Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Factors that reduce the transition of HIV infection to AIDS: adulthood and old age, co-infection with other viral diseases, poor nutrition, stress, genetic characteristics [19] [119].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Factors that delay the development of AIDS: the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy, treatment of concomitant diseases, following the recommendations of the attending physician, proper nutrition, healthy lifestyle (smoking cessation), genetic characteristics [19] [119].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Key groups


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Groups at increased risk of HIV infection include certain categories of people whose personal life or professional activities are likely to have direct blood contact, or even intact mucous membrane, or damaged skin with body fluids of an infected person (blood, lymph, sperm, vaginal secretion, pre-seminal fluid, breast milk, discharge from wounds, cerebrospinal fluid, contents of the trachea, pleural cavity, etc.) is more likely than the population average.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Therefore, a particularly dangerous form of sexual intercourse for the receiving partner is unprotected anal sex, since this form causes the largest number of minor and large injuries.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

On the other hand, infection is also possible in the case of an intact mucous membrane, since the mucosa contains a significant number of dendritic cells (including Langerhans cells) that can play the role of “carriers” of viral particles to the lymph nodes.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

From the point of view of epidemiology, people who inject drugs, use common dishes to prepare drugs, as well as their sexual partners are at greatest risk [120].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Persons (regardless of sexual orientation) who practice unprotected anal sex [121], while the average probability of infection of a passive partner after one sexual intercourse is 1%, an active partner is 0.06 %.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

(Statistics are given for the total population, not among HIV-infected people).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In particular, approximately 25% of cases of unprotected anal sex among seropositive gays are so-called “barebackers”, accounting for about 14% of all gays in the studied sample, deliberately avoiding the use of condoms despite their awareness of the possibility of contracting HIV [122] [123] [124] [125].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

A small proportion of barebackers are “bug chasers” — people who deliberately seek to become infected with HIV and choose HIV-positive or potentially positive as sex partners individuals called “gift-givers” [126] [127].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

For people who practice unprotected vaginal sex [120], (statistics are given for the total population, and not among HIV-infected people), the likelihood of contracting a passive partner after one sexual intercourse leaves about 0.01—0.32%, active — 0.01—0.1%, and can vary widely, depending on specific conditions [128], in particular, this route of infection is predominant in Africa [120 ].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

According to UNAIDS, in 2007, 42% of new HIV infections in Eastern Europe were due to heterosexual contact [129].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

People who practice unprotected oral sex (fellatio, eating pussy and anilingus) have a lower risk of contracting HIV than vaginal and anal sex [130] [131], the likelihood of contracting passive partner after one sexual contact — 0.03%, on average (statistics are given for the total population, and not among HIV-infected people), and can vary widely, depending on the specific conditions [123] [88].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

According to epidemiological data, people who have received a transfusion of untested donor blood [120], doctors [120], patients with sexually transmitted diseases [120], prostitutes and their clients [120], migrants [132].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Prevention


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Specific immunoprophylaxis for HIV infection has not been developed, but it has been shown that it is possible to create a vaccine that protects against HIV/AIDS.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

It has been shown that monoclonal antibodies can protect the body against HIV, and some HIV-infected people whose bodies produce such antibodies do not have symptoms of HIV/AIDS many years after infection.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Vaccine candidates and monoclonal antibodies are in the early stages of clinical trials.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Even more drugs are at the stage of preclinical studies.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

133] [134] In 2018, researchers proposed a comprehensive vaccine to protect against a third of known HIV strains, based on an artificial protein similar to the Env virion protein.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In the second half of 2019, it is planned to begin pilot clinical trials of this vaccine in humans [135].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Informing


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Educational preventive measures include:


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

inclusion of the lesson in the life safety course of grades 9-11;


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

the Simple Rules Against AIDS project;


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

conducting various events for young people aimed at forming a responsible attitude to their actions in life (for example, the volunteer movement “Civil Initiative” with the support of Moscow City Duma, the Department of Family and Youth Policy, as well as the Moscow City Center for AIDS Prevention and Control).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Public events include the implementation of the Harm Reduction program, which involves working with injecting drug users (IDUs), namely: the exchange of needles and syringes in among injecting drug users (with the aim of removing HIV-contaminated needles and syringes from circulation); training drug users in the less dangerous use of injecting drugs ( trainings “Safe injection”, “Disinfection”, “Non-injection use”) for injecting drug users (IDUs) with persistent drug addiction who cannot or do not want to stop injecting use; conducting outreach work on the closed drug scene in order to cover hard-to-reach IDUs [136]; providing IDUs with condoms, disinfectants (alcohol wipes), hygiene products, vitamins and dressings (low-threshold service); medical, psychological and legal counseling for IDUs; motivational counseling of IDUs to change behavior and their involvement in rehabilitation and sobriety programs; information and educational work among IDUs, including the dissemination of information on substitution therapy (supervised by doctors use of methadone or buprenorphine (ednock) instead of HIV-risked street use of injecting drugs) and antiretroviral therapy (supportive AIDS treatment); social support and Redirection of IDUs to the relevant public services (for example, assistance in treatment, employment, support for IDUs released from places of detention), etc.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The Harm Reduction approach is considered by specialists as a “bridge” between used IDUs and programs for the treatment and rehabilitation of IDUs.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In the system of preventive measures, the Harm Reduction strategy belongs to the direction of “Secondary prevention”.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In Russia, Harm Reduction is practically not used, the exchange of syringes and the distribution of condoms are carried out spontaneously by non-profit organizations and often cause resistance from the authorities [138].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Medical preventive measures include: [139]


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Examination of blood donors, people at risk.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

HIV antibody testing of all pregnant women.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Monitoring births in infected women and not breastfeeding their babies.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Promoting safe sex (i.e. using condoms).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

A negative antibody test does not guarantee the absence of HIV infection, since antibodies cannot be detected within a few weeks and months after infection (the so-called. “window period”).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Prevention of infection in medical institutions


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Blood is the most dangerous for the spread of HIV.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

It is necessary to carefully avoid accidental damage to the skin with sharp instruments.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

All manipulations with patients, as well as work with biological materials from the patient, are carried out by medical workers in rubber gloves and masks.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In addition, it is necessary to follow all precautions provided when working with patients with viral hepatitis B. If there is still contact of the mucous membrane or damaged skin of the medical a worker with a body fluid potentially containing HIV should immediately (preferably within the first three hours) begin post-exposure prophylaxis with antiretroviral drugs, which will allow reduce the likelihood of infection several times.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

It is mandatory to wash your hands thoroughly after removing gloves and individual clothing before leaving the room where you are working with potentially infected material.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Hospitalization of AIDS patients and HIV-infected people should be carried out in such a way as to prevent the spread of infection, as well as taking into account the requirements for the maintenance of patients with altered behavior in damage to the central nervous system.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

When treating patients with HIV infection, it is necessary to use single-use tools and syringes only.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

If household items, bedding, and the environment are contaminated with the patient's secretions, it is necessary to treat with disinfectants (0.2% sodium hypochlorite solution, ethyl alcohol).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

If basic precautionary rules are observed, communication with patients is completely safe.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Condoms


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The CDC recommends that spouses and sexual partners should be aware of their partner's HIV infection.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The immunodeficiency virus is usually transmitted through unprotected anal or vaginal sex, and a condom is the best means of protection against all forms of sexual activity.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Viral load can range from an undetectable level of 40-75 copies to millions in 1 ml of blood, and the higher the concentration of viral RNA in the blood, the more likely it is to transmit HIV to others .


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The presence of sexually transmitted infections or hepatitis increases the likelihood of HIV transmission by a factor of 3 to 5.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Even with a reduction in copies of HIV RNA to 3,500 or below in 1 ml of blood, transmission remains likely.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Condoms should be used for any form of sexual intercourse [119].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Diagnostics


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Currently, there are the following methods for diagnosing HIV: [141] [142] indirect tests detect specific antibodies to HIV that are present in almost 100% of HIV-infected people; direct tests determine HIV itself, HIV antigens or HIV nucleic acids (viral load).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The viral load (the number of HIV genomic RNA molecules in ml of blood) is directly associated with the rate of decrease in the number of CD4+ lymphocytes, this characteristic is an important prognostic indicator in the early stages of the disease [143].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

At least two different tests must be used to determine antibodies to HIV: a pre-test (screening test) and a confirmation test.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Most modern screening tests are based on enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) or similar methods; they are highly sensitive (up to 99%) and specificity (up to 99.5%).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The antigens used in the test correspond to antibodies that could have been produced in the patient's body to HIV of a certain type (HIV-1, HIV-2, HIV-1-N, HIV-1-O, HIV-1-M).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Immunoblotting is most often used to confirm the results of screening tests.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Immunoblotting is performed only when a positive screening test result is obtained [144].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

A negative antibody test does not guarantee the absence of HIV infection, since antibodies cannot be detected within a few weeks and months after infection (the so-called. “window period”).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Rapid tests


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

A negative result of an antibody test, including rapid tests, does not guarantee the absence of HIV infection, since antibodies cannot be within a few weeks and months after infection discovered (so called “window period”).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Rapid analysis methods are based on the methods of agglutination reaction, ELISA on polymer membranes (test strips), immunological filtration analysis and immunochromatography.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Rapid tests give results within 15-30 minutes (meaning the processing time of the analysis, and not the period of necessary waiting before taking the test after an alleged infection) and are convenient when the result must be obtained quickly, for example, with urgent surgery [145] [146].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The CD4+ lymphocyte count is a critical parameter in monitoring HIV infection and allows [147] to assess the state of the immune system and the tendency to develop AIDS, along with clinical information determine the start of antiretroviral therapy (HAART), determine the time frame for the prevention of opportunistic infections, evaluate the effectiveness of treatment


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

CD4+ lymphocytes are counted either using automatic analyzers by flow cytometry, or manually by microscopy (optical or fluorescence).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The course of HIV infection is characterized by a prolonged absence of significant symptoms of the disease [148].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The diagnosis of HIV infection is made on the basis of laboratory data: when antibodies to HIV are detected in the blood.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Antibodies to HIV during the acute phase, as a rule, are not detected.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

After 3 months


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

after infection, antibodies to HIV are detected in 96-97% of patients, after 6 months.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

- in the remaining 2-3%, and at a later date - only in 0.5—1%, according to other sources, after 3 months.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

after infection, antibodies to HIV are detected in 90-95% of patients, after 6 months.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

— 5—9%, in 0.5—1% — at a later date.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In the AIDS stage, a significant decrease in the antibody content in the blood is recorded.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The first weeks and months after infection are the “seronegative window period” when antibodies to HIV are not detected.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Therefore, a negative HIV test during this period does not mean that a person is not infected with HIV and cannot infect others [144].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

To diagnose damage to the oral mucosa in HIV-infected patients, a working classification was adopted, approved in London in September 1992.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

All defeats are divided into 3 groups, the greatest interest is caused and the most common are lesions belonging to group 1 [149] [150].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Group 1 — lesions clearly related to HIV infection.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

This group includes the following nosological forms: candidiasis (erythematous, pseudomembranous, hyperplastic, atrophic); hairy leukoplakia; marginal gingivitis; ulcerative necrotic gingivitis; destructive periodontitis; Kaposi's sarcoma; non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Group 2 — lesions that are less clearly related to HIV infection: bacterial infections; diseases of the salivary glands; viral infections; thrombocytopenic purpura.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Group 3 - lesions that may occur with HIV infection, but are not associated with it.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In Russia, when a diagnosis of HIV infection is made, pre-test and post-test counseling of the patient is carried out, and the main facts about the disease are explained.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The patient is invited to register with the territorial center for the prevention and control of AIDS for free dispensary observation by an infectious disease doctor.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Approximately once every six months, it is recommended to take tests (for immune status and viral load) to monitor your health status.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In the event of a significant deterioration in these indicators, antiretroviral drugs are recommended (therapy is free, available in almost all regions) [144] [151].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Newborn diagnostics


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In the absence of therapy, the risk of infection of a newborn from an HIV-positive mother ranges from 15% to 25% in developed countries, from 25% to 35% in developing countries [152].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The use of prophylaxis with two drugs reduces the risk of infection of a child to 3—8% [153], and in prophylaxis with HAART below 2% [154], up to 1.2% [155].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In Russia, the incidence of perinatal HIV transmission using antiretroviral prophylaxis decreased from 19.4% in 2001 to 10.9% in 2002—2005 [156].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In children born to an HIV-positive mother, passively acquired antibodies that have penetrated the placenta from the mother are detected in the blood before 12-15 months of life, so the antibody test will be positive.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Currently, an early diagnosis, in children under 18 months of age, can be established by the detection of HIV nucleic acids using polymerase chain reaction (PCR).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In these cases, only two negative PCR results can exclude HIV infection in a newborn: one should be obtained at the age of 1 to 4 months, the other over the age of 4 months [157] [ 158].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Treatments


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

To date, no treatment for HIV infection has been developed that could eliminate the human immunodeficiency virus from the body.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Modern highly active antiretroviral therapy slows down the progression of HIV infection and its transition to the AIDS stage, allowing an HIV-infected person to live a full life.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

When using treatment and provided that the effectiveness of drugs is maintained, a person's life expectancy is not limited by HIV, but only by natural aging processes.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

However, after prolonged use of the same therapy regimen, after a few years, the virus can mutate, becoming resistant to the drugs used, and for further control over the progression of HIV infection, new treatment regimens with other drugs are used.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

That is why any current HIV treatment regimen becomes ineffective sooner or later.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Also, in many cases, the patient cannot take individual drugs due to individual intolerance.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Proper use of therapy delays the development of AIDS for an indefinite time (up to 10-20 years), the emergence of new classes of drugs is mainly aimed at reducing the side effects of taking therapy, since the life expectancy of HIV-positive people on therapy is almost equal to the life expectancy of HIV - negative people.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

During the later development of HAART (2000—2005), the survival rate of HIV-infected patients, with the exception of patients with hepatitis C, reaches 38.9 years (37.8 for men and 40.1 for women).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Great importance is attached to maintaining HIV-positive health by non-drug means (proper nutrition, healthy sleep, avoiding severe stress and prolonged exposure to the sun, healthy lifestyle), as well as regular (2—4 times a year) monitoring of the health status of HIV specialists.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

According to the Associated Press, a Mississippi girl in the United States was completely cured of HIV [159], but Russian scientists questioned the results of treatment for American colleagues.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Vadim Pokrovsky, head of the Federal Scientific and Methodological Center for AIDS Control and Prevention, said that to obtain reliable data on a child's HIV infection 30 hours after birth today it is impossible [160].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Professor N. A. Belyakov, head of the St. Petersburg Center for the Prevention and Control of AIDS and Infectious Diseases, noted that information about the cure for HIV should be taken with caution: that there is simply no such thing in nature, a functional cure, especially for viruses. Since in children, the course of the disease largely depends on what is the initial system of the baby's strength after birth, that is, a lot depends on the mother, on how he is fed. And here this phrase about “functional cure” does not determine anything in the near or distant future of this child” [161].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

In July 2014, American scientists announced that they had re-discovered the virus in the blood of a girl from Mississippi.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Currently, the only person who has recovered from HIV is American Timothy Ray Brown, nicknamed the “Berlin patient”.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

[163] [164] However, many researchers believe that the treatment that eliminated the virus from Bran's body cannot be considered a panacea for HIV.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

People living with HIV


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The term “People living with HIV” (PLHIV, or “People living with HIV/AIDS” — PLWHA) is recommended by WHO to refer to a person or group of people who are HIV-positive, as it reflects the fact that people can live with HIV for decades, leading an active and productive life.


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The expression “AIDS victims” is extremely incorrect (this implies helplessness and lack of control), including the incorrect description of children with HIV as “innocent victims of AIDS” that someone from PLHIV is “to blame” for their HIV status or “deserved” it).


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The expression “AIDS patient” is permissible only in a medical context, since PLHIV does not spend their lives in a hospital bed [166] [167].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

The rights of HIV-infected people are no different from the rights of other categories of citizens: they also have the right to medical care, freedom of work, education, personal and family secrets and so on [168].


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Notes


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Literature


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

CS1 maint: Extra text (link)


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

References


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Category:Sexually Transmitted Diseases


Question: How is HIV deciphered?

HIV infection

Category:HIV infection


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Danish-Norwegian operation or Operation Weserubung (German: Fall Weserübung), also: “Exercise on the Weser” or “Weather maneuvers” is a German operation to capture Denmark (German: Weserübung- Süd)) and Norway (German: Weserübung-Nord) during World War II.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Background


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Political environment


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Since the Crimean War, Scandinavian countries have adhered to the principle of neutrality in their foreign policy [1].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

From 1905 until the end of World War I, Britain and Germany put pressure on Norway because of its geographical location, which allowed it to control the east of the North Sea [2].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Just before the outbreak of the war, Denmark, Sweden and Norway held a number of summit meetings, where they stressed their will to neutrality [3].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

However, the warring parties forced the Nordic countries to participate indirectly in the war: Sweden and Norway handed over a significant part of their merchant fleet to the Entente, and Germany forced Denmark to partially block mines Great Belt Strait [3].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At the end of the war, Norway, at the request of Great Britain, laid a minefield in its waters against German submarines [4].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

After the defeat of Germany in World War I, Denmark regained northern Schleswig, which was torn away in 1864 [4].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On the eve of the New World War, the Scandinavians continued to maintain neutrality [4].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On May 31, 1939, a non-aggression pact was concluded between Denmark and Germany; Sweden and Norway rejected similar proposals without feeling threatened beyond the straits [5].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Germans unsuccessfully tried to conclude an agreement with Norway, followed by a number of incidents: the American merchant ship City of Flint, seized by the cruiser Deutschland, was confiscated in October in Haugesund; at the end of November, Norwegians allowed the German ship Westerwald to enter the military port of Bergen; British or chartered submarines were sunk in Norwegian waters by a German submarine on December 7-13 British courts Thomas Walton, Deptford and Garodfelia [6].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

In January 1940, the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Halifax, stated that this was forcing Britain to extend the war to Norwegian territorial waters [6].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

It was decided to develop a plan to seize ports on the Norwegian coast, in particular Narvik, from which it was possible to occupy Swedish mines, as well as to come to the aid of Finland, which defends against Soviet Union [7].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The French, after the Gelb plan “flew” to them, were interested in opening a second front to divert the forces of the Wehrmacht [7].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At one of the receptions with the participation of journalists from the Scandinavian countries, Churchill, as if in passing, said: “Sometimes you can wish the northern countries to be on the opposite side, and then you could seize the right strategic points.”


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

“It seems,” wrote the future UN Secretary General Trygve Lee about this event, “that Churchill made his statement with the clear intention of making it reach the ears of the Germans” [8 ].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Corps were created to be sent to the Balkans and Narvik [9].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

During the autumn-winter of 1939—1940, Great Britain carried out a number of actions compromising Norway's neutrality.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Political pressure was exerted on the country to obtain a significant share of its trade tonnage, tried to impose a unilaterally profitable trade agreement on it, and made demands that were impossible was to be implemented without departing from generally accepted norms of neutrality.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At the very beginning of the war, on September 5, the British government published an extensive list of goods that it qualified as military smuggling.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The adoption of this list led to the fact that a significant part of Norwegian exports to Germany was banned, and the country's foreign trade fell under British control.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Norwegian government was forced to evade Whitehall's requirements [8].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Of particular interest was the Norwegian merchant fleet, which included 1,300 steamers (a total of 1.78 million GRT) and 682 motor ships (a total of 2.98 million GRT).


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Through government and private contracts at the beginning of the war, Britain was able to use Norwegian vessels with a total capacity of 2,450,000 registered gross tons (1,650,000 of which were tankers) [10].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Development of Operation Exercise on the Weser


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

For the Germans, Norway was both the key to the North Sea and the transit route for Swedish ore; Kriegsmarine Commander-in-Chief, Grand Admiral Erich Roeder, especially insisted on capturing it [11].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On December 14, 1939, the Wehrmacht command was instructed by Hitler to investigate the possibility of capturing Norway [12].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Initially, the General Staff was skeptical about the need and possibility of achieving this goal, but on January 27, a separate headquarters was created to develop a plan codenamed “Exercises on the Weser” (German: Weserübung) [13].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Altmark incident on February 16 weakened the positions of opponents of the operation, and since then preparations for it were accelerated [14].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On February 24, the headquarters of the 21 Corps, led by General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, began a detailed development of the operation [15], and 5 days later it presented Hitler with a ready-made project [16].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The fundamental feature of the plan was the desire to carry out lightning simultaneous troops in key cities, if possible without the use of weapons [17].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Raeder advised to carry out the landing until April 7, that is, before the end of the polar night [18].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At a meeting on April 2, Hitler appointed the ninth “Weser Day” (landing) [19].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Contacts were established with the leader of the unpopular Norwegian party Nasjonal Samling, Vidkun Quisling, although this did not affect the military operation in any way [20].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Initially, the operation was planned on the basis of a simultaneous offensive on the Western Front, so a minimum number of ground units were allocated for it: the 3rd Mountain Rifle Division, Major Edward Dietl and some reserve regiments [21].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Later, it was decided to divide the operations in time in order to preserve operational and political freedoms, and therefore significant strength was given to the northern campaign.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The first echelon on the Norwegian coast was to land the 69 and 169 Infantry and 3 Mountain Rifle Divisions; the second - the 181 and 196; the third - the 214 [17].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Although the violation of the neutrality of another country was politically undesirable, the operation also included the capture of Denmark: Jutland airfields were needed to supply the “Norwegian” landing; it was necessary to ensure the safe movement of maritime transport through the Danish straits [21].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

For Denmark, the 170, 198 Infantry Divisions and the 11th Motorized Brigade were allocated [17].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Almost all ships of the military and merchant fleets of the Reich were used for the operation [22].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Transport vessels were planned to be unloaded in the seized ports immediately after landing, so the ships for Narvik had to leave 6 days before the “Weser Day” [16].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Warships could leave 3 days later, so the point of no return for the beginning of the operation was coming just at that moment [16].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

For the first time, the Kriegsmarine had to transport large ground units, so submarines were used to cover the landing and attacks against a possible counterlanding [23].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The surface fleet had already suffered significant losses and now had the following forces available: the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, the Lutzow pocket battleship, 2 heavy and 4 light cruisers, 14 destroyers, 7 torpedo boats [24].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Luftwaffe was instructed to: transport paratroopers and land units to Aalborg, Oslo, Kristiansand, Stavanger and Bergen; defend ships and provide air assault support to the Wehrmacht [25].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

These tasks were assigned to the 10th Air Corps of Lieutenant General Geisler [26].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

It included the 4th, 26th, 30th combat squadrons, the 100th group of the combat squadron, 3 anti-aircraft compartments, a battalion of paratroopers, 7 air transport groups, one land and sea transport squadron each [26].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The areas of responsibility were divided as follows: Navy Group Vostok (Admiral Rolf Karls) - command on the water to Skagerrak; Navy Group West (Admiral General Alfred Saalwachter - command in the North Sea and Norwegian waters; 21 Corps (General Falkenhorst) - in Norway after landing; 31 Corps (Aviation General Kaupis) - operations in Denmark; 10 Air Corps (Lieutenant General Geisler) - support for land and sea forces in Norway and Denmark [27].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At the same time, both naval groups were directly subordinate to the OKM, the 31 Army Corps to the 21 Corps, and the 10 Air Corps to the Air Force Command [27].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Operation Wilfred and R4 plan development


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The UK, for its part, planned to seize the Scandinavian countries in order to disperse German forces and conduct an economic blockade.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

To this end, the British military department planned several independent operations.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

In order not to be involved in the war with the USSR, British Prime Minister Chamberlain proposed to mine Norwegian territorial waters (which Churchill has long insisted on) and thus expel German ore carriers from their three mile limits, where the requirements for neutrality were met, to the attacks of the Allied naval forces, whose superiority at sea was undeniable.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The operation, codenamed Wilfred, did not expect to meet strong German opposition [8].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On March 31, the cruiser Birmingham with the destroyers Firless and Hostyle were sent to the coast of Norway to intercept German ships breaking into Germany.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

In addition, they were tasked with capturing enemy fishing trawlers and covering their forces, which were to lay mines.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The detachment operated off the Norwegian coast until the evening of April 7, capturing three German trawlers as prizes: Friesland (247 GRT), Blankenberg (336 GRT) and Nordland (392 GRT).


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On April 3, the British Navy was instructed to mine Norwegian waters.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The departure of the ships was scheduled two days later.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The productions within the framework of Operation Wilfred were planned to be carried out by several groups of ships:


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

group “WB” (destroyers “Express” and “Intrepid”) - in the Kristiansund area (62 (54's.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

sh.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

, 6 (55 'e. d. );


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

WS group (Teviat Bank minelayer and destroyers Inglefield, Islex, Imogen, Isis) - in the area of m. Stud (62 (p.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

sh.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

, 5 (v. d. );


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

group “WV” (20th flotilla of destroyers (“Esk”, “Impalsive”, “Ikarus”, “Ivanhoe”) and the 2nd destroyer flotilla (“Hardy”, “Hotsper”, “Havok”, “Hunter”) - in the Bodo area (67 (24'n. sh.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

, 14 (36'E).


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

A unit under the command of Vice Admiral William J.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Whiteworth (the Rinaun battlecruiser and the destroyers Grayhound, Gloworth, Hyperion, Hirow) was allocated for operational cover of the barrier groups, as information was received about those in Narvik Norwegian battleships, in addition, could not completely exclude the enemy's retaliatory measures.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

“Since our mining of Norwegian waters could trigger a response from Germany,” Churchill recalled, “it was also decided that a British brigade and French troops should be sent to Narvik to clear the port and advance to the Swedish border. Troops were also to be sent to Stavanger, Bergen and Trondheim.”


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

This is what the new plan, codenamed “R4", looked like in general terms.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

It shows the following characteristic solutions:


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

counting on the loyalty of the Norwegian political leadership;


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

the main emphasis was placed on the conduct of hostilities at sea, the plans were built on the basis of the significant superiority of the British fleet over the German fleet, and the Navy was entrusted with the main efforts to counter possible German countermeasures;


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

in the first echelon, exclusively British troops were involved, in the second - also French and Polish forces;


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

28] no military action was envisaged in Denmark at this stage. [28]


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Allied forces


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Norway had 6 divisions, with a total number of 55 thousand people (after partial mobilization).


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Norwegian fleet had 2 coastal defense battleships, 7 destroyers, 8 minesweepers, 10 minelayers, 17 destroyers, 9 submarines.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Norwegian aviation consisted of 190 aircraft.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Denmark had 2 divisions, totaling 14.5 thousand people.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Danish fleet consisted of 2 coastal defense battleships, 9 minesweepers, 3 minelayers, 6 destroyers, 7 submarines.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Danish aviation had 94 aircraft.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Allied troops (Great Britain, France and Poland), consisting of 4 British, 3 French and 1 Polish brigade, were sent to help Denmark and Norway.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The British fleet consisted of 3 aircraft carriers, 4 battleships, 21 cruisers, 21 destroyers and 18 submarines.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The French fleet consisted of 2 cruisers, 11 destroyers and 1 submarine.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Polish fleet had 3 destroyers and 1 submarine.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Amphibious operations


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Since April 3, German ports have been leaving transports going to Stavanger, Trondheim and Narvik [29].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At about three o'clock in the morning on April 7, German warships carrying army units destined for Northern Norway gathered at the Schillig approaches (at the exit from Wilhelmshaven Bay) and headed north: they were the battleships Gneisenau (the flagship of Vice Admiral Gunther Lutyens) and Scharnhorst, the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and 12 destroyers [29].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

In the afternoon, the fleet was discovered by British naval aircraft, whose command decided that the unit would break into the Atlantic [30].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

It sent several flotillas to the North Sea and to the Shetland Islands-Iceland border [31].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At night, the German fleet was caught in a storm that lasted several days: it caused some damage to ships and seriously hampered navigation [31].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 10 am on April 8, the Admiral Hipper rammed and sank the destroyer Glowwalm alone [32]; after which it and four destroyers went to Trondheim Fjord [33].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Around 21:00, when the connection stood at the West Fjord, the remaining 8 destroyers said goodbye to the battleships and went to Narvik [34].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On the night of April 9, the Norwegian Admiralty ordered the beacons to be turned off and the lights on the coast turned off [35].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The landing in both countries was scheduled for 5:15, and half an hour before that, the battleships discovered the 2nd flotilla of destroyers Admiral William Whitford with the battlecruiser Rinaun as the flagship [35].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 5:10, the battle began between the British cruiser and the German battleships, as a result of which the gun turrets “A” soon failed on them, after which they preferred to withdraw, which in stormy weather did not was of great difficulty [36].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Norway


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Eight destroyers of the 1st Airborne Group led by Wilhelm Heidkamp entered Narvik Bay on the morning of April 9, where after negotiations they sank the Norwegian coast guard battleships Eidswold and Norge [37 ].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The destroyers landed at the port of the mountain rifles; after a short conversation, the chief of the Narvik garrison, Colonel Zundlo, surrendered the city of Ditlu; however, two companies of the 13th Infantry Regiment did not obey the order and withdrew to the Swedish border [33].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 8:10, the destroyers reported to the headquarters that Narvik, the main target of the invasion, had been captured [33].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The 2nd Group, the Admiral Hipper and 4 destroyers, intended for Trondheim, for fear of meeting the British fleet, stood ashore in front of the entrance to Trondheim Fjord on the night of April 9 [38].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 4 am, a compound with a small artillery shootout overcame the searchlight fence of the fjord [39].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At six o'clock, the 138th Mountain Rifle Regiment began landing in the city and at the southern coastal batteries [40].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The regiment commander, Colonel Weiss, quickly achieved the loyalty of the local authorities [40].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The German tanker did not arrive, and the warships had a fuel problem, which prevented them from going home on April 9, as planned [40].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The airfield and the remaining batteries were occupied only on April 11; on the same day, the fleet went to sea [41].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The operation against Bergen involved (3rd group) light cruisers Cologne (the flagship of Rear Admiral Schmundt) and Koenigsberg, the Bremse artillery training ship, 2 destroyers and 5 torpedo boats with Carl Peters escort ship [41].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

They were equipped with ground units led by the headquarters of the 69th Division of Major General Tittel [41].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 18:00 on April 8, a British fleet of two cruisers and 15 destroyers was 60 miles from the 3rd Group, but at night it passed north of the entrance to Korsfjord [42].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 4:30am, some army units landed at the entrance to the Bifjord to capture the Quarven battery; at 5:15am, the 3rd group entered the fjord [43].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Quarven's battery responded with fire that damaged the Karl Peters, but the rest of the ships sailed to Bergen harbor [44].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 6:20, the landing ended, and 3 hours later, the Quarven and Sandviken batteries that were firing were captured [44].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At noon, Bergen was under the control of the Germans, but in the evening a British fleet of 3 battleships, 10 cruisers and 20 destroyers was to approach the fjord [44].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Schmundt decided to immediately withdraw the ships, and army units prepared to defend the coast [44].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

During the Weser, Stavanger was attacked by dive bombers, after which paratroopers landed [44].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Infantrymen and anti-aircraft gunners were delivered by air; the city and airfield of Sola were captured very quickly [45].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Norwegian destroyer Aeger sank the German motor ship Roda in the harbor, after which the Luftwaffe was destroyed [45].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Soon, the 193rd Infantry Regiment (Colonel Beeren) of the 69th Division landed in the port, taking control of part of Stavanger [45].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On the morning of April 9, half of the 2nd minesweeper flotilla seized the cable station in Egersund, while the Norwegian destroyer Skarv was sunk [45].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The landing in Kristiansand had some problems [45].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The 4th group consisted of the light cruiser Karlsruhe (Captain Rive), three destroyers and eight torpedo boats [45].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Due to dense fog, it was only at 6:00am on April 9 that Rive decided to enter the fjord, where he was attacked by an Odderoe battery [46].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Ironically, just at this time, fleeing the British fleet, the German merchant steamer Seattle arrived in the fjord, breaking through the British blockade from Curacao; finding itself at the wrong time in in an inappropriate place, it was sunk by a Norwegian battery and the destroyer Giller [46].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Odderoe and Gleodin batteries stubbornly resisted the attacks of the Luftwaffe, but were captured at noon [47].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

By 17:00, the 310th German Infantry Regiment was stationed in Kristiansand [47].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The success and speed of the capture of Oslo were extremely important for the Germans, both militarily and politically, but this landing was the most unsuccessful for them [47].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Half of the 324th Infantry Regiment of the 163rd Division was supposed to fly to Oslo Forneby airfield after it was captured by a company of paratroopers; the second half of the regiment planned to land at the port of Oslo with ships of the 5th amphibious group [48].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

It included the Blucher heavy cruisers (Rear Admiral Kummets's flagship, which also housed the headquarters of Major General Engelbrecht's division) and Lutzov, the light cruiser Emden, 3 destroyers, 8 minesweepers and 2 armed whalers [48].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

After passing the searchlight fence between Bolaerne and Rauoy, assault groups were sent to capture these fortifications and Norway's main military port, Horten [48].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Hoping that there would be no serious resistance, Kummets decided to break through the bottleneck of the Oslo Fjord, the Drøbak Passage [49].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At the northern exit of the passage was the Fort Island Oscarsborg [49].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 5:20, unexpectedly for the Germans, two batteries of the fort opened crossfire with 280 mm guns at the first Blucher from a distance of 500 meters [49].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The cruiser immediately failed the fire control system and fires broke out; while maneuvering, it fired indiscriminately from anti-aircraft guns [50].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At this time, the ship received two torpedo holes from a perfectly camouflaged coastal torpedo mount in Kaholm [50].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 7:23, the Blucher sank at a depth of 90 meters 400 meters from the shore [50].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Despite the absence of most life jackets and boats, spilled burning fuel and icy (3 degrees Celsius) water, most sailors and soldiers were able to reach the shore, where they were briefly captured by Norway [50].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The Emden and Lutzow reversed out of the aisle, after which Captain Thiele (Lutzow), who took command, decided to land infantry in Sonbucten to support Dryobak's breakthrough from land [51].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At this time, the German minesweeper boat R-17 and the Norwegian submarine A-2 were sunk in the battles for Raua and Horten; the Norwegian admiral surrendered the port [51].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

In the evening, the Luftwaffe attacked Drøbak and Oskarsborg; surrender negotiations were held with batteries in the Oslo Fjord [51].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

German ships entered the port of Oslo only on the morning of April 10 [51].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Paratroopers were unable to land in Oslo Forneby during the Weser due to strong anti-aircraft fire, but an assault group of infantry under the cover of bombers landed and captured the airport [52].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At nine o'clock, transports began to land; in the afternoon, infantry under the command of Colonel Polman broke into Oslo, which was soon captured [52].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Small German forces watched with alarm the two Norwegian divisions at Fredrikstad and Gardermoen [52].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Denmark


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On the evening of April 8, the 170th Infantry Division and the 11th Rifle Brigade were pulled to the Danish-German border in Schleswig [52].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 5:25am on April 9, they crossed the border, the Danish battalion retreated [53].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

With local clashes, the 170 Division advanced deep into Jutland, while the Luftwaffe bombed airfields, which paratroopers soon landed [53].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The 11th Brigade quickly marched to Skagen [53].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On the night of April 9, the 190th Division went to sea on transports from Kiel and Warnemunde [54].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Paratroopers captured the bridge between Falster and Zealand, and Korsør was captured from the sea [54].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

This made it possible to quickly occupy Zealand; another amphibious assault captured Bornholm [54].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The key in the capture of Denmark almost without a fight was the rapid capture of the capital [54].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

For this purpose, the motor ship Hanseatic City of Danzig took on board Major Glane's 308th Infantry Regiment, bypassed Zealand from the west and north, and together with the Stettin icebreaker entered the port of Copenhagen [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

From Fort Middelgrund, a German war flag was seen on the Danzig; the commandant ordered a warning shot to force the ships to stop, but the shot was never fired [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Stettin stopped, and Danzig docked at the pier at 5:20am [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The infantrymen on bicycles reached, where they had a shootout with the guards [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At 7:20am, King Christian X of Denmark ordered an end to the resistance; German and Danish commanders exchanged courtesy visits [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Believing that Germany was also at war with Sweden, a Danish colonel took the battalion through Öresund to Helsingborg [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Since April 9, the Germans have used Danish airfields, highways and railways to supply units in Norway [55].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Battle of Norway


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On the night of April 9-10, the Germans tried to capture King Haakon VII near the city of Elverum, but their attacks were repulsed.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Overcoming the resistance of Norwegian troops, the Germans had occupied most of Southern Norway by April 22.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

At the same time, some cities where the resisting Norwegian troops were located were subjected to heavy air bombing: Andalsnes, Molde, Kristiansand, Steinkjer, Namsos, Bodø, Narvik.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

During the bombing, many civilians were killed, cities were destroyed, and many residents fled cities to the countryside.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Near Narvik on April 10, there was a naval battle between the approaching forces of the British fleet and the German destroyers.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The British managed to sink or damage German ships near Narvik, thereby cutting off parts of the second and third mountain rifle divisions operating in the city.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

As a result, the Germans failed to develop an offensive in the north of the country in the first days of the campaign.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On April 13, the British again defeated the German navy forces approaching Narvik, and on April 14 began the landing of a combined Anglo-Franco-Polish contingent in Harstad, where they joined Norwegian 6th Division and launched an offensive against Narvik.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On 14 April, the Anglo-French contingent also landed in the city of Namsos and launched a dense offensive in the center of the country.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On 17 April, British forces landed in Ondalsnes.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

However, the Allied offensives from Namsos and Ondalsnes into the center of the country ended in defeats in the areas of Steinkjer and Lillehammer, and they were forced to withdraw again to coastal cities.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On May 12, the Allies occupied the northern part of Narvik after prolonged fighting, and on May 28 occupied the entire city and forced the Germans to withdraw to the Westfjord.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

However, the plight of the Allies in France forced them to evacuate all their troops from Norway on June 3-8 (Operation Alphabet [56]).


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Together with them, the Norwegian king and government were evacuated.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

On 2 June, the last Norwegian troops operating in Central Norway surrendered, and on 10 June in Northern Norway surrendered.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

By June 16, the Germans had occupied the entire territory of Norway.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Losses of parties


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

During the fighting in Denmark, the losses of the Danish army amounted to 13 people killed [57], the losses of German troops - 2 dead and 10 wounded [58].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

During the fighting in Norway, the losses of the Norwegian army amounted to 1,335 people killed and missing, up to 60 thousand prisoners; British troops in hostilities on land lost 1896 people killed, missing and seriously wounded (the total number of killed and wounded is 4,400 British), French and Polish troops - 530 killed.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The British aircraft carrier Glories, an air defense cruiser, 7 destroyers, 4 submarines were sunk; 2 battleships and 7 cruisers were damaged.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The French fleet lost 1 submarine sunk, the Polish Navy acting together with them lost 1 submarine sunk.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

German losses in Norway amounted to 1,307 killed, 2,375 missing and 1,604 wounded.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Air losses amounted to 127 aircraft.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The German fleet suffered especially heavy losses - the Blucher heavy cruiser, the Karlsruhe and Koenigsberg light cruisers, 10 destroyers, the Broommer artillery training vessel, 8 submarines were sunk, destroyer, 11 transports and more than 10 small ships.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, the Lutzov pocket battleship, the Admiral Hipper heavy cruiser, the Emden light cruiser, and the Bremse artillery training vessel were damaged [59].


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

The results


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

As a result of the successful completion of the campaign, the Germans managed to occupy Denmark and Norway.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Germany received a strategically important bridgehead in northern Europe, improved the basing of German submarines and aircraft and ensured the supply of strategic raw materials from the Scandinavian countries.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

However, significant losses of the German fleet, the Kriegsmarine, led to a lack of forces for an amphibious operation in Britain.


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Notes


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Literature


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

References


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

Media related to Nazi Germany's occupation of Norway at Wikimedia Commons


Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: How did Operation Weserubung end?

Danish-Norwegian operation

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Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite (from Ancient Greek: “strength”) is a high explosive mixture based on nitroglycerin with an absorber and other additives [1].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Nitroglycerin in its pure form is very dangerous and inconvenient for use.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Therefore, for the widespread use of this powerful explosive, solid absorbents were found, the impregnation of which with nitroglycerin made it relatively safe for storage and use.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In addition to the absorbent, dynamite may contain other substances.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The entire mass is usually pressed into a cylindrical shape and placed in a paper or plastic cartridge package.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The charge is detonated by means of a detonator cap.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite was patented by Alfred Nobel on November 25, 1867 [2] and until the middle of the 20th century was used as the main explosive in mining, then giving way to safer and less expensive trains.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

History


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Discovery of nitroglycerin


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Nitroglycerin was discovered in 1846 by the Italian chemist Ascagno Sobrero, who published his discovery the following year.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The substance turned out to be a strong explosive, but very dangerous to handle.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

For its production, several plants were built, including in Russia.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Russian chemist Nikolai Zinin and his assistant Vasily Petrushevsky studied nitroglycerin and looked for safe ways to use it.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Their student was a young Alfred Nobel [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Since 1859, Alfred Nobel, his father and younger brother have been experimenting with explosive liquid nitroglycerin in Sweden, trying to find the best ways to produce it and use it in industry.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1863, they found, in particular, that the detonation of nitroglycerin can be caused by the explosion of explosive mercury, which simplified its practical use [3] and led to Nobel's invention of an improved the detonator cap, which is still in use today — this development is estimated by some authors even higher than the invention of dynamite [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Alfred Nobel also invented a method for the industrial continuous production of nitroglycerin in an injector that mixes glycerin and nitric acid [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The invention of dynamite


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

According to a widespread legend, the invention of dynamite began with an accidental discovery in 1866: the bottles in which nitroglycerin was intended for transportation were laid in siliceous earth (kieselguhr), and one of the bottles leaked, some of the nitroglycerin leaked and was absorbed by siliceous earth.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Nobel allegedly drew attention to the fact that the resulting diatomaceous earth moistened with nitroglycerin does not release liquids even under strong pressure, and when detonated by a capsule of explosive mercury, it explodes forcefully, only slightly inferior to pure nitroglycerin in the amount absorbed by siliceous earth [4] [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In fact, Nobel, in order to simplify the use of nitroglycerin, began large-scale studies of nitroglycerin absorbent materials in 1864, testing successively paper, gunpowder, sawdust , cotton wool, coal, plaster, brick dust and other materials.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

By the end of the year, it was found that the best results were obtained by kieselguhr, which Nobel stopped at.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The whole of 1865 was spent honing the composition and method of producing explosives, and in 1866 dynamite was introduced to the public.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Nobel himself refuted the legend [4]:


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

I certainly never noticed a single accidental leak of nitroglycerin into the kieselguhr package in such quantities as to form a plastic or at least wet material, and the idea of such an accident must have been invented by those who take assumptions for reality.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

What really drew my attention to the use of infuser earth for dynamite was its excessive lightness when dry, which, of course, indicates its high porosity.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Therefore, dynamite did not come about by chance, but because I saw the shortcomings of liquid explosives from the very beginning and looked for ways to counteract them.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

This development of Nobel turned out to be extremely important: it made it possible to completely abandon the use of nitroglycerin in liquid form.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

When absorbed by powdered absorbers, this explosive has become much safer to handle [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The invention was immediately appreciated by contemporaries: already in 1868, Alfred Nobel and his father were awarded the Gold Medal of the Swedish Academy of Sciences “For merits in the use of nitroglycerin as an explosive substances” [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Absorbent substances impregnated with nitroglycerin were called “dynamites”, and in 1867 A. Nobel took a patent for the preparation of the so-called “diatomaceous earth dynamite”, or, in other words, “gur dynamite”, containing from 30 to 70% nitroglycerin [5] [6] [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite propagation


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1867, A. Nobel proposed dynamite for equipping artillery shells, but a special commission appointed to test this proposal concluded that dynamite is not suitable for this purpose, since it is not provides sufficient security [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1868, Colonel Petrushevsky proposed his powdered magnesia dynamite, consisting of 75% nitroglycerin and 25% magnesia carbonate as an absorber (the so-called “Russian dynamite Petrushevsky”).


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In the same year, 18 pounds of such dynamite were prepared in Kronstadt, which gave good results during the test [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

This dynamite was once used in the US under the name Magnesia powder [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Nobel introduced dynamites in private industry in 1869, and already in 1871 they were used in the extraction of zinc ores and coal in Russia [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

If in 1867, Nobel's only dynamite factory produced only 11 tons of dynamite, then seven years later, more than a dozen Nobel factories already produced thousands of tons of dynamite per year, primarily for the needs of the mining industry [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

When introducing dynamite into practice, curiosities often arose, as a series of known explosions of nitroglycerin in the early to mid-1860s led to the fact that some countries banned the production and transportation of nitroglycerin-containing materials.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In such countries, dynamite was often sent to mines under the guise of porcelain or glass [4], and in Great Britain, where such a ban was in force from 1869 to 1893, Nobel had to bypass it by building a large the Glasgow dynamite plant is under Scottish jurisdiction, and delivering dynamite not by rail, but by animal-drawn transport [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

During the Franco-Prussian campaign in 1870-1871, the Germans used 50% nitroglycerin, 30% nitrated wood and 20% potassium nitrate to equip underwater mines, and as subversive cartridges, German engineering troops used the so-called lithofractor - a special type of dynamite containing 52-70% nitroglycerin, 30-25% kieselguhr and a small amount of coal, nitrate and sulfur [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The success of the Germans in the use of dynamite in the explosion of fortresses and bridges stimulated the French to start using it, which was previously opposed by the state Administration of Gunpowder and Saltpeter, which had a monopoly on the production of explosives in France [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

As a result, during the same war, dynamite was adopted by the French troops, and in 1870-1871, two state and one private dynamite factories were built in France [3], then, however, they were again closed before 1875 [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1871, dynamites also appeared in the Austrian engineering troops [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The expansion of production was accompanied by explosions in factories: for example, in 1870, they occurred in Germany on January 6, January 14, 1871, 10 people were killed in an explosion in Prague, and on April 8, 1872, dynamite exploded plant in Alt Berou (Silesia) [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1875-1879, experiments were carried out in Russia with “cellulose-dynamite” by the Austrian chemist I. Trauzl.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Experiments were conducted in Ust-Izhora and Warsaw.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

This dynamite included 70% nitroglycerin and an absorber consisting of 29.5% of wood and paper pulp and 0.5% soda [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1876, Russian cavalry and engineering troops were equipped with cartridges made of “cellulose-dynamite”.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Cavalry cartridges were enclosed in a cylindrical cardboard case, varnished on the outside and lined with lead paper inside.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

This type of dynamite was in service during the war in 1877—78 and was widely used to destroy railways and develop mountain roads in the European theater of operations, as well as for equipment underwater mines planted in the Black Sea and on the Danube.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

After the war, about 90 pounds of this dynamite were used in the liquidation of the Vidin fortress.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

When sending dynamite back to Russia, 212 pounds of dynamite residues exploded at the Fratesti station for an unknown reason [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The invention and distribution of gelatin-dynamite


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1875, A. Nobel, in an attempt to improve dynamite, returned to experiments with pyroxylin as an absorber, and, cutting his finger, drew attention to the fact that a close relative of pyroxylin used to close wounds - collodion, forms gelatin-like mixtures with many organic solvents [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Nobel rushed to the laboratory and, having written a will just in case, received the first sample of explosive jelly overnight — a mixture of nitroglycerin and collodion [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Thus, a method for gelatinizing nitroglycerin was discovered and gelatinized dynamites were invented [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Gelatin-dynamite has been industrially produced in England since 1878, and in continental Europe since 1880 [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

At first, these dynamites were not widely used, as their first samples eventually exuded nitroglycerin (“sweating” it) and therefore were not safe enough, but this problem was solved in England in 1887, and since then explosive jelly and gelatinized dynamites have become widespread in mining [3], significantly expanding the possible scope of blasting operations [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Thus, the use of these dynamites in the construction of the 15-kilometer Great Gotthard Tunnel, which passed in hard granite, made it possible to complete the tunnel three years earlier than initial calculations [ 4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The construction of other large tunnels across the Alps: Mont Senis (12 km), Arlberg (10 km) and Simplon (19 km) — also required intensive use of dynamite [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Important advantages of gelatinized dynamite were that they exploded without leaving solid residues, had a greater explosive force and were not afraid of water at all — and were therefore suitable for underwater blasting operations [8] [4].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Vegetable parchment was used for the shells of rattling jelly cartridges [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In 1880, “explosive gelatin” consisting of 89% nitroglycerin, 7% collodionic pyroxylin and 4% camphor was tested in Russia.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

This drug had an important advantage over Trauzl's “cellulose-dynamite”: it did not release nitroglycerin either in water or under strong pressure, did not explode from the impact of a rifle bullet and hardly detonated through influence, and was stronger than other dynamites.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Subsequently, however, it was found that this variety of dynamite does not have sufficient resistance and is prone to self-decomposition (probably due to the lack of purity of nitroglycerin) [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Anti-grizut safety dynamite


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The 19th century is the age of coal.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Its extraction was one of the main tasks of the mining industry.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

At the same time, it was quite dangerous: explosions of gunpowder used to dig coal mines and crush seams formed a lot of poisonous gases and, due to prolonged open flames, often caused explosions of mine gas and coal dust, which took the lives of miners.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The invention of new safer explosives for the coal industry was an urgent task, so dynamites were immediately successfully tested in the Anna-Maria coal mines (Severnaya Westphalia) under the guidance of German engineer Menzel [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite had a greater beneficial effect than gunpowder, and a higher detonation rate, which made it safer.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The use of gunpowder, however, continued for a long time for commercial reasons, as it crushed coal weaker.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Gurdinamite and gelatinized dynamite, however, did not fully solve the safety problem, so the next step was to study ways to further improve safety for use in mines — or, as it was called at the World Congress of Applied Chemistry in 1906, antigrisutism (from French: grisou — methane, the main component of mine gas) — explosives [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

First of all, the researchers drew attention to the flame of the explosion.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Attempts to surround the charge with water, impregnating the shell with it or placing it in a cartridge filled with water, were almost unsuccessful.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In the late 1870s and early 1880s, the largest European powers established special anti-grizut commissions that were engaged in experimental testing of the flammable properties of various explosives and certified them for use in mines of various hazards [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The success was the first thermal theory of antigrisutism, developed on the basis of experiments on the ignition of methane-air mixtures by French scientists members of the anti-grisut commission Francois Ernest Mullar and Henri Louis Le Chatelier.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

They found that there is a minimum ignition temperature of the mixture, and the ignition delay drops with a temperature: from about 10 s at a minimum temperature of 650° C to almost instantaneous ignition at 2200°C.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

From this, it was concluded that mine gas would not explode if


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

the temperature of the gases during detonation will be less than 2200°C — this limits the composition of the explosive;


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

in the process of expansion and cooling of gases, the ignition delay for their current temperature will constantly exceed the time elapsed since the moment of detonation - this gives a limit charge, if exceeded which outbreak is possible.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Experiments confirmed the main provisions of the theory, however, the maximum temperature of gases after the explosion in the mine in 1888, where explosives with a maximum detonation temperature of 2200° C were used, we decided to lower it to 1500°C for coal mines and to 1900°C for others [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Ammonium nitrate was a promising explosive with a low resultant gas temperature of only 1100°C.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The first widespread anti-grizut explosive based on it was Nobel extradynamite, which contained 70-80% nitrate and 30-20% explosive jelly.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Then grisutines were developed, which contained 12-30% explosive jelly, and carbonites consisting of 25-30% jelly, the same amount of flour and 25-40% saltpeter of alkali metals or barium, invented Bichel and Schmut in 1885.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Since 1887, vetterdynamites have spread, including inert salts with a high water content, which lowered the temperature of the detonation products - for the first time such a composition was proposed by the Germans Muller and Aufschleger: 48% nitroglycerin, 12% kieselguhr and 40% soda or magnesium sulfate [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Smokeless gunpowder and military use of dynamite


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

By the end of the 1880s, throwing smokeless gunpowder had been developed on the basis of nitroglycerin: ballistitis patented by Nobel in 1888 and cordite patented in England by Abel and Dewar regardless of Nobel's ballistitis in 1889 (Nobel himself considered the differences between cordite and ballistite insignificant and fought an unsuccessful lawsuit in an attempt to protect his patent) [8].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In contrast, the Poudre B smokeless powder developed earlier in France by Paul Viel did not contain nitroglycerin and consisted mainly of nitrocellulose [9].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite itself, despite the long efforts of military researchers and the invention of relatively safe camphor varieties, has not been widely used in military affairs due to the increased danger and sensitivity to bullet shooting, although camphor dynamite was used in the Russian army and during the First World War [8].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Pneumatic artillery, which was briefly in service with the American Navy and coastal batteries at the very end of the XIX century, as well as tested by various European countries, was called” dynamite cannons.”


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The name is due to the fact that such guns could fire dynamite charges, among other things, without a significant risk of detonation of the projectile directly in the barrel, since the pressure in the barrel bore of the artillery the installations could be adjusted so that there was no strong initial push (as from a powder charge in classical artillery), but on the contrary, the acceleration of the projectile increased gradually [10].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The samples adopted for service fired elongated feathered high-explosive shells weighing up to several hundred kilograms, equipped with explosive jelly, which accounted for up to 75% of the projectile weight, at a distance of a few miles.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite guns lost their importance by the 1900s, when more stable explosives (melinite, TNT and others) spread, which could be equipped with high-explosive shells of the classic gunpowder artillery, which also had higher initial speeds and therefore allowed a longer firing range [10].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Built specifically for testing pneumatic guns, the USS Vesuvius dynamite cruiser was manned in 1890 and, after experimental firing in 1891 and 1893, even participated in the Spanish - American War of 1898, shelling Santiago at night.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Then, however, it was put on a joke and in 1904 was turned into an experimental torpedo ship with the dismantling of all dynamite guns.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Another dynamite cannon ship, the Brazilian auxiliary cruiser Niteroi, fired only a single symbolic shot from it on 15 March 1894, the day of the final suppression of the Rio rebellion, de Janeiro [11].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The criminal use of dynamite


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Almost immediately, criminals and terrorist organizations appreciated the benefits of dynamite.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

An attempt to blow up the Moselle package boat at sea in order to obtain insurance by American sailor William King Thomassen, a former detonator saboteur of the Confederate Army, failed when 11 On December 1875, a barrel of frozen homemade dynamite with a clock mechanism exploded while loading onto a ship, killing about 80 people.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Between March 1883 and January 1885, 13 dynamite explosions occurred in London by extremist supporters of Irish self-government from the Clan-on-Gale organization, including an explosion in a building Scotland Yard and the attempt to blow up London Bridge.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The Russian Revolutionary Party “Narodnaya Volya” was actively engaged in the production of dynamite for terrorist acts [12].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In Europe, dynamite was used for the same purpose by radical anarchists [13] [14].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

As the editor of an anarchist newspaper in Chicago put it in 1886, “a pound of dynamite is worth a bushel of bullets” (English: A pound of dynamite is worth a bushel of bullets) [15].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The heyday of dynamite use


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

By the 1890s, Nobel already managed dozens of enterprises that produced tens of thousands of tons of dynamite per year.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

All his fortune earned mainly on dynamite and oil, about 32 million kroons, Nobel, who died in 1896, bequeathed to form a fund that awards Nobel Prizes annually [16].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

By 1910, dynamite production in the world had reached hundreds of thousands of tons per year [3], and several million tons of dynamite were used on the construction of the Panama Canal alone [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

By the 1920s, the number of dynamite grades produced began to number in the hundreds [3], although then there was a tendency to replace them with newer, safer and more efficient economically explosives [3] ].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Initially, varieties with passive adsorbents, such as kieselguhr, were more popular [3], but by the 1920s they had almost only historical interest, giving way to various more powerful formulations with adsorbents of nitroglycerin, such as organic resins, nitrate and even sugar that burn in detonation [3].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

This was due to the fact that nitroglycerin is an oxygen-excess explosive, that is, when nitroglycerin is detonated, pure oxygen is released, which can be used as oxidizing agent for adsorbent and other additives in order to enhance the explosion [17].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite Sunset


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Despite competition with new nitrate-based compounds, dynamite remained the main industrial explosive in many countries, such as England and Sweden, until the middle of the 20th century [18].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In South Africa, the world's largest producer and consumer of dynamite for several decades, starting in the 1940s, dynamite was actively used in gold mines and remained the main explosive substance until 1985, when AECI, under the influence of trade unions, converted factories to the production of explosives based on nitrate [19] [20].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In Russia, the production of semi-plastic dynamite began in the second half of the 1870s, and until 1932 dynamites with a nitroester content of 93, 88, 83 and 62% were produced, after which production The first three brands were curtailed due to their greater danger compared to 62% dynamite.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

After the Great Patriotic War, the production of hard-to-freeze 62% dynamite on a mixture of nitroglycerin and nitrodiglycol was resumed, but by the beginning of the 1960s it was also ousted from industry, in The USSR has only the production of powdered compositions with a liquid nitroesters content of about 15% (detonites, carbonites, etc.) [18].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

At the same time, some authors refer to explosives with a low content of nitroesters as dynamite [1], and some do not [21].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In the early 1960s, the production of classical dynamite in the USSR was completely discontinued [22].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In the last quarter of the 20th century, protective dynamites became popular in mining in the United States for some time, in which a mixture was used as a nitroester mixture and had the advantage is that these compounds do not cause headaches on contact, unlike nitroglycerin [23].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

By the beginning of the 21st century, their production was curtailed [23].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamite now occupies a maximum of 2% in the full circulation of explosives in the world [24].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

The role of dynamites in the history of technology, their advantages and disadvantages


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamites were the first mixed high explosives widely used in mining, and they played a significant role in the development of blasting [18].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Dynamites were superior to the earlier main explosive, black powder, in almost all respects: in terms of explosion strength and energy concentration (the heat of the explosion of dynamite is 7100-10,700 MJ/m ³), for water resistance and plasticity, for safety in handling.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

These advantages made the use of dynamite especially effective for one of the main methods of blasting operations at that time — the borehole method with manual loading of holes with cartridges [18].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

In general, the introduction of dynamite has significantly simplified the technology of blasting operations, making it possible to switch from chamber and small-scale charges to downhole charges [7].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Along with the advantages, dynamite also has disadvantages.


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

They are very sensitive to mechanical stress and therefore dangerous to handle, especially frozen and semi-thawed dynamites — which requires well-heated warehouses to store dynamite [18]: for example, dynamites using pure nitroglycerin freeze at temperatures of 10—12°C and lose their plasticity [22], and other nitroesters are also added to dynamite to lower the freezing point, for example nitroglycol [18].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

Negative qualities of gelatin-dynamite (see Fig. Dynamite species and production) are aging (partial loss of detonation capacity during storage, although significantly less pronounced than other dynamite) and freezing at temperatures below − 20°C [25].


Question: Who patented dynamite?

dynamite

A common danger due to mechanical sensitivity was the possibility of detonation of cartridge residues in the hole glasses during the subsequent drilling of the faces [18].