Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The reasons for this decision by Nance remain unclear, because although Packard's own plant on East Grand Boulevard was very old, it was also inconvenient for modern conveyor production due to two-story structure of the building, the plant on Conner Avenue was also by no means a modern enterprise, moreover, much smaller in area, which caused production to be reduced fourfold - from 100 cars to an hour to only 25.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In addition, the assembly quality of cars at the “new old” plant was the worst in the history of the brand.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

At the same time, despite the difficult situation that had developed by the mid-1950s, the company largely retained its engineering and production potential.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

So, in 1949, it introduced the only Packard Ultramatic Drive automatic transmission in the industry created independently of the “big three” Ford-GM-Chrysler, which was a very the design perfect for those years, in the traditional spirit of Packard products, is simple and reliable.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Packard's eight-cylinder in-line engines, although outdated, were still synonymous with reliability and durability, and performed well in motorsports.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Released in several copies, the Packard Grey Wolf II/Panther concept roadster (1954) was one of the world's first fiberglass cars.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

As of 1952, more than 50% of Packard cars ever produced were still on the move and in active use, which was a great demonstration of their level of quality and reliability.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

During the crisis years of the “police operation” in North Korea for other American car manufacturers, Packard made good profits from the production of military aircraft engines for the company Curtiss-Wright.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

However, the cessation of military orders after the end of the conflict was an additional factor contributing to the decline of the company.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The Last Frontier


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The last attempt to revive the Packard brand, which has now received quite powerful “reinforcement” in the form of popular mass Studebaker models, was made by the 1955-56 model years.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The new Packard, despite the frame and interior panels of the body, largely inherited from the previous generation, as well as insufficient overall dimensions for their class, had a very attractive appearance thanks to the completely new front and rear ends of the body with chic styling, including visually “stretching” the body in length “visors” above the headlights, which are generally repeated the design of the Ford X-100 dream car presented to the public a couple of years before, and the characteristic taillights in the form of arches of a Gothic cathedral.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

For the first time in a long time, Packard products really looked like luxury and modern cars, combining the latest fashion trends of the mid-fifties with the monumental rigor of its pre-war predecessors.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Subsequently, the same stylistic motifs were repeatedly used by car manufacturers around the world, from the model ranges of their own Ford divisions Mercury (1955-56) and Lincoln (1956- 57) - and before the Soviet representative ZILs and, in part, “The Seagull”.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The power unit included a newly developed huge overhead valve V8 and an improved three-speed Twin Ultramatic automatic transmission, which were at least as good as similar competitors' offers.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

This was supplemented by an innovative technical “filling”, which included front and rear suspension on torsions with electromechanical adjustment of ground clearance offered for a fee, push-button transmission control and much more.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

However, the design of the car turned out to be “raw”, and its numerous design and manufacturing defects only further damaged the reputation of the company.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Serious damage to the brand's image was also caused by the cessation of production of long-wheelbase commercial chassis, which were the favorite basis for limousines and hearses, associated with lack of funding, manufacturers who had no choice but to switch to competitors' products, primarily Buick and Cadillac.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

As a result, the sharp increase in sales in model year 1955 (55,247 copies) was followed by an even sharper drop (28,835) the following year.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Even the newest engine, which at that time had the largest displacement for a passenger car in the world - 6.1 liters, did not help, which produced a very impressive 310 hp at that time.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

However, it is worth noting that, unlike the previous period, almost a quarter of this amount (24% of sales) accounted for cars of the “top” Patrician/400 series.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In model year 1956, Clipper was registered as an independent car brand in the mid-high price range, for the production of cars under which a separate division is created firms — Packard-Clipper Division.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Until January 6, 1956, Clipper did not even have Packard nameplates, which James Nance, President and CEO of the company, decided to reserve only for the most expensive models; dealers also had it is recommended to “dilute” both brands as much as possible, dividing the trading floors into two parts under different signs.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Subsequently, shortly before Nance left his post in the summer of 1956, a small Packard nameplate appeared on the stern of Clipper, which in fact made the whole idea not to blur the brand's image meaningless upper class due to the sale of cars of lower price categories under it.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Nance's policy was further undermined by the appearance in the same year of the “entry-level” Packard Executive model, built on a short Clipper chassis with a 122-inch (3,099 mm) wheelbase.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In addition, part of the blame may lie with the advertising agency D'Arcy hired by Packard, which failed to provide the proper level of the advertising campaign as a whole, and sufficiently divided among themselves cars of two brands produced by the company — in particular.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In general, the decision to allocate an independent “junior” brand was clearly at least a decade late.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Agony


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The development of the 1955 model took away the last strength and resources of the weakening company.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Therefore, at a time when other American car manufacturers in this segment, for which the style of the 1955-56 model years was “passing”, began very quickly, literally every year, to introduce the appearance of its cars radical changes, Packard did not have such an opportunity.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

By the beginning of 1956, almost a quarter of the total number of its dealers had left the company, who foresaw an early and unpleasant outcome - out of 2,100 representative offices available as of 1954, at that time, only about 1,500 remained.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

And their number continued to decline at an alarming rate — about 20 per month.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Negotiations began on a possible merger of S-P with one of the giants of the Big Three, Chrysler Corporation, but in the spring of 1956 it became clear that they would not bring positive results.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Nevertheless, Packard still expected to improve its financial situation over time and was preparing a fundamentally new family of cars with a design based on concept cars for model year 1957 Request and Predictor, which included, in particular, a new interpretation of the characteristic radiator grille of pre-war cars of this brand, loved by Packard fans.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

After it became clear that the company would no longer master the development of a new chassis from scratch, for some time the idea of buying equipment from Ford Motor Company for the production of outwardly sufficiently similar to Packard, but had a more modern Lincoln body of the previous model, 1956, whose appearance, through the efforts of Packard designer Dick Teague, was adjusted to the style previously built prototypes — but these plans were no longer destined to come true.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

When Studebaker-Packard began discussing a possible alliance with Curtiss-Wright, which offered financial assistance, in 1957, the former had to choose which of the two brands could keep it in the future.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Calculations have shown that Packard could sell between 50,000 and 75,000 high-end cars annually, giving a small but stable profit with such a modest output.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

However, Studebaker could sell more than 300 thousand cars per year (for example, in 1950 — 268,099 cars and 52,146 pickups and trucks), and had a diverse range of models — from cars of all classes, including budget small models and sports cars unique for the then American market, to heavy trucks.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In addition, the Studebaker plant in South Bend was significantly more modern and had a more modern and efficient production process.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Therefore, the choice was made in favor of the latter.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In the 1957 and 1958 model years, Packard produced cars that were essentially nothing to do with the company's previous products — they were not even assembled at the Packard plant in Detroit, closed at the request of creditors, and in South Bend, along with the rest of Studebaker, in a plant whose conveyors were not adapted to assemble cars as large and wide as the real ones Packard.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In fact, they were slightly shimmering Studebaker of the same year.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

The 1958 model, produced in a single version, without dividing into “series”, became a symbol of Packard's death agony - in fact, it was a Studebaker glued to its body fiberglass tail fins and front wing expanders, which made it possible to switch to four-headlight lighting.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

In the late 1950s, amid another general crisis in the US economy — the “Eisenhower recession,” these cars, dubbed the “packardbackers”, were not in demand.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Afterlife


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

By the early sixties, Packard was reminded only of the name Studebaker-Packard, which remained unchanged until 1962.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Studebaker at the end of the fifties managed to occupy a fairly strong position in the US market in the specific niche of budget “compact” cars, but when at the beginning of the next decade its own” compacts” presented Detroit's “Big Three” Studebaker things went unwell.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Around this time, there was a project to sell a shimmering version of the French luxury sedan Facel Vega Excellence under the Packard brand, but they were never implemented due to threats who saw this step as a danger to their own positions in the US market, the Germans from Daimler-Benz to terminate the contract according to which Mercedes-Benz was sold and serviced through dealerships Studebaker-Packard representative offices, which would cost Studebaker large financial losses.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

As a result, the winner was Daimler-Benz, which managed to gain a high reputation in the United States and soon founded its own dealer network.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Studebaker, on the other hand, completely stopped the production of cars in 1966.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Today, there are often contradictions among fans of cars of both brands about which of the brands “dragged” the other to the bottom - whether the acquisition of Studebaker, which saved it from bankruptcy, led to Packard's decline, or, on the contrary, Studebaker was Packard's last chance, which Packard could not really take advantage of.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Another popular topic in this environment is whether Packard could extend its existence or even avoid a sad fate altogether if after the World War, instead of fruitless competition in the market cars of the upper and middle class with eight-cylinder engines that have ceased to be a sign of elitism would be represented by the only twelve- or sixteen-cylinder supercar in the post-war world, heir to the pre-war Twin Six.


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

References


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

(in English)


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Category:Defunct US Companies


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Category:Automotive companies in the United States


Question: When did you start producing Packard cars?

Packard

Category:Studebaker


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The history of Jews on Polish lands dates back more than a thousand years.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It also had long periods of religious tolerance, but also the almost complete destruction carried out by the Nazi German state during the occupation of Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The first small Jewish communities existed in Poland by the 13th century, and then the Polish Jewish population increased significantly, accepting Jews expelled from other European countries [1], including Germany (1346), Austria (1420), Spain (1492), Portugal (1497), France (1394), Kiev (1886), Moscow (1891), Hungary (1349—1526 and 1686—1740).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

King Casimir III the Great is considered the patron saint of Jews in Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1334, Casimir the Great removed Jews from the jurisdiction of German law, and since then Jewish communities have been directly under the jurisdiction of the royal court [2].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the decision of Casimir the Great, who ensured the security and interests of Jews, the Kingdom of Poland became the refuge of the Semitic people expelled from the rest of Europe.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland, through the entire period of the existence of the Republic of Both Peoples, created in 1569, until the period of military defeats of the Khmelnitsky uprising and the Flood in the 17th century, Poland was the only Jewish tolerant state in Europe, becoming home to one of the largest and most dynamically developing Jewish communities.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It is no coincidence that contemporaries called Poland of that time a “Jewish Paradise” (Latin: paradisus Iudaeorum).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This name comes from the expression: “Poland was a sky for the gentry, purgatory for bourgeois, hell for slaves and a paradise for Jews (Polish: Polska była niebem dla szlachty, czyśćcem dla mieszczan, piekłem dla chłopów, a rajem dla Żydów)”, which has been taking place since the beginning of the XVII century [3].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

According to Stanislav Kot, the phrase first appears in a libel of 1606 by an anonymous author called Paskwiliusze na królewskim weselu podrzucone.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The author of this text, apparently a bourgeois or a Catholic priest, criticizes the privileges of the gentry and economically associated Jews [4].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Sixteenth-century Krakow Rabbi Moses Isserles emphasized that if God had not given Poland as asylum to the Jews, the fate of the Israeli people would seem to have been destroyed [5].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

However, when the Polish-Lithuanian union began to weaken due to wars and religious conflicts (between Protestants and the Catholic counter-reformation, as well as between the Orthodox and the Brest Union), it disappeared as well as traditional Polish tolerance.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In general, since the second half of the 17th century, the situation of Polish Jews has deteriorated.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the third partition of Poland in 1795, the Jews who inhabited it, as well as the rest of the population, became subjects of the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the Kingdom of Prussia.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The living conditions of Jewish communities differed depending on the country of residence.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the Russian Empire, a settlement line has been established for Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the 19th century, great changes took place — the migration of Jews to cities where the Jewish proletariat appeared, as well as migration outside Europe [6].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Organizational trends in the assimilation and religious reform of Judaism appeared, and in 1812 (in Prussia) and 1822 (in Russia) Jews were given civil and political rights.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jewish political organizations appeared — conservative, socialist and Zionist, and most of the Jewish proletariat supported communism.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the restoration of Poland's independence, more than 3 million Jews lived in it, which was one of the largest Jewish populations in the world.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The growing anti-Semitism was a big problem.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Shortly after Nazi Germany attacked Poland, the Germans began an organized act of extermination of the Jewish population of Europe and Poland, known as the Holocaust.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

As a result of this genocide, more than 90% of Polish Jews died.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Many Jews fought in the Polish Army in the September War of 1939.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the war, most of the 180-240,000 survivors decided to emigrate from Poland to the recreated State of Israel, the United States, or South America.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Jewish pogroms of 1945—1946, such as the Kielce pogrom, played an important role in this decision.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Those who stayed were forced to emigrate in the late 1960s, under pressure from an anti-Semitic campaign.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the fall of communism in Poland in 1989, those who were Polish citizens before World War II or lost citizenship during the communist period were able to restore it.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Polish Jewish community is estimated at between 8 and 12 thousand people, although the number of Polish citizens with Jewish roots but not associated with Judaism or Jewish culture is much larger, and it is estimated from 100 to 300 thousand people.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Approximately 1.25 million people live in Israel who have the right to restore Polish citizenship.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

A significant number of Polish Jews and their descendants live in the United States.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

A certain number of autochthonous Jewish population has been preserved on Eastern Kresy.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

From the early years to the Golden Age


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The first Jews who appeared on Polish lands in the 10th century were wandering Slavic slave traders.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Merchants, called Rachdonites, supplied slaves to the markets of Western Europe and Arab countries, and their trade routes ran from Bukhara, along the coast of the Caspian Sea, through Itil, Kiev and Prague, and further through Silesia, the Kingdom of Germany and the Kingdom of France to Muslim Andalusia.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

One of the Rachdonites, a Sephardic merchant from Tortosa, Ibrahim ibn Yaqoub, left the first historical description of the state of the glades of Mieszko I in 966 [7] [8] [9].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The first mention of Jews living in Poland dates back to the 11th century.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Rabbi Yehuda HaKogen from Mainz wrote about Jews from Przemysl in the Czerwen cities around 1050-1070, who were kidnapped by unknown persons [10].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

There is an ancient Polish legend, which states that in 832, a Jew, Abram Prohovnik, was elected to the Polish princely throne, then handed over the crown to the legendary Piast [11] [12].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The chronicle of Gall Anonymous mentions that Judit Českaya, the wife of Vladislav I Herman, bought many Christians with her own money from slavery from Jews [13].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The chronicle of Kozma Prazhsky writes about the first migration of Jews to Poland and Hungary from the Czech Republic in 1098, caused by persecution during the First Crusade [14].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

They were also joined by groups professing Judaism, expelled from Kievan Rus in 1113-1158, partially descendants of the Khazars, a nomadic Turkic tribe, part of which converted to Judaism (the so-called. Khazar Jews) [8] [14] [15] [16] [17].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1187, after a series of pogroms related to the Crusades, a small number of Jewish settlers arrived in Silesia, founding the first permanent Jewish settlements, including Tynets Maly (1150), Boleslawiec (1190), today's district of Wroclaw — Sokolniki (as confirmed by matzeva on Wroclaw Kirkut - the tombstone of David, son of Sar-Shalom, who died on August 4, 1203).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1227, Jewish peasants engaged in agriculture were recorded in Bytom for the first time.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews living in Silesia also migrated to Greater Poland, where they founded the village of Zhidovo (1205) near Gniezno and Zhidovo (1213) near Kalisz, and in 1237 created a Jewish kagal in Plock on Masovia [8] [ 17] [18].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Prince Mieszko III of Great Poland gave the Jews the management of the customs and mint of his principality, as evidenced by a series of bractheats — small coins minted in 1181 for Mieszko III, found near Wloclawek [19].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

These coins contain inscriptions in Hebrew, as well as Polish and Knaanit, written in Hebrew letters [8] [20].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Great changes in the situation of Polish Jews were brought by the Mongolian raids on Poland, as a result of which a significant part of Polish lands depopulated in the middle of the 13th century.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Polish specific princes began to attract immigrants from abroad, mainly from German lands, to rebuild the destroyed cities.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

These settlers settled many of the Polish royal cities, making a foundation on the basis of the Magdeburg Law.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

A large number of visiting bourgeois brought with them the organization of craft shops, which Jews could not join.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

These settlers were also united by the old intolerance towards Jews, which in the 12th century caused the pogroms in Germany.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The social and administrative changes that took place in the royal cities marked the beginning of conflicts between Christian and Jewish bourgeois, which lasted for the next few centuries [19].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Deprived of the opportunity to engage in handicrafts, Jews fell under the protection of the rulers - in 1264, Prince Boleslav Nabozhny of Kalisz issued a Kalisz Statute for Jews living in his principality, which guaranteed their rights.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Boleslav removed Jews from the jurisdiction of the city authorities and directly transferred them to the jurisdiction of the princely court, giving them the status of “servants of the royal treasury” - servi camerae regis, direct subjects of the prince.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Kalisz Statute was partly based on similar privileges for Jews published in the middle of the 13th century in Austria, the Czech Republic, and Hungary.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It confirmed freedom of trade and finance, regulated issues of jurisdiction, punishments and oaths taken by a Jew.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Unlike privileges granted to Jews in other countries, the statute did not establish a maximum loan gain — a percentage of the funds borrowed by Jews who, as non-Christians, were the only ones entitled engage in usury at interest [18] [21] [22] [23].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1334, King Casimir III the Great confirmed, and in 1364 expanded the powers of the Kalisz Statute to the entire territory of the Kingdom of Poland [18] [24].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1368, Casimir the Great appointed his Jewish banker Levka as a ransom and manager of the mines in Wieliczka and Bochnia and manager of the Krakow customs, whose three sons later became nobles [25].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Casimir the Great was on good terms with Jews, including a romantic relationship with the Jewish Esterka, from whom several sons were born, who became the founders of Polish Jewish gentry families .


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Casimir himself received the nickname “King of Slaves and Jews” (Króla chłopów i Żydów) [26].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

When the Poles occupied Lviv and Przemysl during the war for the Galicia-Volyn inheritance in 1349, they found two Jewish communities, to which Jews from the east, from Kiev, apparently belonged [17].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

By the end of the 14th century, a wave of Jewish refugees from England arrived in Austria, Hungary and Poland (all 16,511 Jews there were expelled from there in 1290), the Holy Roman Empire (only one community survived in Frankfurt am Main), the Czech Republic (only the capital's kagal has survived) and the Kingdom of France (in 1306-1372-1394 all Jews were expelled from there).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This was due to the plague epidemic raging on the continent, which Jews were accused of spreading in those countries [8] [18] [27].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Similar cases also occurred in Wroclaw, from where Jews were expelled due to famine in 1319, as well as in Krakow, where in 1339 13 Jews were burned on a scaffold accused of desecrating a guest .


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Despite this, the number of Jewish communities grew, which, in parallel with the Germans, inhabited Polish cities devastated by the Mongols.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Initially, Jews were mainly engaged in trade and crafts, competing with German and Polish bourgeois, who began to organize craft workshops.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Later, Jews expelled from the craft were forced to engage in loans and usury [8] [18] [27].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1388, King Vladislav Jagiello extended the provisions of the Kalisz Statute to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At the same time, Poland recorded the first persecution of Jews accused of profanating the guest and using Christian blood in their religious rituals.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Since such persecution was commonplace in Western Europe at the time, Polish rulers did not oppose these accusations, often inspired by the clergy.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1399, during one of the largest Polish trials, Poznan Jews were accused of profanating the guest [28].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1454, King Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk signed, under pressure from the gentry, the Neshava statutes, in which the king abolished part of the rights previously given to Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The following rulers pursued a similar, inconsistent policy towards Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1495-1501, Jews were expelled from Lithuania by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander Jagiellonchik, as they refused to support him by military force in the struggle for the throne of Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

He agreed to the return of the Jews, after agreeing to commit themselves to putting at least a thousand armed horseback knights on his side in the event of war [29].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

However, this expulsion did not affect all Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1495, the Grand Duke elevated Abram Yuzefovich to noble dignity and appointed the head (governor) of Smolensk Abram Yuzefovich, later the Minsk Voit, the Kovno townsman, the great Lithuanian council and a member of the Government of the Principality [30].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1507, Abram Yuzefovich, and then in 1525 his brother Meir, chief rabbi of Lithuania, were assigned to the coat of arms “Leliva”, which became the coat of arms of the entire noble family of Jozefovich [31] [32].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At the beginning of the 16th century, Jews expelled from Spain, Portugal, the Holy Roman Empire, Austria and the Czech Republic began to move to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the middle of the 16th century, 80% of all Jews in the world lived on Polish lands [33].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The rapid development of Jewish culture and art in Polish lands meant that Poland at that time became the center of the Jewish world.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The most favorable time for Polish Jews was the reign of King Sigismund I the Old, who tried to protect Jews, and often singled out and celebrated outstanding Judaism.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

For example, in 1525, the king first awarded the noble title of rabbi, when, during the Prussian oath, he gave the status of a nobleman, and then the coat of arms to Meir Jozefovich, brother of the Lithuanian council [34], and in 1534 King Sigismund repealed the law requiring Jews to wear distinctive clothing.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1547, the first Jewish printing house was opened in Lublin [35].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During the Lithuanian-Russian war of 1558-1570, after the capture of Polotsk by the Moscow army in 1563, Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible ordered to drown in the Dvina all Jewish residents of the city who refused to be baptized .


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Sigismund II Augustus continued his father's tolerant policy, including giving autonomy to Jews in the field of municipal administration.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1567, the first yeshiva was founded.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1568, Sigismund II Augustus issued a series of de non tolerandis Christianis privileges to Jewish cities, prohibiting Christians from settling, among other places, in Kazimizz Podkracow and Lublin [36].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the period of the 11th-17th centuries, Jews fleeing persecution in Western Europe moved to Poland, creating the largest Jewish population on the entire continent at that time — at the beginning of the 16th, their number in Polish and Lithuanian lands amounted to 10-24,000, by the end of the 15th and early 16th centuries, about 150,000 Jews (2% of the total population) already lived in the Republic, and in 1600 it was already 300,000.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Legally, in Poland, Jews were directly subject to the voivods, who imposed taxes twice a year.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This was the reason for bribery.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

For example, Krakow voivode Piotr Kmita-Sobiensky took gifts from Krakow Jews in silver, gold and other valuables, while receiving an annual rent from their competitors — Krakow artisans and merchants.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Judicial rights against Jews also seemed to bring considerable income [37].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Republic of Both Nations


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the death of Sigismund Augustus, who left no heirs, and the short reign of Henry III, Stephane Batory was elected to the throne, who, as it later turned out, was a tolerant and friendly ruler belonged to Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

He gave permission to the followers of Moses to engage in any branch of trade, even during Christian holidays [38].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews lived in isolation from their Christian neighbors.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This provision was supported by both the rabbis who run the local Kagals and the Catholic clergy, as it made it difficult to assimilate and deepen mutual affection between the two communities.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In addition, despite the fact that Jews lived in cities near representatives of other peoples, they did not participate in the elections of local authorities (which was the result of their removal from jurisdiction city authorities), and in their internal affairs were under the authority of rabbis, elders or judges (dayanim).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The greatest restrictions on the settlement of Jews existed only in the cities of Royal Prussia, of which they were fully implemented only in Torun.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

There were conflicts and misunderstandings in Jewish communities, and meetings of rabbis were convened to resolve them.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1580, Stefan Batory established the Seimas of the Four Lands (Waad), the central organization of Jewish self-government on the lands of the Crown [39].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews were then considered as the fifth estate of the Republic - along with the clergy, gentry, bourgeois and slaves.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the death of Batory, according to legend, in 1587, during his lack of democracy, the Jew Shaul Wal (Katznellenbogen) was elected by the Polish gentry as the interim king of Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Historical sources do not confirm this unequivocally [40].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The best protection for those baptized from Judaism was the opportunity recorded in the Lithuanian Statutes, which automatically awards the rights of nobility to all neophyte families, especially from the territories of the former Great Principality of Lithuania.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The third Lithuanian statute of 1588, “O główszczyznach i nawiązkach ludzi nieślacheckiego stanu”, contained a clause: “if a Jew or Jewish woman who comes to the Christian faith, then each such person and her offspring, must be considered for the gentry.”


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The provisions of this statute were valid until 1840, and they were also confirmed at the Seimas of 1768, which confirmed all the noble privileges previously given to neophytes [41].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the 17th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second largest number of Jews living in Europe after the Ottoman Empire.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Their number by 1648 is estimated to be about half a million people.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews during this period significantly expanded their positions in economic activity, successfully competing with Polish and German bourgeois.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This led to the fact that accusations of the Catholic Church of desecrating the guest, ritual murders and obtaining blood from Christian children to make matzah received widespread support among all Polish petty bourgeois groups.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At the same time, there are no examples of support for these accusations on the part of the wealthy gentry or the city patrician.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Polish kings and magnates invariably provided legal protection to Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Alexander Jagiellonchik had already introduced the death penalty for false accusation of ritual murder, and Sigismund III Vasa banned in 1618 the printing and distribution of brochures contributing to the incitement of anti-Jewish moods.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In private cities and in the possessions of magnates, Jews also received additional privileges, often not only participating in the election of city authorities, but also being elected to magistrates themselves.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At magnate courts, Jews held positions of factors, tenants, bankers, secretaries, translators, supervisors and spies.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1623, Vaad of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was convened for the first time, and in 1632 King Vladislav IV confirmed the ban on the printing of anti-Semitic literature.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1633, Poznan Jews received the de non tolerandis Christianis privilege (ban on Christians living in the city) [42].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Khmelnitsky Uprising and the Swedish Flood


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

By 1648, at least 450,000 Jews lived in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which accounted for 4.5% of the total population.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During this period, Poland suffered significant losses in the chain of armed conflicts, which led to the loss of about 1/3 of the total population (about 3 million people).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During the Kozak uprising led by Khmelnitsky, tens of thousands of Jews and Poles were killed.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Khmelnitsky himself stated that the Poles gave his people, as slaves, into the hands of these damned Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The exact number of Jewish victims of these pogroms is not known.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The decline in the Jewish population is estimated at 100-200 thousand people, including those who left for emigration, died from natural causes, from diseases and were taken to yasr.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During the Kozak uprising itself, about 100 [43] -150 [44] thousand Judaism were killed.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

These events were called Gezerach in Jewish history - “the great catastrophe” and are considered by Jewish historians to be the symbolic date of the end of the golden period of the history of Polish Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Swedish flood fell on the weakened Republic.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the shortest possible time, the Swedes occupied the entire territory of the country.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Poles fighting against the occupiers often accused Jews of collaborationism with the aggressor.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Many Jews also died from epidemics that spread in the country, as well as during the sieges of cities, including Kalisz, Krakow, Poznan, Piotrkow and Lublin.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

However, when the situation calmed down, many Jews returned to their homes.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Despite the losses, Poland remained the spiritual center of the Jewish world, and its Jewish community grew faster than communities in Western Europe.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Despite the hostility of the clergy and gentry, the rulers of Poland continued to favor Polish Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Deterioration of the situation during the Saxon period


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During the reign of the Wettin kings, Jews lost the support of their rulers.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The spread of the views of the gentry and petty bourgeois towards Jews increased, and religious tolerance, so familiar to the mentality of previous generations, was a thing of the past.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During this period, residents of the Republic began to adopt the “standards” of religious hatred common in the rest of Europe.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

For these reasons, many Jews felt betrayed by the state, which until recently was considered a “paradise for Jews.”


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In big cities, such as Poznan and Krakow, Christian-Jewish conflicts occurred quite often.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Attacks by students and students on Jews, called Schüler-Gelauf, have become commonplace [45].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Those responsible for maintaining order looked at this with indifference.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Silent Sejm of 1717 increased the Jewish tax to 220,000 good Prussian coins.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The autonomous body of Jewish self-government Waad of the Four Länder took behind-the-scenes actions aimed at paralyzing the activities of the Polish Sejm.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Jews managed to disrupt the work of the Seimas of 1740, which was going to quadruple the amount of this tax paid by Jews for the maintenance of the army of the Republic.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

According to Prussian diplomat Gedeon Benois, Jews made constant efforts to disrupt the Seimas in 1740-1748 [46].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1750, the Jewish population reached 750,000 people, which accounted for 8% of the population of Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

On the eve of the analysis, this number was already approaching 800 thousand [47].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1753, Kiev coadjutor Kaetan Soltyk began a trial in Zhytomyr against 33 Jews, accusing them responsible for the ritual murder of a Christian child.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The accused were subjected to torture, which was one of the standard methods of investigation in Poland until 1776. [48]


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Thirteen of them were sentenced to a painful death [49].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Sections


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1772, during the reign of the last Polish king Stanislaw II Augustus, the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

As a result, a large number of Polish Jews fell under the rule of Russia and Austria.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In Poland, there was a growing understanding of the need for state reforms.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1773, the Education Commission, the world's first Ministry of Education, was created.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

One of its members, Chancellor Andrzej Jerome Zamoyski, was responsible for adopting legal guarantees for personal inviolability and property rights, as well as issues of religious tolerance.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

However, he put forward a proposal that Jews living in cities should be separated from Christians, and those who do not have a regular income should be expelled from the country.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

According to his proposal, even Jews who were engaged in agriculture should not have private ownership of land [28].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At the same time, part of the gentry and intellectuals put forward a proposal for the complete emancipation of Jews and their complete equalization of rights with other nationalities of the Republic.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1788-1792, the Four-Year Sejm worked on legislative acts regarding the situation of Jews and in 1792 they were given the right to personal inviolability.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At the end of the 18th century, 2/3 of Polish Jews lived in cities, 1/3 were engaged in trade, 1/3 were handicrafts, less than 1/6 provided for themselves through shinkarism and rent (Jews accounted for 80% of rural tenants ).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In a number of voivodeships, a significant part of Jews lived in rural areas, for example, according to the 1764 census, 60.57% of Jews in the Masovian Voivodeship lived in villages [50].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews had to pay a special tax for not being recruited into the army, as well as obtain a special permit for marriage.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The second section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1793 showed that the reforms being undertaken were late.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Michal Serakowski, a member of the Council of the Targowice Confederation, in exchange for a gift of several thousand ducats, carried out a draft law in which, adopted under pressure from Warsaw petty bourgeois, who supported 51] The Constitution of May 3, the provisions on the expulsion of Jews from Warsaw, was recognized as illegal [51].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews took part in an armed struggle against participants in the analysis.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1794, during the Kosciuszko Uprising, Berek Joselevich formed a Jewish regiment of light cavalry [52].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

When the Russian army under the command of Alexander Suvorov took Prague in 1794, their victims were large numbers of Jewish residents of this Warsaw suburb [53].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

As a result of the third section, the majority of Polish Jews fell under Russian rule.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The development of Judaism


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The good conditions that existed for Jews in Poland contributed to their cultural and intellectual development and had a great impact on all Judaism, especially its Ashkenazi direction.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Some Jewish philosophers believed that the word “Poland” itself, pronounced in Hebrew as “Polania” or “Pauline”, was a “good symbol”, since the word “Polania” could be divided into three Hebrew words: (“here”), lan (“lives, is”), iya (“God”; more precisely, the beginning of the tetragram), and the word Pauline in two: Po (“here”), lin (“rest”).


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The reason for the emergence of these theories was the best living conditions in the world for Jews in Poland at that time.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In general, from the time of Sigismund I the Old to the Holocaust, Poland has been the center of Jewish religious life.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Education


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

A huge number of yeshivas — Talmudic higher schools — have been created in Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The most important yeshivas were in Krakow, Lublin, Poznan and other settlements of the Republic.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jewish printing houses appeared at the beginning of the 16th century.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1530, the Torah was printed in Hebrew in Krakow.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

By the end of the 16th century, the largest number of Jewish publications were published in Lublin.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It was mainly literature on religious topics.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Polish rabbis, well trained in Talmudic schools, have become not only interpreters of Jewish law, but also spiritual leaders, teachers, judges and lawyers.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Their authority allowed them to be leaders of their communities and answer the most abstract questions regarding the application of the rules of Halakha, the Jewish religious law.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The impact of the law on the lives of Polish Jews was not limited to the synagogue, but also included home and school.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the first half of the 16th, the study of the Talmud came to Poland from the Czech Republic, mainly introduced by the school of Jakub Pollak, the creator of the methodology for studying sacred texts called pilpool.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

One of the first supporters of Pilpool in Poland was Shalom Shahna (1500-1558), a student of Pollak.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

He lived and died in Lublin, where he also led a yeshiva.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After his death, Shahna's son became the chief rabbi of Lublin, and one of his disciples, Moshe Isserles (1520-1572), gained worldwide fame among Jews as the creator of the Ashkenazi version of the code Shulkhan arukh.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

His contemporary Solomon Luria (1520—1573) from Lublin also earned fame as a commentator of law [54].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Hot discussions on religious topics between well-known scientists have become widespread.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Vilna, nicknamed North Jerusalem, has become one of the world's largest centers of Talmudic education [55].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During this period, Kabbalah was gaining popularity, to which, among others, Mordechai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkes devoted their time to studying.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The period of great development was tragically interrupted by the rebellion of Zinovy Khmelnitsky and the Swedish flood.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Hasidism and Francoism


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The aforementioned tragic events of the 18th century left their mark not only on the economic situation of Jews in Poland, but also on their spiritual life.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Talmudic training became available only to a relatively narrow segment of the population, which could afford it financially.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Among Polish Jews, all kinds of wandering “miracle workers” and false messiahs began to appear (the most famous of them, Jacob Frank in 1755—1759, gave impetus to the development of the Franco sect, which became part of the widely a widespread movement led by Shabtai Zvi) [56].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At these times of fascination with mysticism, in 1740, in Volyn Israel ben Eliezer (1698—1760, also called Baal Shem Tov - “The Owner of a Good Name”, abbreviated as Besht) created modern Hasidism, which attracted many adherents both in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and abroad [57].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The emergence of this movement was of great importance for ultra-Orthodox Judaism around the world.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It was in Poland that the courts of the most famous rabbinical dynasties were located: Hasidim from Alexandrow (Danziger) [58], Bobova [59], Gura-Kalwaria (Gur) [60], Belz [61], Sadgora [61] and Sasov [61].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In Poland also lived Rebbe Joseph Itzhok Schneerson (1880-1950), the sixth head of the Hasidic movement Chabad-Lubawicz, who lived in Warsaw until his expulsion to the United States in 1940 [62].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The authorities of all three occupying powers were not in favor of maintaining the privileges enjoyed by Polish Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the First Partition, Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa expelled all Jewish poor to Poland in order to protect the standard of living of their new applicants.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Subsequent expulsions and resettlement were aimed not only at reducing the number of Jewish population, but also to persuade Jews to assimilate with the local population.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In Galicia, Emperor Joseph II abolished the kagals and introduced a state education system and conscription among Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1848, a decision was made to introduce equality for Jews, which in all its aspects began to apply by 1867.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

However, Jews continued to be discriminated against by the introduction of special taxes on religious rituals.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the Russian Empire, which included the largest number of Polish Jews, Catherine II began implementing a plan aimed at limiting the resettlement of Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1782, Jews were allowed to live only in cities, and since 1791 only in areas of the so-called Settlement Line.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Later, the territory of this line was slightly enlarged, including by the end of its existence 25 western provinces of the empire.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

With the exception of Crimea and Bessarabia, the settlement line almost coincided in 1835 with the former Polish lands within the empire.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1802, the emperor created a special commission to ease the situation of Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This body issued in 1804 a list of steps that, in its opinion, should lead to the assimilation of Jews.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

For example, it was pointed out to allow Jews to own agricultural land, allow them to study in schools, but prohibit them from participating in the production of alcoholic beverages and introduce more a number of restrictions [63].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

These proposals were never accepted, but the situation of Jews within the limits began to deteriorate.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1820, a regulation on cantonists was adopted, introduced by Tsar Nicholas I, which ordered a double norm of conscription into the army for Jews (during army service, they were forcibly baptized or a push for baptism) [64].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1822, the kagals were dissolved.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the former Prussian territories transferred to Russia by the Congress of Vienna, the Kagals were dissolved in 1846.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Other restrictions of the Polish period, such as the Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis, remained in the city charters until 1862.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Attempts to improve the situation of Jews were inconsistent and remained only on paper, and Jews continued to be discriminated against.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The situation of Jews in Russia changed along with the change of the tsar, at his whims — Nicholas I introduced discriminatory laws and orders, which were later canceled by Alexander II, who adopted the so-called emancipation act, and then again introduced by Alexander III.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews were denied access to high levels of military and bureaucratic hierarchy, prohibited from acquiring land, limited access to secondary and higher education for Jews, and limited certain professions.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Restrictions were eased again after the Revolution of 1905.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In Prussia, Frederick II gave limited protection to wealthy Jews in certain professions.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1812, these privileges were abolished at the same time as laws on equality of citizens were adopted.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the Principality of Warsaw, the Constitution gave Jews the same rights as other citizens.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

However, royal decrees deprived Jews of the right to vote for a term of 10 years, on the pretext of cultural differences and customs of Jews, as well as weak assimilation in society [65].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews were also deprived of the right to buy land and real estate; in some cities there were areas in which Jews were prohibited from settling.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In fact, these restrictions applied only to the Jewish poor, while wealthy Jews had no problem buying housing in Christian-populated parts of cities.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In addition, Jews were removed from the scope of the 1807 decree on personal freedoms, which was to become the basis for the introduction of citizenship.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

During Napoleon Bonaparte's war with Russia in 1812, the Hasidim supported the Russian side.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Under the influence of the Hasidim and their leader Schneur-Zalman of Lady, in January 1812, the Jews of the Principality of Warsaw sought their release from military service, in exchange for the payment of 70,000 Polish zlotys.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The head of the Russian spy network in the principality was Isroel Hopstein (Kozenitsky Magid) [66].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the Kingdom of Poland in 1827, Jews accounted for 9.1% of the population.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

67.7% of Jews lived in cities and towns, mainly engaged in trade and light crafts, 32.3% lived in villages, engaged in crafts and running taverns and mills rented from the gentry.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jews were deprived of political rights, were not accepted into military service, and were subject to special taxes [67].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The reforms carried out on Polish lands gradually limited the independence of the Kagals, as a result of which, for the first time in European history, Jews became fully citizens of the countries in which they lived.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

While in the Polish state they paid general taxes to the state treasury, in the countries that divided Poland they became ordinary personal taxpayers.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The effect of this was the inclusion of Jews in the lists of citizens.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In Russia and Austria since 1791, and in Prussia since 1797, the process of registering Jews and writing down their surnames began.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In Austria and Prussia, surnames were given by ordinary officials, according to their tastes, which led to the emergence of the Apfelbaum, Rosenblum, Weingarten, Goldfarb, Silberstein families, etc. The situation was different in Russia, where surnames created from the names of the place of residence or from the genus of the nobleman, on whose lands Jews lived, were popular.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Thus, surnames such as Varshavsky, Varshavsky, Posner, Minsker appeared, as well as from the Polish clans Potocki, Vishnevetsky, Czartoryisky [68].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Demographic explosion


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Jewish community had a very high level of natural growth, which contributed to its impoverishment.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Between 1800 and 1880, the number of the community within the sedentary line increased by 500%, to 4 million people [69].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The situation was also similar in Galicia, where extreme poverty was characteristic of the majority of the Jewish population.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In the 19th century, 4/5 of all Jews in the world lived on Polish lands [69].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

As one of the effects of the elimination of the Kagals, the mobility of the Jewish population has increased.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Many Jews moved across the border to Galicia, where there were no restrictions on their acquisition of land.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

At the same time, emigration to Western Europe, Palestine and the United States increased.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

There are no accurate and truthful data on the number of Jews who left, but it is clear that many of them left Polish lands.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

From the data compiled on the basis of the population census of 1931, it turns out that 135,000 Jews lived in peasant labor in Poland.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

More than 98,000 of this group were listed as hereditary peasants, which accounted for 75% of this group.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Most of the Jewish peasant plots in Galicia date back to the first half of the 19th century.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

These lands were under Austrian rule, where the rights of the Jewish population, including the right to own agricultural land, were resolved more equally than anywhere else [70].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The Jews and the Polish Question


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1831, during the November Uprising, the Jewish City Guard also participated in the defense of Warsaw from the Russian army.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It was mainly composed of Orthodox Jews, who were allowed not to shave their beards, even when wearing uniforms [71].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Berek Yoselevich's son, Jozef Berkovich, continuing the tradition of his father, organized, at the same time with his son Leon, a detachment of Jewish rebel cavalry [72].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In 1860-1863, Jews took part in patriotic demonstrations and in conspiracy that preceded the January Uprising.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The activities of Supreme Rabbi Dov Ber Meisels, who supported the Poles in the liberation struggle, are widely known, for which he was later persecuted by the tsarist authorities [72].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

On February 27, 1861, during the funeral of five dead, he said to Andrzej Zamoiski: We feel like Poles, and we love the Polish land, just like Pan.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The symbol of the acculturation of Jewish society in the Kingdom of Poland was the figure of Michal Landa, who died carrying a cross during a patriotic demonstration on Castle Square in Warsaw on April 8, 1861, bloody suppressed by Russian troops [72].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Wealthy financiers and Jewish merchants sided with the White Party, funded by Leopold Stanislav Cronenberg.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

This led to the fact that Jews did not immediately go over to the side of the January rebels in 1863, and even in many places succumbed to the Russian provocation and, together with local peasants, took part in attacks to the gentry estates.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Since the manifesto of 22 January 1863 issued by the rebel authorities read: The Central National Committee proclaims all sons of Poland, without distinction as to faith, gender, origin or status, free and equal citizens of the country, for a significant part of Polish Jews this act became an expression of good relations on the part of the Poles, which greatly changed their attitude to the uprising.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

From the very beginning of the uprising, Jewish merchants and suppliers began to supply weapons, ammunition and supplies to the rebel detachment.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

It was the Jews who brought fittings from Belgium, which became the main firearms of the Polish units.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

After the whites joined the rebellion, many Jews joined the ranks of the rebels.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

They performed many specific tasks, including many Jews among the executors of sentences of the tribunals that carried out sentences to the death penalty.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Often, these Jews hung their own tribesmen who served the Russian authorities.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Significant facts are that only a small part of Jews stayed away from the war and paid a special tax imposed by the National Government [73].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

In May 1893, Jozef Pilsudski issued an appeal on behalf of the teaching staff addressed to fellow Jewish socialists on the Polish lands of the Russian Empire, in which he accused the Jews of Lithuania of supporting Russification, under the pretext of joining the treasures of Russian culture, which repelled the Polish and Lithuanian proletariat from socialist parties, which were considered as supporters of Russification [74].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The governing Senate issued amendments to the law on elections to the Fourth Duma in 1912, according to which Jews received the majority of those admitted to vote in Warsaw.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Of the 83 electors elected, Jews accounted for 46, although the Jewish population of the city was only 37% [75].


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

See also


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Jewish literature in Poland


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Yiddish-language movies


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

The history of Yiddish theater


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Notes


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Literature


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Artur Eisenbach: Emancypacja Żydów na ziemiach polskich 1785—1870 na tle europejskim, Warszawa 1988


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Marian Fuks: Żydzi polscy.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Dzieje i kultura, Warszawa 1982


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

August Grabski, Maciej Pisarski, Albert Stankowski: Studio z dziejów i kultury Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku, Warszawa 1997, ISBN 83-85660-74-7


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

August Grabski: Działalność komunistów wśród Żydów w Polsce (1944—1949), Warszawa: Trio, 2004.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

ISBN 83-88542-87-7.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Aleksandr Hertz: Żydzi w kulturze polskiej, Warszawa 2003, ISBN 83-88032-56-9


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Maurycy Horn: Regesty dokumentów i ekscerpty z Metryki Koronnej do historii Żydów w Polsce (1697—1795), t.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

1-2, Wrocław 1984,1988


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Gershon David Hundert: Żydzi w Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów w XVIII wieku.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Genealogia nowoczesności.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Warszawa 2007


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Łukasz Jasina: Polacy i Żydzi w czasie II wojny światowej w: “Polin. Studies in Polish Jewry”, Lublin 2006, ISBN 83-60695-05-9


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Adam Kaźmierczyk: Żydzi polscy 1648—1772.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

źródła.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Kraków 2001


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Wanda Kochowska, Mieczysław Wojecki: Żydzi w Polsce, Zielona Góra 1994, ISBN 83-86335-04-1


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Materiały z konferencji Sejmowej Komisji Mniejszości Narodowych i Etnicznych, Warszawa, 20 maja 2010.


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Moshe Rosman Stosunki magnacko-żydowskie w Rzeczypospolitej XVIII wieku, Warszawa 2005


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Ignacy Schiper:, Warszawa 1937


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Władysław Smoleński:, Warszawa 1876


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Janusz Tazbir: Świat Panów Pasków, Łódź 1986


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Andrzej Żbikowski: Żydzi, Wrocław 2005, ISBN 83-7384-193-8


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

References


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history


Question: How many Jews lived on Polish lands in the 13th century?

Jewish Polish history

Hebrews


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The Varangians (Old Norse: Væringjar, Greek: Cambogia) is a group in the population of Ancient Rus, which is ethnic, professional or social in nature.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

In Russia, people from Scandinavia were called Varangians [1].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The Varangians are known as hired warriors or merchants in the Old Russian state (9th—12th centuries) and Byzantium (11th—13th centuries).


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Old Russian chronicle The Tale of Bygone Years connects the emergence of the state of Russia (the “vocation of the Varangians”) with the Varangians and Rus.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

A number of sources bring the concept of “Varangians” closer to the Scandinavian Vikings, pointing to the replacement of the previously used lexeme “Varangians” with the pseudo-ethnonym “Germans” since the XII century.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

From Byzantine sources, the Varangians (Varangs) are known as a special detachment in the service of Byzantine emperors since the XI century.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Scandinavian sources also report that some Vikings joined the Varangian (Wering) detachments while serving in Byzantium in the XI century.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Varangian question


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Since the XVIII century, historians have been arguing about who those legendary Varangians who founded Russia according to the chronicle version (“vocations of the Varangians”) were.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

If according to Old Russian sources, the Varangians were “discoverers from across the sea” (from the shores of the Baltic), the Byzantines introduce into the name a clear ethnic shade with a blurred geographical localization.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Scandinavian sources mainly link the activities of the Varangians with military service in Constantinople.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

It should also be noted that in the story about the vocation of the Varangians in the Tale of Bygone Years, the chronicler writes about them as a separate people.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The number of the Varangians, along with Russia (the alleged tribe of Rurik), includes the Svei (Swedes), Normans (Norwegians), the British and the Goths (Gotlanders): “Idosha across the sea to the Varangians, to Russia. Sice bo call you Varangians Rus, as se druzias are called svee, drusia urmani, anglyans, inei and gote, tacos and si”.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Attention is drawn to the presence of the same peoples together with the Varangians in the list of descendants of Japheth: “Afetovo is also a koleno: Varangians, Svei, Urmanes, Goth, Rus, Aglan...” [2].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

In Russian pre-Soviet historiography, starting with N. M. Karamzin [3], the Varangians were most often identified with the Scandinavian peoples.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Most modern historians also adhere to this version [4].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

There are also other versions of the ethnicity of the Varangians: they are considered as Finns [5], Prussians [6], Baltic Slavs [7] and as Varangians of the “Russian” (that is, salt) fishery of the Southern Ilmenye [8] [9].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The “Varangian question” is commonly understood as a set of problems:


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

the ethnicity of the Varangians as a whole and the people of Russia as one of the Varangian tribes;


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

the role of the Varangians in the development of East Slavic statehood;


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

the importance of the Varangians for the formation of the Old Russian ethnic group;


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

etymology of the ethnonym “Rus”.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Attempts to solve a purely historical problem were often politicized and combined with the national question.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

In the 18th and first half of the 20th centuries, Norman theory (Normanism) was accused of glorifying the superiority of the “Germanic race”; now this connection is rejected as unscientific.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

In Soviet times, historians were forced to be guided by party attitudes, as a result of which chronicles and other data were rejected as fiction, if they assumed the Scandinavians among the founders Russian state [10].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

IN. O. Klyuchevsky noted that, unlike the Vikings and Normans in Western Europe - pirates and coastal robbers, the Varangians in Russian history are primarily armed merchants, which included, the testimony of Titmar of Merseburg, “agile dans” (ex velocibus danis), and some fugitive slaves of unknown origin, mainly engaged in trade along the Varangian route.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Settling in large trading cities along this way, the Varangians met socially related local armed merchants and mixed with them, entering into a trade partnership with the locals or hiring for a good fee to protect local trade routes and trading people, that is, to escort trade caravans [11].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Some historians consider the story of the vocation of the Varangians to be borrowing, pointing, in particular, to a similar plot in the chronicle of Vidukind of Corvey, which deals with the vocation of the Saxons by the Britons [12] [13].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

E.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

A. Melnikova and V. ME.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Petrukhin created the concept of the emergence of the Old Russian state, revealing the important role of Scandinavian trade squads in catalyzing social stratification and the development of society East Slavic and Finnish peoples.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

This concept, recognizing the Varangians as Scandinavians, and early Russia as immigrants from Scandinavia, differs from classical Normanism in moderation in assessing the role of the Scandinavians and comprehensive consideration available archaeological, linguistic and written sources.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Rurik's vocation to reign is considered as a folklore reflection of contractual relations ([row] error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)) between the population and the tribal nobility of the Eastern Slavs and Finns on the one hand, and the Varangian squad led by the prince, located everywhere except Kiev, in camps separate from ancient Slavic cities — on the other hand [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

etymology


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

[[File:Old norse, ca 900.png|right|250px|mini|Approximate limits of distribution of Old Norse and related languages in the 10th century.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Retrospectively, Russian chroniclers of the late XI century attributed the term “Varangian” to the middle of the IX century (“the vocation of the Varangians”).


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

In the Icelandic sagas, the Varangians (væringjar) appear when describing the service of Scandinavian warriors in Byzantium at the beginning of the XI century.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The Byzantine chronicler of the 2nd half of the XI century Skilitsa first reports on the Varangians (Varangs) when describing the events of 1034, when the Varangian detachment was in Asia Minor [21].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The concept of the Varangian is also recorded in the work of the scientist from ancient Khorezm Al-Biruni (1029):


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

“A large bay separates from [the ocean] in the north near the Saklabs [Slavs] and stretches close to the land of the Bulgars, the country of Muslims; they know it as the sea of varanks, and this is the people on its shore.” [22] Also one of the first synchronous mentions of the Varangians date back to the reign of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) in Russkaya Pravda, where their special legal status in Russia was distinguished.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Sigismund von Herberstein, being an adviser to the ambassador to the Moscow state in the 1st half of the 16th century, was one of the first Europeans to get acquainted with Russian chronicles and expressed his opinion on the origin Varangians:


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

... since they themselves call the Baltic Sea the Varangian Sea... I thought that due to their proximity to princes, they had Swedes, Danes or Prussians.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

However, Lübeck and the Duchy of Holstein were once bordered by a vandal area with the famous city of Vagria, so it is believed that the Baltic Sea got its name from this Vagria; since... vandals then they were not only powerful, but also had language, customs and faith in common with the Russians, then, in my opinion, it was natural for Russians to call themselves the Wagrs, in other words, the Varangians, by the rulers, and not to concede power to foreigners who differed from them in faith, customs, and language


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Tatishchev assumed, referring to Stralenberg, the origin of varg - “wolf”, “robber” [23].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

The translator of sagas from ancient Icelandic O. AND. Senkovsky believed that the word “Varangians” - the self-name of the Viking squad distorted in the Slavic language - félag [24] The lexeme “verings” (væringjar) that arose later in Byzantium could be a borrowing from the Rus, that is, it was a distortion of the word “Varangians”.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

19th century historian S. A. Gedeonov found another close meaning in the Baltic-Slavic dictionary of the Drevan dialect, published by I. Potocki in 1795 in Hamburg: warang, “sword”.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

A well-known specialist on Byzantium V. G. Vasilievsky believed that the Greek name “Varangi” (“Varangi”) and the Russian “Varangians” were formed independently of each other.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

He considered the first to come from the Greek words “farangi” (farangi), that is, the Franks or “marangi” Marangi, that is, “alien from the sea” [25], and the second - came from the language of the Crimean Goths and, through the Normans, borrowed by Russian mercenaries in the service of Byzantium [26].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Subsequently, as a result of a chronicler's error, these two terms merged into one [27].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Another common version is that the “Varangians” came from others.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

-germ.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

wara (oath, oath), that is, the Varangians were warriors who took an oath.


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

Max Vasmer, adhering to this etymology as a whole, produces the word from the alleged Scandinavian *váringr, vœringr, from vár “loyalty, guarantee, vow”, that is, “allies, members of the corporation” [28].


Question: When did the Varangians appear in Russia?

Varangians

According to A. G. Kuzmin, the word comes from the Celtic var (water), that is, the Varangians were understood as residents (according to Kuzmin: weakened Celts) of the coast in general (an analogue of etymology in Russian: Pomors) [29].