Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

A special role in Passions is played by the chorale Herzliebster Jesu, was hast du verbrochen (Our Lord), composed by Johannes Herman and Johann Kruger, used twice in The Passion according to John ( chorales 3 and 17) and three times in The Passion according to Matthew (chorales 3, 46 and recitative with choir 19), which expresses the main idea of passions


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

The most famous recordings of Bach's The Passion


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

John Passion


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Year of recordConductorRevangelist (tenor) Jesus (bass) Orchestra Hor1954Gunther Raminernst HefligerFranz Kelchagnes Giebel, Marga Höfgen, Hans-Olaf Hudemanngewandhaus Orchestra Thomanerchor1964 Karl Richternst HefligerGerman PreiEvelyn Lear, Hertha Topper, Keith EngenMunchener Bach-Orchestermunchener Bach-Chor1984 Helmut RillingPeter SchreierPhilippe Huttenlocherarleen Augér, Julia Hamari, Dietrich Fischer-Diskau, Charlotte Hoffmann, Markus Müller, Dietmar Kietz, Andreas Schmidtbach-Collegium Stuttgartgächinger Kantorei Stuttgart1987Peter SchreierPeter SchreierRobert HollJunghans, Scheibner, Wagner, IhleDresden State Chaplain Rundfunkchor Leipzig Chorus Master1998Masaaki Suzukigerd TurkChiyuki Uranoyoshikazu Mera, Ingrid Schmithusen, Makoto Sakurada, Peter KooijBach Collegium JapanBach Collegium JapanBach Collegium Japan2002Philippe HerreVegemark PadmoreMichael Vollesibylla Rubens, Andreas Scholl, Collegium Vocale GentCollegium Vocale Gent


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

St. Matthew Passion


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Year of recordConductorRevangelist (tenor) Jesus (bass) Soloists OrchestrHor1941


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

in abbreviationIgunther RaminKarl Erbgerhard Hustiana Lemnitz, Friedel Beckmann, Siegfried Schulzegewandhaus-Thomanerchor Leipzig1954


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

abbreviated Wilhelm Furtwängleranton Dermotadietrich Fischer-Diskauelizabet Grummer, Marga Höfgen, Otto Edelmanven Philharmonic Orchestra Boys Choir1959Karl Richterernst Hefligerkeith Engenirmgard Seefred, Antonia Fahberg, Hertha Topper, Dietrich Fischer-Diskau, Max Proebstlmunchener Bach Orchestramunchener Bach-Chour1962Otto KlempererPeter Pirsdietrich Fischer-Discowesabeth Schwarzkopf, Christa Ludwig, Nikolai Gedda, Walter Berry, John Carol Case, Otakar Kraus, Heather Harper, Helen Watts, Geraint Evans, Wilfred BrownPhilharmony OrchestraPhilharmony Choir & Boys of the Hampstead Parish Church Choir1970Nikolaus Arnonkurkurt EquiluzKarl RidderBuschPaul Esswood, Tom Sutcliffe, James Bowman, Nigel Rogers, Max van Egmond, Michael SchopperConcentus Musicus WienRegensburger Domspataty, King's College Choir Cambridge1978Helmut RillingAdalbert KraussiegMund NimsGernarleen Augér, Rosmarie Hoffmann, Ann Murray, Gabriele Schnautgächinger Kantoreibach-Collegium Stuttgart1987Peter SchreierPeter SchreierTheo AdamLucia Popp, Marjana Lipovsek, Olaf BarDresden State CapellaDresdener Kapellknaben, Rundfunkchor Leipzig1989Gustav LeonhardtChristoph PréGardienMax van EgmondChristian Fliegner, Maximilian Kiener, Rene Jacobs, David Cordier, Markus Schäfer, John Elwes, Klaus Mertens, Peter LikaOrchestra La Petite Bandemens Choir of La Petite Bande & Tölzer Knabenchor1989John Eliot GardinerAnthony Rolfe JohnsonAndreas SchmidtBarbara Bonney, Ann Monoyios, Anna Sophie von Otter, Michael Chance, Howard CrookEnglish Baroque SoloistsMonteverdi Choir & London Oratory Junior Choir1998Philippe Herrevegeyen BostridgeFranz-Jozef SelingSibylla Rubens, Andreas Scholl, Werner Gura, Dietrich Henschelorchestre du Collegium Vocale GentchoEur du Collegium Vocale Gent1992Ton KooopManguy de MeyPeter KooyBarbara Schlick, Kai Wessel, Christoph Prégardien, Klaus Mertensamsterdam Baroque OrcheStraederLandse Bachvereniging, Sacramentskoor Breda1997Seiji OzawaJohn Mark AinsleyThomas QuasthoffChristiane Oelze, Nathalie Stutzmann, Stanford Olsensaito Kinen Orchestraskf Matsumoto Children's Choir, Tokyo Opera Singers1999Masaaki Suzukigerd TurkPeter KooijRobin Blaze, Nancy Argenta, Makoto Sakurada, Chiyuki Uranada oBach Collegium JapanBach Collegium Japan1999Nikolaus ArnonkurChristoph PregardienMatthias GoerneChristine Schäfer, Dorothea Roschmann, Bernarda Fink, Elisabeth von MagnusConcentus MusicArnold Schoenberg Chor


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Mark's Passion


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Year of recordReconstructionConductorRevangelist (tenor) Jesus (bass) Soloists Orchestra Hor1983Diethard Hellmanndiethard HellmannSoprano: Eva Csapò; Alto: Andrea Hellmann; Tenor: Aldo BaldinBach Orchestra of MainzBach Choir of Mainz1982Gustav Adolf TylGerda SchaarwächterJoachim CalaminusKlaus MertensJutta Riess, Hilke Helling, Friedhelm Petrovitsch, Anton WassongJohanneskantorei Köln Klettenberg OrchesterJohanneskantorei Köln Klettenberg Chor1996Simon HeighesRoy GoodmanRogers Covey-CrumpGordon JonesConnor Burrowes, David James, Paul Agnew, Teppo Tolonen, Hajo WienrothEuropean Union Baroque OrcheStraring Ensemble of Finland1998Reinhard Keiser, Andor GommegeOffrey WebberJeremy Ovendentimothy MirFinruth Gomme, William Towers, James Gilchrist, Paul Thompson, Abigail BoreHambridge Baroque CamareTachoir of Gonville & Caius College Canbridge1999Ton Koopmanton KoopManChristoph PrégardienPeter KooySibylla Rubens, Bernhard Landauer, Paul Agnew, Klaus MertenSamsterdam Baroque OrchestraAmsterdam Baroque Choir, Boys of the Sacramentskoor Breda


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Notes


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Bibliography


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Books


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Eskina N. St. Matthew Passion by I. S. Bach: sound, word, meaning: In dialogue with text.


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

— Saarbrücken: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, 2012.


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

— 476 p. ISBN 978-3-8484-0891-7


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

CS1 maint: extra text (link)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Articles


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

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Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

References


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

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Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Category:Passions


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Category:Works by Johann Sebastian Bach


Question: When was The Passion written?

Passions (Bach)

Category:Oratorios


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic, or Mesozoic Era, MZ (from Ancient Greek: “middle” +"life”) was a geological era that lasted from 251.902 ± 0.024 million years ago to 66.0 million years ago (about 186 million years in total) [ 1].


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

This era was first singled out by British geologist John Phillips in 1841.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic followed the Paleozoic and preceded the Cenozoic.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Together, these three eras make up the Phanerozoic eon.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic era is divided into three periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic is an era of tectonic, climatic and evolutionary activity.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The formation of the main contours of modern continents and mountain formation on the periphery of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are taking place; the division of land has contributed to speciation and other important evolutionary events.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The climate was warm throughout the time period, which also played an important role in the evolution and formation of new animal species.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

By the end of the era, most of the species diversity of life had approached its current state.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Geological periods


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

According to the geochronological scale, the Mesozoic is divided into three periods, in the following order (beginning — end, million years ago) [1]:


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Triassic period (251.902 ± 0.024 — 201.3 ± 0.2);


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Jurassic period (201.3 ± 0.2 — 145.0);


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Cretaceous period (145.0 — 66.0).


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The lower boundary (between the Permian and Triassic periods, that is, between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic) is marked by a mass Permo-Triassic extinction, as a result of which approximately 90-96% of marine fauna and 70% of marine fauna died terrestrial vertebrates.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The upper limit is set at the turn of the Cretaceous and Paleogene, when another very large extinction of many groups of plants and animals occurred, which is most often explained by the fall of the giant an asteroid (Chicxulub Crater on the Yucatan Peninsula) and the “asteroid winter” that followed.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Approximately 50% of all species are extinct, including all flightless dinosaurs.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Tectonics and paleogeography


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Compared to the vigorous mountain formation of the Late Paleozoic, Mesozoic tectonic deformations can be considered relatively mild.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The main tectonic event was the disintegration of the supercontinent Pangea into the northern part (Laurasia) and the southern part (Gondwana).


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Later they broke up.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

At the same time, the Atlantic Ocean was formed, surrounded mainly by passive continental margins (for example, the east coast of North America).


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The extensive transgressions that prevailed in the Mesozoic led to the emergence of numerous inland seas.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

By the end of the Mesozoic, the continents had almost taken on modern shapes


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Laurasia was divided into Eurasia and North America, Gondwana into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, the collision of which with the Asian continental plate caused intensive orogenesis with the rise of the Himalayan Mountains.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Africa


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

At the beginning of the Mesozoic era, Africa was still part of the supercontinent of Pangea and had a relatively common fauna with it, dominated by theropods, prosauropods and primitive tartietasis dinosaurs (towards the end of the Triassic).


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Late Triassic fossils are found everywhere in Africa, but are more common in the south than in the north of the continent.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

As you know, the time line separating the Triassic from the Jurassic period was drawn according to a global catastrophe with mass extinction of species (Triassic and Jurassic extinction), but the African strata of this time today remain poorly understood.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Early Jurassic fossil deposits are distributed similarly to those of the Late Triassic, with more frequent outcrops in the south of the continent and a decreasing number of deposits towards the north.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

During the Jurassic period, iconic groups of dinosaurs, such as sauropods and ornithopods, spread more and more throughout Africa.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The paleontological layers of the mid-Jurassic period in Africa are poorly represented and also poorly studied.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Late Jurassic layers are also poorly represented here, except for the impressive collection of Tendeguru Jurassic fauna in Tanzania, whose fossils are very similar to those found in the paleobiotic formation Morrison in western North America and date back to the same period.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

In the middle of the Mesozoic, about 150-160 million years ago, Madagascar separated from Africa, while remaining connected to India and the rest of Gondwana.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Among the fossils of Madagascar, abelysaurs and titanosaurs were found.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

During the Early Cretaceous era, the part of the land that makes up India and Madagascar separated from Gondwana.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

In the late Cretaceous, the discrepancy between India and Madagascar began, which continued until the achievement of modern outlines.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Unlike Madagascar, mainland Africa was tectonically relatively stable throughout the Mesozoic.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

And yet, despite its stability, significant changes took place in its position relative to other continents as Pangea continued to fall apart.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

By the beginning of the Late Cretaceous, South America had separated from Africa, thus completing the formation of the Atlantic Ocean in its southern part.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

This event has had a huge impact on the global climate by changing ocean currents.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

During the Cretaceous period, Africa was inhabited by allosauroids and spinosaurids.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The African theropod spinosaurus was one of the largest carnivores that lived on Earth.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Titanosaurs occupied an important place among herbivores in ancient ecosystems of those times.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Cretaceous fossil deposits are more common than Jurassic deposits, but often cannot be dated radiometrically, making it difficult to determine their exact age.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Paleontologist Louis Jacobs, who has spent enough time in the field in Malawi, argues that African fossil deposits “need more thorough excavation” and will definitely be” fertile... for scientific discoveries.”


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Climate


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Over the past 1.1 billion years, Earth's history has seen three successive “ice age—warming” cycles, called the Wilson cycles.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Longer warm periods (thermoers) were characterized by a uniform climate, a wide variety of flora and fauna, a predominance of carbonate sediments and evaporites.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Cold periods with glaciations at the poles (cryoers) were accompanied by a decrease in biodiversity, terrigenous and glacial precipitation.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The reason for the cyclicity is considered to be the periodic process of connecting continents into a single continent (Pangea) and its subsequent collapse [2].


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic era is the warmest period in the Phanerozoic history of the Earth.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The Mesozoic thermoera began in the Triassic period and ended in the late Cretaceous.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

For 180 million years, even in the circumpolar regions, there was no stable ice cover [2].


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The climate was mostly warm and even, without significant temperature gradients [3], although climatic zoning existed in the northern hemisphere.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

A large amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contributed to an even distribution of heat.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The equatorial regions were characterized by a tropical climate (Tethys-Pantalassa region) with an average annual temperature of +25... +30° C.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Up to 45—50° N


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

extended the subtropical region (Peritetis), followed by the moderately warm boreal belt, and the circumpolar regions were characterized by moderately cool temperatures [2].


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The climate was mostly dry in the first half of the era and humid in the second half of the era.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

There were slight cold snaps in the Late Jurassic and the first half of the Cretaceous, strong warming in the middle of the Cretaceous (the so-called Cretaceous temperature maximum), around the same time an equatorial climatic zone appears.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Flora and fauna


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Giant ferns, tree horsetails, plains are dying out.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Gymnosperms, especially conifers, reach their heyday in the Triassic.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

In the Jurassic period, seed ferns die out and the first angiosperms (then represented only by tree forms) appear [4], gradually spreading to all continents.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

This is due to a number of advantages — angiosperms have a highly developed conductive system, which ensures the reliability of cross-pollination, the embryo is supplied with food supplies (due to double triploid endosperm develops fertilization) and is protected by membranes, etc.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Insects and reptiles are flourishing in the animal kingdom.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Reptiles occupy a dominant position and are represented by a large number of forms.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

In the Jurassic period, flying lizards appear that “conquer” the air environment.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

In the Cretaceous period, the specialization of reptiles continues, they reach huge proportions.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The weight of some of the dinosaurs reached 50 tons.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

A parallel evolution of flowering plants and pollinating insects begins.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

At the end of the Cretaceous period, a cold snap occurs, and the area of near-aquatic vegetation decreases.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Herbivorous animals die out, followed by predatory dinosaurs.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Large reptiles are preserved only in the tropical zone (crocodiles).


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Due to the extinction of dinosaurs and some other archosaurs, rapid adaptive radiation of birds and mammals, occupying vacant ecological niches, begins.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Many forms of invertebrates and warm-blooded sea lizards die out in the seas, whose ecological niches are similar to that of modern toothed whales.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Birds, according to most paleontologists, descended from one of the groups of dinosaurs or close to them archosaurs.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The complete separation of arterial and venous blood flows, which has long occurred in the evolutionary line of archosaurs, led to their warm-blooded nature.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

They spread widely over land and gave rise to many life forms, dominated by flying or soaring.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Crocodiles, on the contrary, lost the progressive features of their crocodilomorph ancestors (also archosaurs) during the transition to a semi-aquatic lifestyle that requires a reduced level of metabolism.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The emergence of mammals is associated with a number of large aromorphoses that occurred in one of the groups of synapsids.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

The aromorphoses of mammals, in comparison with their therapsid ancestors, include a highly developed nervous system, especially the cerebral cortex, which provided adaptation to conditions of existence by behavioral changes, the movement of limbs from the sides to the body, the emergence of organs that ensure the development of the embryo in the mother's body and subsequent milk feeding.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Among the signs that therapsids could already have with a high degree of probability are the appearance of a wool cover, the complete separation of circulatory circles, the appearance of the alveolar lungs, increased the intensity of gas exchange and, as a result, the overall level of metabolism.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Mammals appeared in the Triassic, but could not compete with warm-blooded sauropsids in the face of dinosaurs and terrestrial crocodilomorphs, and for more than 150 million years occupied a subordinate position in ecological systems of the time.


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Literature


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

References


Question: How long did the Mesozoic era last?

Mesozoic

Category:Geological eras


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

C (English: C) is a general-purpose compiled statically typed programming language developed in 1969—1973 by Bell Labs employee Dennis Ritchie as a development of the B language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

It was originally designed to implement the UNIX operating system, but has since been ported to many other platforms.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

According to the design of the language, its constructions are closely compared to typical machine instructions, so that it was used in projects that were characterized by assembly language, including operating systems, and in various application software for a variety of devices — from supercomputers to embedded systems.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The C programming language has had a significant impact on the development of the software industry, and its syntax has become the basis for programming languages such as C++, C#, Java and Objective-C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

History


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The language was developed at Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

According to Ritchie, 1972 was the year when he was most active.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The language was named “C” (C is the third letter of the English alphabet) because many of its features originate from the old language “B” (B is the second letter of the English alphabet).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

There are several different versions of the origin of the B language name.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Ken Thompson points to the BCPL programming language, but there is also the Bon language, which he also created, named after his wife Bonnie.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

There are several legends regarding the reasons for C's development and its relationship to the UNIX operating system, including the following:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

C's development was the result of the fact that its future authors loved a computer game similar to the popular game Asteroids (Asteroids).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

They had been playing it for a long time on the company's main server, which was not powerful enough to serve about a hundred users.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Thompson and Ritchie felt that they did not have enough control over the spacecraft to avoid collisions with some stones.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

So they decided to move the game to a free PDP-7 in the office.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

However, this computer did not have an operating system, which made them write it.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

In the end, they decided to migrate this operating system to the office PDP-11, which was very difficult because its code was entirely written in assembly language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

A proposal was made to use a high-level portable language to make it easy to migrate the OS from one computer to another.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The B language, which they wanted to use first for this, was deprived of functionality that could take advantage of the new features of the PDP-11.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

That's why they decided on the development of the C language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The very first computer for which UNIX was originally written was designed to create a system for automatically filling documents.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The first version of UNIX was written in assembly language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Later, in order to rewrite this operating system, the C language was developed.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

By 1973, the C language had become quite strong, and most of the UNIX core, originally written in PDP-11/20 assembly language, had been rewritten to C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

It was one of the very first operating system kernels written in a language other than assembly language; earlier only Multics (written in PL/1) and TRIPOS (written in BCPL) were the only systems.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

K&R C


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

In 1978, Brian Kernigan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

This book, known among programmers as “K&R”, has served as an informal language specification for many years.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The C version described in it is often referred to as “K&R C”.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The second edition of this book focuses on the later ANSI C standard described below.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

K&R introduced the following language features:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

structures (struct data type);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

long integer (long int data type);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

an unsigned integer (unsigned int data type);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

+= operator and others like it (old operators =+ misled the C compiler's vocabulary analyzer, for example, when comparing the expressions i =+ 10 and i = +10).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

K&R C is often considered the most important part of the language that a C compiler should support.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

For many years, even after the release of ANSI C, it was considered the minimum level that programmers should follow to get maximum portability from their programs, because not all compilers then supported ANSI C, and good K&R C code was true for ANSI C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Since the publication of K&R C, several features have been added to the language that are supported by AT&T compilers and some other manufacturers:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

functions that do not return a value (with the void type) and pointers that do not have a type (with the void* type);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

functions that return unions and structures;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

field names of these structures in different namespaces for each structure;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

assignment of structures;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

constant specifier (const);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

a standard library that implements most of the functions introduced by various manufacturers;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

enum type (enum);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

a single-precision fractional number (float).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

ISO C


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

In the late 1970s, C began to displace BASIC as the leading language for programming microcomputers.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

In the 1980s, it was adapted for use in IBM PC, which led to a sharp increase in its popularity.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

At the same time, Bjorn Stroustrup and others at Bell Labs have begun work on adding object-oriented programming capabilities to C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

The language they eventually made, C++, had a big impact on software development, but could not match C in popularity [1], especially on Unix-like systems.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee to develop the C standard specification.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

At the end of this long and complex process, it was finally approved as the ANSI X3.159-1989 “C Programming Language” in 1989.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

This version of the language is commonly referred to as ANSI C or C89.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

In 1990, the ANSI C standard was adopted with minor changes by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

One of the goals of this standard was to develop a superset of K&R C, which included many of the language features created later.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

However, the Standards Committee also included several new features, such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++) and a more complex preprocessor.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Almost all existing compilers now support ANSI C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C programming language

Almost all C code written recently complies with ANSI C. Any program written only in standard C is guaranteed to run correctly on any platform that has corresponding implementation of C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, most programs are written in such a way that they will only be compiled and executed on a specific platform because:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

they use non-standard libraries, for example, for graphic displays;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

they use specific platform-specific tools;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

they are designed for a certain size of some types of data or for a specific way that data is stored in memory for a particular platform.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

After standardization in ANSI, the C language specification remained relatively unchanged for a long time, while C++ continued to develop (in 1995, the First regulatory amendment, but almost no one recognized it).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, in the late 1990s, the standard was revised, which led to the publication of ISO 9899:1999 in 1999.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This standard is commonly referred to as the “C99”.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It was adopted and adapted by ANSI in March 2000.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Some new features of the C99:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

substituted functions (inline);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

declaring local variables in any program text operator (as in C++);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

new data types, such as long long int (to facilitate the transition from 32- to 64-bit numbers), the explicit Boolean data type _Bool, and the complex type for representing complex numbers;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

support for limited pointers (restrict);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

named initialization of structures: struct {int x, y, z;} point = {.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

support for single-line comments starting with//, borrowed from C++ (many C compilers supported them as an add-on before);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A few new library features, such as snprintf


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

several new header files like stdint.h.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

On December 8, 2011, a new standard for the C language (ISO/IEC 9899:2011) was published [2].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The main changes are:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

multi-threading support;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

improved Unicode support;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

generic macros (type-generic expressions, allow static overload);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

anonymous structures and unions (make it easier to refer to nested structures);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

control of object alignment;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

static assertions


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

removing the dangerous gets function (in favor of safe gets_s);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

quick_exit function;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

_Noreturn function specifier


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

a new mode of exclusive file opening.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C18 (C17)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A draft version of the standard was introduced as C17 (ISO/IEC 9899:2017) in 2017 [3].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In June 2018, the standard was published as C18 (ISO/IEC 9899:2018) [4] [5].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The new standard eliminates defects seen in the previous version without adding new features [5].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Principles


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C programming language is minimalist.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The authors of the language wanted programs on it to be easily compiled using a single-pass compiler, so that each elementary component of the program after compilation corresponds to a very small the number of machine commands, and the use of basic language elements did not use the runtime library.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The single-pass compiler compiles the program without going back to the already processed text, so the use of functions and variables must be preceded by their declaration.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C code can be easily written at a low level of abstraction, almost like assembly language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C is sometimes referred to as “universal assembler” or “high-level assembler”, which reflects the difference in assembly languages for different platforms and the unity of the C standard, the code of which can be compiled unchanged on almost any computer model.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C is often referred to as a mid-level or even low-level language, given how close it works to real devices.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, it is strictly classified as a high-level language.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C compilers are relatively easy to develop due to the simplicity of the language and the small size of the standard library.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Therefore, the language is available on a wide variety of platforms (perhaps a wider range of platforms than any other existing language).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In addition, despite its low-level nature, the language allows you to create portable programs and supports the programmer in this.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Programs that comply with the language standard can be compiled on a wide variety of computers.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C (like the UNIX operating system, with which it has been associated for a long time) was created by programmers and for programmers, whose circle would not be much wider than the circle of language developers.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Despite this, the field of using the language is much broader than the tasks of system programming.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The language was created to make it easier to write large programs with a minimum of errors (compared to assembly language), following the principles of procedural programming, but avoiding everything that would lead to additional overhead common in high-level languages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Xi has the following main features:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

a simple language base, from which many significant features, such as mathematical functions or file management functions, are transferred to libraries;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

orientation towards procedural programming, which ensures the convenience of using the structural programming style;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

a type system that protects against meaningless operations;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Using a preprocessor to, for example, define macros and include source code files


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

direct access to the computer's memory through the use of pointers;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the minimum number of keywords;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

passing parameters to the function by value, not by reference (in this case, passing by reference is emulated using pointers);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

function pointers and static variables;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

name scopes;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

structures and unions are user-defined collective types of data that can be manipulated as one whole.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, Xi lacks:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

nested functions


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

coroutines;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

automatic memory management tools;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

built-in object-oriented programming tools;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

functional programming tools.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Some of the missing features can be simulated by built-in tools (for example, coroutines can be simulated using setjmp and longjmp functions), some are added using third-party libraries ( for example, pthreads, sockets, etc. libraries can be used to support multitasking and network functions; there are libraries to support automatic garbage collection [6]), part is implemented in some compilers as language extensions (for example, nested functions in GCC).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

There is a somewhat cumbersome, but quite workable technique that allows you to implement OOP mechanisms on C [7], based on the actual polymorphism of pointers in C and support in this language function pointers.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

OOP mechanisms based on this model are implemented in the GLib library and are actively used in the GTK+ framework.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

GLib provides a base class of GObject, the ability to inherit from one class, and implement multiple interfaces.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

After its inception, the language was well accepted because it allowed you to quickly create compilers for new platforms, and also allowed programmers to have a fairly accurate idea of how their programs were executed.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Due to their proximity to low-level languages, C programs performed more efficiently than those written in many other high-level languages, and only manually optimized assembly code could work faster because it gave you full control of the car.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

To date, the development of compilers and the complexity of processors have led to the fact that manually written assembly code (except for very short programs) practically does not benefit compared to code generated by compilers, while C continues to be one of the most effective high-level languages.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

One of the consequences of the high efficiency and portability of the language is that many compilers, interpreters, and libraries of other high-level languages are often written in C.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Syntax


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Lexemes


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The language uses (are acceptable):


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

all latin characters


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

numerals


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and special characters


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

, (comma),;,.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

(dot), +, -, *, ^, & (ampersand), =, ~ (tilde),!


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

, '(apostrophe), "(quotation marks),: (colon), _ (underscore)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Valid characters are used to form tokens — predefined constants, identifiers, and operation signs.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In turn, tokens are part of expressions; expressions are used to make instructions and operators.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

When broadcasting a program to C, lexemes of maximum length containing valid characters are extracted from the program code.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If the program contains an invalid character, the lexical analyzer (or compiler) will throw an error and it will be impossible to broadcast the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

There is also a # symbol, which cannot be part of any token, and is used in the preprocessor.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

IDs


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A valid identifier is a word (token) made up of valid characters in the programming language alphabet that is not a sign of some operation or a separator.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Identifiers are names that are given to software objects — (named) constants, variables, types, and functions.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Some tokens are reserved (or, what is the same, keywords) words (see below), and therefore cannot be used in the program as identifiers of program objects.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Predefined constants


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

To introduce named constants in a C program, the #define preprocessor directive is used:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

#define constant name [value].


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The constant entered in this way will be valid everywhere, from the moment the constant is set to the end of the program code, or until the specified constant is canceled by another directive:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

#undef is the constant name.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

As with any macro, a named constant is automatically substituted in the program code wherever the constant name is used.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If a value is specified for a named constant, the type corresponding to the type of value to be set is also determined for the constant.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The following types of constants are distinguished:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

numeric (integer or real)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

symbolic (marked with an apostrophe sign);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

text strings (marked with double quotes).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Keywords


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Keywords are tokens (words) that are reserved by the compiler to indicate variable types, storage classes, and operator elements.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C89 standard provides for the following keywords:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

sizeof — to specify the operation for getting the object size;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

typedef — to set an alternative name for the data type;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

auto, register — to indicate a hint to the compiler where variables are stored;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

extern — to indicate that the object is being described elsewhere;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

static — to indicate that the object is static;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

char, short, int, long, signed, unsigned, float, double, void — to indicate the type of value;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

struct — to designate a data type as a structure with a set of fields;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

enum — to indicate a data type that stores one of the specified integer values;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

union — to indicate a data type that stores one of the specified value types;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

do, for, while — to denote loop operators;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if, else — to denote a conditional operator;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

switch, case, default — to indicate the selection operator;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

break, continue — to designate operators to interrupt code execution;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

goto — to indicate the unconditional transition operator;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

to denote the return operator from the function: return.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The following keywords have been added to the C99 standard:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

inline — to indicate that the function is embedded;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

_ <b data-parsoid='{"dsr":[26016,26026,3,3]}'>Bool, _ <b data-parsoid='{"dsr":[26042,26055,3,3]}'>Complex, _ <b data-parsoid='{"dsr":[26071,26086,3,3]}'>Imaginary — for additional types variable;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

restrict — to indicate that the declared pointer refers to a memory block that is not referenced by any other pointer.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

comments


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C program text may contain fragments that are not part of the program code, such as comments.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Comments are marked in a special way in the program text and skipped during compilation.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Initially, in the C89 standard, embedded comments were available that could fit between sequences of /* and */ characters.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, it is impossible to attach one comment to another, since the first sequence encountered */ will complete the comment, and the text immediately following the designation*/ will be perceived by the compiler as the source code of the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The following standard, C99, introduced another way to format comments: a comment is text that begins with a sequence of//characters and ends at the end of a line.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operations


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

An operation is a function that is executed on operands and that returns a calculated value — the result of the operation.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Each operation in C has its own transaction sign (see above).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

An operand is a constant, variable, expression, or call to a function defined in a program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operations are distinguished by the number of operands involved, namely, they distinguish


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

unary operations — operations of the species


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[operation sign] [operand]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

binary operations


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[operand] [operation sign] [operand]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and ternary operations.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unary surgeries


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unary operations are operations that contain a single operand.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unary operations in C include the following operations:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

+ (unary plus), - (unary minus), ~ (take reverse code),!


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

(logical negation), & (address taking), * (pointer dereference operation), sizeof (operation of determining the amount of memory occupied by an object).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Binary operations


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Binary operations are operations that contain two operands, between which an operation sign is located.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Binary operations in C include the following operations:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

+ (add), - (subtract), * (multiply),/(division),% (take remainder of division), & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR), ^ (bitwise XOR), <>< (логический сдвиг влево), > (boolean right shift), && (logical AND), || (logical OR).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Binary operations in C also include operations that are essentially assignment:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

+= (adding the value represented by the right operand to the left operand)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

-= (subtracts from the left operand the value represented by the right operand);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

*= (multiplying the left operand by the value represented by the right operand)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

/= (divides the left operand by the value represented by the right operand)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

&= (bitwise logical AND above the left and right operand)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

|= (bitwise logical OR above the left and right argument);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

^= (bitwise logical XOR above the left and right argument)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

<<= (bitwise shift left argument to the left by the number of bits specified by the right argument)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

>>= (bitwise shift to the right of the left argument by the number of bits specified by the right argument).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

These operations assume that the left operand is a left-valid expression.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Ternary operations


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C has a single ternary operation — a conditional operation, which has the following form:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[condition]?


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[expression1]: [expression2];


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and which has three operands:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[condition] is a logical condition that is checked for truth,


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[expression1] — an expression whose value is returned as the result of the operation if the condition is true;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[expression2] is an expression whose value is returned as the result of the operation if the condition is false.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Is the whole combination a sign of the operation here?


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

expressions


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C (programming language)

An expression is an ordered set of operations on variables.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Expressions contain operands and operation signs (see above).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The order in which operations are performed depends on the form of recording and the priority of operations (see below).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Each expression has a value that is the result of all the operations that are part of the expression.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The calculation of the expression value can be associated with the so-called. A “side effect” is when a variable changes during operations.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Another possible “side effect” is implicit type conversion.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The simplest expression contains only the variable name (its identifier).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The value of such an expression will be the value (or object) that is stored in this variable.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Among the expressions, there is a class of left-valid expressions — expressions that can be present to the left of the assignment sign.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operation priority


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operations in C are performed according to the following operation priority table:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

LexemesOperationClassPrioritySociativityNames, literalsprime lexemesprimary16neta [index] indexespostfix16left to rightf (arguments) function callpostfix16left to right.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

direct choicepostfix16left to right->mediated choicepostfix16left to right++ —positive and negative incrementpostfix16left to right++ —positive and negative incrementprefix15right to left (type name) {initializer} compound literal (C99) postfix15right to leftsizeofsizeofsizeof15right to left~bitwise unary15right to left!


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

logical unary15Right to left- +sign change, plusunar15right to left&addressing15right to left*mediation (dereference) unary15right to left (type name) cast typeunar15right left*/%multiplicative operationsbinary13left to right+ -additive operationsbinary12left to right<< >>shift left and rightbinary11left to right< > <= >=relationsbinary10left to right==!


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

=equality/inequalitybinary9left to right&bitwise andbinary8Left to right^bitwise xorBinary 7Left to Right|Bitwise orBinary 6Left to Right&&&Binary andBinary 5Left to Right|| boolean orbinary4Left to right?


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

:conditionternary3right to left= += -= *= /= %= <= <= >>= &= ^= |=assignmentbinary2right to left, sequential computationbinary1left to right


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operators


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operators are designed to take actions and control the progress of the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Several consecutive operators form a sequence of operators.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Empty operator


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The simplest language construct is an empty expression called an empty operator [8] [9]:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

An empty operator does nothing and can be located anywhere in the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Instructions


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C (programming language)

The instruction is a kind of elementary action:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

(expression);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The action of this operator is to execute the expression specified in the operator body.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Several successive instructions form a sequence of instructions.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Compute unit


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Instructions can be grouped into special computing units of the following types:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

(instruction sequence)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

limited by two separators:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the left curly bracket ({) denotes the beginning of the computing unit,


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the right curly bracket (}) marks the end of the computing unit.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A computing unit is also called a composite operator.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Each function (see below) contains a block that identifies the function body and is part of the function definition.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Conditional operators


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C (programming language)

There are two conditional operators in the language that implement program branching:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

an if statement containing a check for one condition;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and a switch statement that contains a check for several conditions.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The simplest form of the if statement


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if (condition)) (operator)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

(next operator)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The if statement works like this:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if the condition in parentheses is met, the first statement is executed, and then the statement specified after the if statement is executed.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if the condition specified in parentheses is not met, the statement specified after the if statement is executed immediately.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In particular, the following code, if the specified condition is met, will not take any action:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if (condition));


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

because, in fact, an empty statement is being executed.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A more complex form of the if statement contains the else keyword:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if (condition)) (operator)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

else (alternative operator)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

(next operator)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Here, if the condition specified in parentheses is not met, the operator specified after the else keyword is executed.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Cycle execution operators


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A loop is a piece of code that contains


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

loop execution condition is a condition that is constantly checked;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and the loop body is a simple or compound operator, the execution of which depends on the cycle condition.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In accordance with this, two types of cycles are distinguished:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

a loop with a precondition, where the condition of the loop execution is first checked, and if the condition is met, the loop body is executed;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

a cycle with a postcondition, where the loop body is first executed, and only then the condition of the loop execution is checked, and if the condition is met, then...;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The cycle body is always met as long as the condition specified in the cycle is met, so a cycle with a postcondition ensures that the cycle body is necessarily executed at least once.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C provides a cycle operator with a precondition:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

while (condition) [loop body]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and the operator with the do-while postcondition:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

do [loop body] while (condition)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

There is also an operator


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

for (initialization block; condition; operator) [loop body],


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

which is equivalent to the following block of statements:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[initialization unit]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

while (condition)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[cycle body]


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C (programming language)

[operator]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Normally, the initialization block contains the initial value of a variable called the loop variable, and the operator that runs right after the loop body changes the values the variable being used, and the condition compares the value of the loop variable being used with some predetermined value, and as soon as the comparison fails, the loop is interrupted, and the program code immediately following the loop operator starts executing.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The loop condition is a logical expression.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

However, implicit type conversion makes it possible to use an arithmetic expression as a loop condition.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This makes it possible to organize so-called. “endless loop”:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

while (1);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

or the same thing, but using the for statement:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

for (;;);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In fact, these infinite loops are used in conjunction with loop interrupt operators (see below).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unconditional transition operators


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unconditional jump operators allow you to interrupt the execution of any block of calculations and move to another location in the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Unconditional operators are usually used in conjunction with conditional operators.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Operator


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

goto [tag]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

where [tag] is some (numeric) identifier, transfers control to the operator that is marked with the specified label in the program:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[tag]: [operator]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If the specified label does not exist in the program, or if there are several statements with the same label, the compiler reports an error.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Control transfer is possible only within the function where the transition operator is used, therefore, it is impossible to transfer control to another function using the goto operator.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Other transition operators are associated with cycles and allow you to interrupt the execution of the cycle body:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the break statement immediately interrupts the execution of the cycle body, and control is transferred to the operator immediately following the cycle operator;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the continue operator interrupts the execution of the loop body and passes control to the beginning of the cycle, which initiates the check of the cycle condition.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The continue statement can only be used inside do, while, and for statements; the break statement can also be used inside a switch statement.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

There are two special cases of break and continue operators:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if the continue statement is encountered in the body of the for operator, the statement is first executed, and only then the loop condition is checked, so the continue operator is designed for immediately move to the next iteration of the loop execution;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

if there are several nested loops, the break statement, depending on the implementation, either completely interrupts the execution of all nested loops, or breaks only the loop in which the break operator itself is located.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Function return operator


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C (programming language)

C defines a return operator that interrupts the execution of the function where this operator is used.


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C (programming language)

If the function should not return a value, a call is used


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

return;


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C (programming language)

If the function should return any value, it uses a call


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

return [value]


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C (programming language)

If there are some other operators in the function body after the return statement, these operators will never be executed, in which case the compiler may issue a warning.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Features


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A function is an independent piece of program code that can be used many times in a program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Functions can have arguments and can return values.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In order to define a function in C, it is necessary to declare it:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

provide the function name (ID),


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

enumerate input parameters (arguments)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

and specify the return type,


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

It is also necessary to provide a function definition that contains a block of operators that implement the behavior of the function.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The absence of a definition of a previously defined function is an error, which, depending on the implementation, leads to messages or warnings.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

When the compiler encounters a function identifier in the program code, it formalizes a function call operation, in which, in particular, the address of the dial peer is placed on the stack, created and variables responsible for the function parameters are initialized and control is passed to the code that implements the called function.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

After the function is executed, the memory allocated during the function call is released, returned to the call point and, if the function call is part of an expression, passed to the return point value calculated within the function.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A special class of functions is represented by built-in (or substituted) functions — functions declared with the inline keyword.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Definitions of such functions are directly inserted into the call peer, which, on the one hand, increases the amount of code executable, but, on the other hand, saves its execution time, since does not use a time-consuming function call operation.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Function declaration


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The function declaration has the following format:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[descriptor] [name] ([list]);,


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

where


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[descriptor] is a descriptor of the type of value returned by the function


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[name] — function name (unique function identifier);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[list] — list of (formal) function parameters.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The sign of a function declaration is the “;” symbol, so a function declaration is an instruction.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

In the simplest case, the [descriptor] contains an indication of a specific return type.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A function that should not return any value is declared as having a type


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

void


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If necessary, the descriptor may contain additional elements:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the extern modifier indicates that the function definition is in another module;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

the static modifier sets a static function;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

pascal or cdecl modifiers affect the processing of formal parameters and are associated with the connection of external modules.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The function parameter list sets the function signature.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C does not allow declaring multiple functions that have the same name, and overloading functions is not supported.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Defining a function


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The function definition has the following format:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[descriptor] [name] ([list]) [body]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Where [descriptor], [name], and [list] are the same as in the declaration, and [body] is a compound operator that represents a specific implementation of the function.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The compiler distinguishes between definitions of functions of the same name by their signature, and thus (by signature) a relationship is established between the definition and its corresponding declaration.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The function body looks like this:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

[operator sequence]


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

return ([return value]);


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Calling a function


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Calling a function involves doing the following:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Storing the dial peer on the stack


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

memory allocation for variables corresponding to the formal parameters of the function;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

initialization of variables with values of variables (actual function parameters) passed to the function when it is called, as well as initialization of those variables for which values are specified in the function declaration by default, but for which the corresponding actual parameters were not specified during the call;


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

transfer of control to the function body.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Depending on the implementation, the compiler either strictly ensures that the type of the actual parameter matches the type of the formal parameter, or, if possible, implements an implicit type conversion, which obviously leads to side effects.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If a variable is passed to a function, a copy of the function is created when the function is called (memory is allocated on the stack and the value is copied).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

For example, passing a structure to a function will cause the entire structure to be copied.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

If a pointer to a structure is passed, only the pointer value is copied.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Passing an array to a function also causes only copying a pointer to its first element.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

At the same time, to explicitly indicate that the function receives the address of the beginning of the array, and not a pointer to a single variable, instead of declaring a pointer after the variable name, you can put square brackets, for example:void example_func (int array []);//array — pointer to the first element of an array of int type


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

C allows nested calls.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The depth of call nesting has an obvious limitation related to the size of the stack allocated to the program.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Therefore, C implementations set a certain limit value for the depth of nesting.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

A special case of a nested call is a function call inside the body of the called function.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

This call is called recursive, and is used to organize uniform calculations.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Given the natural limitation on nested calls, the recursive implementation is replaced by the implementation using loops.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Returning from a function


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

When returning from a function, memory allocated for function parameters and variables declared inside the function is freed, and control is returned to the call peer.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Data types


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Primitive types


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C (programming language)

Integers


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Integer data types range in size from at least 8 bits to at least 32 bits.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The C99 standard increases the maximum integer size to at least 64 bits.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Integer data types are used to store integers (the char type is also used to store ASCII characters).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

All range sizes for the following data types are minimal and can be larger on a single platform.


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

The standard requires that the condition [12] be met for sizes of integer types:


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

sizeof (char) ≤ sizeof (short) ≤ sizeof (int) ≤ sizeof (long) ≤ sizeof (long long).


Question: How many programming languages are there as of April 2019?

C (programming language)

Thus, the size of some types in terms of the number of bytes can be the same if the condition for the minimum number of bits is met.