido, Interlingua, Esperanto.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Such languages, like national languages, are called “socialized”, among artificial ones they are combined under the term planned languages.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Artificial language projects that have a certain number of supporters, such as loglan (and its descendant lozhban), slovio, and others.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Languages that have a single native speaker — the author of the language (for this reason it is more correct to call them “linguistic projects” rather than languages).


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

History


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Ancient linguistic experiments


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The first mention of artificial language in antiquity appeared, for example, in Plato's Cratila in Hermogen's statement that words are not inherently related to what they relate to; that people apply “part of their own voice... to the subject.”


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Atheneus of Navkratis in Deipnosophistae's third book tells the story of two people: Dionysius from Sicily and Aleksarch.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Dionysius from Sicily created neologisms such as menandros “virgin” (from menei “waiting” and andra “husband”), menekratēs “pillar” (from menei, “stays in one place” and kratei, “strong”), and ballantion” spear” (from balletai enantion “thrown against someone”).


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

By the way, the usual Greek words for these three are parthenos, stulos and akon.


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Aleksarch of Macedon (brother of King Cassandra) was the founder of the city of Ouranoupolis.


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Athenite recalls a story where Aleksarch “proposed a strange dictionary, calling the rooster the “screamer of dawn”, the hairdresser a “death razor”... and the herald aputēs [from ēputa, “loud-voiced”]”.


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While the grammar mechanisms proposed by classical philosophers were designed to explain existing languages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit), they were not used to create a new grammar.


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Early artificial languages


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

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The earliest artificial languages were considered “supernatural,” mystical, or divinely inspired.


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The Lingua Ignota language, recorded in the 12th century by St.


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Hildegard of Bingen became the first fully artificial language [13].


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This language is a form of private mystical language (see also the language of angels).


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Artificial language

An example from Middle Eastern culture is the Baleibelen language, invented in the 16th century [3].


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Language improvement


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Johann Trithemius in his work “Steganography” tried to show how all languages can be reduced to one.


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In the 17th century, interest in magical languages was continued by the Order of the Rosicrucians and alchemists (like John Dee and his Enochian language).


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Artificial language

Jacob Boehme spoke in 1623 about the “natural language” (Natursprache) of the senses.


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The musical languages of the Renaissance were associated with mysticism, magic and alchemy and were sometimes also called the language of birds.


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The Solresol Project of 1817 used the concept of “musical languages” in a more pragmatic context: the words of this language are based on the names of seven musical notes used in various combinations [14].


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17th and 18th centuries: the emergence of universal languages


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In the 17th century, such “universal” or “a priori” languages appeared, such as:


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A Common Writing (1647) by Francis Lodwick;


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Ekskybalauron (1651) and Logopandecteision (1652) by Thomas Urckhart [15];


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George Dalgarno's Ars signorum, 1661;


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Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language by John Wilkins, 1668;


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These early taxonomic artificial languages were devoted to the creation of a hierarchical language classification system.


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Leibniz used a similar idea for his 1678 language Generalis.


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The authors of these languages were not only busy shortening or modeling grammar, but also compiling a hierarchical system of human knowledge, which later led to the French Encyclopedia.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

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Many of the artificial languages of the 17th and 18th centuries were pasigraphic or purely written languages that did not have an oral form [16].


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Leibniz and the compilers of the Encyclopedia realized that it is impossible to definitely put all human knowledge in the “Procrustean bed” of the tree scheme, and, therefore, to build a priori language based on such classification of concepts.


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D'Alembert criticized the projects of universal languages of the previous century.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

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Some authors, who usually did not know about the history of the idea, continued to offer taxonomic universal languages until the beginning of the 20th century (for example, the Ro language), but the most recent languages were limited a specific area, such as mathematical formalism or computation (e.g. Lincos and programming languages), others were designed to remove syntactic ambiguity (for example, Loglan and Lozhban).


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Artificial language

19th and 20th Century: Auxiliary Languages


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Artificial language

Interest in a posteriori auxiliary languages arose during the creation of the French Encyclopedia.


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During the 19th century, a large number of international auxiliary languages appeared; Louis Couture and Leopold Law considered 38 projects in their Histoire de la langue universelle (1903).


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The first international language was Volapük, created by Johann Martin Schleier in 1879.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

However, disagreements between Schleyer and some famous language users led to a decline in the popularity of Volapük in the mid-1890s, and this gave development to Esperanto, created in 1887 Ludwik Zamenhof.


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Interlingua was born in 1951 when the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) published its interlingua English dictionary and related grammar.


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The success of Esperanto did not prevent the emergence of new auxiliary languages, such as Leslie Jones's Eurolengo language, which contains elements of English and Spanish.


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The Robot Interaction Language (ROILA) 2010 is the first language for communication between humans and robots.


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The main ideas of the ROILA language are that it should be easy for humans to learn and be effectively recognized by computer speech recognition algorithms [17].


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Artistic languages


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Artificial language

Languages created for use in works of art, or artlangs, begin to appear in early modern literature (in Gargantua and Pantagruel, in utopian motifs), but receive fame as serious projects only at the beginning of the 20th century [3].


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Edgar Burroughs' Princess of Mars was perhaps the first science fiction novel to use artificial language.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

John Tolkien was the first scholar to discuss artistic languages publicly, giving a lecture entitled “A Secret Vice” at a congress in 1931.


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Artificial language

By the beginning of the first decade of the 21st century, artistic languages had become quite common in science fiction and fantasy works, which often use extremely limited, but a certain dictionary that indicates the existence of a full-fledged artificial language; in some cases, artlang may have a well-developed grammar, writing, phonetics and even a development history.


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Artificial language

Artistic languages appear, for example, in Star Wars, Star Trek, Kin-dza-dza!


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Artificial language

, The Lord of the Rings (elven language), Stargate, Atlantis: The Lost World, Game of Thrones (Dothraki and Valyrian), Avatar, computer adventure games Dune and Myst.


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Modern communities of artificial languages


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Artificial language

From the 1970s to the 1990s, various magazines about artificial languages were published, such as Glossopoeic Quarterly, Taboo Jadoo and The Journal of Planned Languages [18].


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Artificial language

was founded in 1991, and later separated the AUXLANG mailing list dedicated to international auxiliary languages.


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Artificial language

In the first half of the 1990s, several magazines dedicated to artificial languages were published as emails, and several magazines were published on websites, such as Vortpunoj [19] and Model Languages.


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Artificial language

Sarah Higley's survey results show that members of the artificial language mailing list are primarily men from North America and Western Europe, fewer are from Oceania, Asia, Middle East and South America, participants range in age from thirteen to sixty years; the number of women participating increases over time.


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Artificial language

Most recently founded communities include the Zompist Bulletin Board (ZBB; since 2001) and the Conlanger Bulletin Board.


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Artificial language

At the forums, there is communication between participants, discussion of natural languages, participants decide whether certain artificial languages have the functions of natural language, and which interesting the functions of natural languages can be used in relation to artificial languages, these forums post short texts that are interesting from the point of view of translation, as well as discussions about philosophy artificial languages and the goals of members of these communities [3].


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Artificial language

ZBB data showed that a large number of participants spend relatively little time on one artificial language and move from one project to another, spending about four months studying one language [20].


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Artificial language

Collaborative artificial languages


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

The Talos language, the cultural basis for the virtual state known as Talossa, was created in 1979.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

However, as interest in the Talos language grew, the Committee for the Use of the Talos Language, as well as other independent organizations of enthusiasts, has been developing guidelines and rules on the language since 1983 .


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is based on Latin, Greek and Scandinavian languages.


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Its syntax and grammar are reminiscent of Chinese.


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The main elements of this artificial language were created by one author, and its dictionary has been expanded by members of the Internet community.


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Most artificial languages are created by one person, like Talos.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

But there are languages that are created by a group of people, such as Interlingua, developed by the International Auxiliary Language Association, and Lozhban, created by the Logic Language Group.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

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Collaborative development of artificial languages has become common in recent years, as artificial language designers have begun to use online tools to coordinate design developments.


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Artificial language

NGL/TokCir [21] was one of the first web-based collaborative designed languages to use a mailing list to discuss and vote on grammatical and lexical issues design.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Later, The Demos IAL Project [22] developed an International Auxiliary Language using similar joint methods.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Languages were also developed through mailing lists, but none of them were published in final form.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

Several artistic languages have been developed on various language wikis, usually with discussion and voting on phonology and grammar rules.


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

An interesting option for language development is a corpus approach, such as Kalusa [23] (mid-2006), where participants simply read the corpus of existing sentences and add their own, perhaps supporting existing trends or adding new words and constructions.


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Artificial language

The Kalusa mechanism allows visitors to rate offers as acceptable or unacceptable.


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In the corpus approach, there is no explicit indication of grammatical rules or explicit definitions of words; the meaning of words is derived from their use in various sentences of the corpus by various readers and participants, and grammatical rules can be derived from sentence structures that were most appreciated by participants and other visitors.


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Artificial language

See also


Question: What is the name of the first artificial language?

Artificial language

List of artificial languages


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Artificial language

Planned language


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Artificial language

Information retrieval language


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Artificial language

Controlled language


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Simplified technical language


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Periodicals in artificial languages


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Notes


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Literature


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References


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Category:Interlinguistics


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Kirsten Caroline Dunst (born April 30, 1982) is an American actress, film director, screenwriter, producer, model, and singer.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

She began her acting career in 1989, playing a cameo role in New York Stories (1989).


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

She became known to the general public at the age of 12, playing the role of Claudia in Interview with the Vampire in 1994, for which she won a Saturn Award and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in the category “Best Supporting Actress — Movie”.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Dunst became very famous after playing the role of Mary Jane Watson in the trilogy about Spider-Man.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

She also gained fame for her roles in films such as Jumanji (1995), Suicide Virgins (1999), Love Virus (2001), Wimbledon (2004), Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), Elizabethtown (2005), Marie Antoinette (2006), How to Lose Friends and Make Everyone Hate You (2008), etc.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 2001, Dunst made her debut as a singer in the film “Love Virus”, performing two songs.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In the same year, she performed the jazz song “”, in the film “Death in Hollywood” (2001).


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 2011, Dunst won the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her role in Lars von Trier's Melancholy (2011).


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

For her role as Peggy Blomqvist in the television series Fargo (2015), she was nominated for an Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award in 2016.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Early years and education


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Born April 30, 1982 in Point Pleasant, New Jersey, the son of Inez Carolyn Rupprecht and Klaus Herman Dunst.


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Kirsten Dunst

She has a younger brother, Christian Edward, who was born in 1986.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The actress's father worked for a medical company, and her mother was initially a flight attendant for Lufthansa [1] [2], and then became an artist and owner of her own art gallery [3].


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Kirsten Dunst

Klaus Hermann Dunst is German from Hamburg (his surname Dunst is an English transcription of the German Dunst), Inez Carolyn Rupprecht is from New Jersey and has Swedish and German roots [4] [5].


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Kirsten Dunst

Dunst obtained German citizenship in 2011.


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Kirsten Dunst

He is fluent in German.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Until the age of 11, Kirsten lived in Brick Township, New Jersey, where she attended English: Ranney School [6].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 1993, her parents separated, and Kirsten moved with her mother and younger brother to Los Angeles, where she attended Laurel Hall School in North Hollywood and then a private Catholic Notre Dame High School in Los Angeles.


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Kirsten Dunst

In 1995, Inez filed for divorce [3].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

After graduating from high school in 2000, Dunst continued her career as an actress.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

As a teenager, she fell on great fame, but it was not without the associated difficulties.


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Kirsten Dunst

Kirsten at the time accused her mother of using her childhood for a film career.


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Kirsten Dunst

However, she later stated that her mother always had only the best intentions [7].


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Kirsten Dunst

And when asked if she regretted how she spent her childhood, Kirsten said, “Well, it's not the only way to grow up, but I've grown up this way and I wouldn't want to change that. Now I have the experience for a successful career... I don't think anyone sitting around would say, “My life is worse than yours.” Everyone has their own problems” [8].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Career


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

1988—1993: Early works


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Dunst began her career at the age of three as a model in commercial television programs [3] [9].


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Kirsten Dunst

She signed a contract with Ford Models and Elite Model Management [3].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

When Kirsten was six years old, she made her film debut, a small role in a short film directed by Woody Allen, which was released as 1/3 of New York Stories in 1989.


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Kirsten Dunst

Shortly thereafter, Kirsten played the role of Tom Hanks's daughter in Vanity Bonfire in 1990 [3].


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Kirsten Dunst

In 1993, Dunst played the role of Hedril on Star Trek. The next generation” [10].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

1994—2001: A great success


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Dunst's great achievement was his role in Interview with the Vampire (1994), based on the novel by Anne Rice, in which she played the role of Claudia's vampire child, adopted daughter of Lestat and Louis, played Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt [11].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The film received mixed reviews, but critics praised Dunst's work [12].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Roger Ebert commented that Dunst's embodiment of the image of a vampire child was one of the most terrible aspects of the film and spoke about her ability to convey the impression of an adult woman as a little girls [13].


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Kirsten Dunst

The film featured the scene of her first on-screen kiss with Brad Pitt, who is 18 years her senior [14].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In an interview for Interview magazine, she admitted that she was uncomfortable during the filming of the kiss scene: “I thought it would be rude and that Brad would get cutis — it's kind of infectious a disease transmitted through body contact from adult to child — because I was 10 years old at the time” [15].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

For her role, Dunst won the MTV Movie Awards (Breakthrough of the Year), the Saturn Award (Best Young Actor/Actress) and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in movie” [16] [17].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Later that year, Dunst starred in the drama Little Women, which also starred Winona Ryder and Claire Danes [3].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The film received good reviews from critics [18].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

“New York Times” critic Janet Maslin wrote that the film is the best adaptation of the novel, she also noted Dunst's good acting: “A beautiful charge from Joe goes Kirsten Dunst to the scene of the theft of Amy, whose vanity and mischief gave more meaning to the 11-year-old fox than the adult Joan Bennett in 1933. Miss Dunst is also frighteningly spectacular as a little bloodsucker in Interview with the Vampire, she is a little vampire with a great future” [19].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 1995, she appeared in the family film Jumanji, which was based on Chris van Allsburg's 1981 book of the same name.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

This is a story about a supernatural and sinister board game that spawns various animals and other dangers of the jungle every time a player rolls the dice [20].


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Kirsten Dunst

Together with Dunst, Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt and David Alan Greer starred in the film.


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Kirsten Dunst

At the global box office, the film grossed $262 million [21].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 2002, Dunst was named one of People magazine's “50 Most Beautiful People” [3].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 1996, Dunst returned to her role on the NBC series ER - she played the role of a juvenile prostitute Charlie Chimingo, who was taken under the care of doctor Doug Ross, played the role of George Clooney.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 1997, along with Meg Ryan and John Cusack, she voiced one of the characters in the musical cartoon Anastasia, voicing Anastasia as a child [22].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In the same year, she appeared in a small role in the political satire Cheating, starring Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman [23].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The following year, she voiced a character named Kiki in Hayao Miyazaki's anime “The Witch's Delivery Service” (1998) about a 13-year-old witch student who left her village to live on her own life [24].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Dunst was offered the role of Angela in the 1999 film American Beauty, starring Kevin Spacey, but she gave up the role because she didn't want to star naked in erotic scenes and kissing scenes.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

She later explained her decision: “When I read the script, I was 15 years old and I was not mature enough to understand the script” [15].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In the same year, she appeared in the comedy Girlfriends of the President (1999) with Michelle Williams.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The film is a parody that recounts the events of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of US President Richard Nixon [25].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 1998, she starred in Sofia Coppola's independent film Suicide Virgins (1999), in which she played the role of troubled teenager Lux Lisbon [26].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The film was screened at the 43rd San Francisco International Film Festival in 2000 and received favorable reviews [27] [28].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Critic Peter Stark wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle that: “Dunst beautifully combines innocence and prank in his image” [29].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In 2000, she played the role of Torrence Shipman, captain of the cheerleading team in Bring It On.


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The film received positive reviews from critics, who also praised her performance [31].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

In his review, A. O. Scott called her “an amazing comedian who, because of her expressive range and dexterity, can portray anxiety, aggression and sincere pain.”


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Kirsten Dunst

Charles Taylor, a blogger for Salon, noted that “Dunst became the brightest comedian among temporary teenage actresses”, even though he believed that the film could not give her the same a good role she played in Girlfriends of the President or Suicide Virgins [32].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

Jessica Winter praised Dunst in “The Village Voice”, saying that her work was as energetic and deliberately crazy as her character in Girlfriends of the President, and stated that Dunst provides the only important element of Bring It On — that it played this role as a parody and not as piercing impudence [33].


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Kirsten Dunst

Peter Stark of the San Francisco Chronicle, despite his unfavorable review of the film, praised Dunst's desire to “be stupid and unpleasantly pleasant, as required for the role” [34].


Question: How tall is Kirsten Caroline Dunst?

Kirsten Dunst

The following year, Dunst landed the lead role in the youth comedy Love Virus (2001) [35].