Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Robert de Montesquiu


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Paul Moran


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Vatslav Nijinsky


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Georges Auric


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Marcel Proust


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Pierre Reverdi


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Rezhan


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Jules Renard


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Henri de Regnier


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Saint John Perse


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Germaine Tyfer


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Arthur Rubinstein


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Eric Satie


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Leon-Paul Fargue


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Her close friends were writer Colette and Coco Chanel, for whom Misia was an inexhaustible source of inspiration and imitation.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Interesting cases


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

In 1920, Maurice Ravel presented the first version of The Waltz to Diaghilev, Stravinsky and Poulenc in Misi's living room.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Diaghilev did not like the thing, Stravinsky kept silent.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

According to Poulenc (1963), Ravel took the score, left the room and never collaborated with Diaghilev or Stravinsky again.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Memoir


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Misia par Misia.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Paris: Gallimard, 1952 (translated into Russian, German, Spanish)


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Image in art


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Misi's portraits were painted by Auguste Renoir, Bonnard, Redon, Toulouse-Lautrec, Vallotton, Vuillard.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

She became the prototype of the heroines of Proust and Cocteau.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Her life is dedicated to novels by Felix Lutzkendorf (1981) and Jolen Tremblay (1988).


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

French actress Natasha Lendenger played the role of Misi in Jan Kunen's Coco Chanel and Igor Stravinsky (2009).


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

In 2015, Chanel released Misia fragrance in the Les Exclusifs de Chanel collection


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Notes


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Literature


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Kossak E.K. W stronę Misi z Godebskich.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Warszawa: Czytelnik, 1978


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Gold A., Fizdale R. Misia: the life of Misia Sert.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

New York: Knopf, 1980 (translated into French, Spanish and German)


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Lützkendorf F. Die Muse von Paris.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

München: Schneekluth, 1981


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Jean Cocteau.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Portraits are memories.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Moscow, Izvestia Publ., 1985.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Tremblay Y. Misia Sert et le jeu de dés: roman.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Québec: Centre de recherche en littérature québécoise, Université Laval, 1988


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Rzewuski A.C. La double tragédie de Misia Sert.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Paris: Cerf, 2006


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Mysia, or Genius Eater.


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

MOSCOW: ART, 2001


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

References


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

(in French)


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

(in English)


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

(in Polish)


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Category:People alphabetically


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Category: Polish pianists


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Category: French pianists


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Category:Hostesses of literary and high-society salons in France


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

Misia Sert

Category:Models


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Misia Sert

Category: 1872 births


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Misia Sert

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Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

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Category: Deaths in 1950


Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

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Question: Who was the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Le Matin?

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Category:Muses of famous writers


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Flavius Claudius Jovian [1] (Latin: Flavius Claudius Iovianus, 330 (331) — February 17, 364) was a Roman emperor from 363-364, often referred to simply as Jovian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian came from Singidunum.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

After the death of Julian the Apostate, he was proclaimed the new ruler of the Roman Empire.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian concluded a peace treaty for a period of 30 years with the Persian king Shapur II, according to which he abandoned five Mesopotamian provinces and Armenia.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

While professing Christianity, Jovian restored Christianity in the Roman Empire, which was curtailed by his predecessor, and returned all its privileges to the church.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, he tolerated paganism and all areas of the Christian religion.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

7.5 months after the beginning of his reign, Jovian died in Bithynia on his way to Constantinople under circumstances that were not fully clarified.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Origins


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian was born in 330 (or 331) in Singidunum (present-day Belgrade) in the family of Varronian (Latin: comes domesticorum) [2] (one of the two chiefs of the Imperial Guard Constantine II) .


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Pagan authors, following ancient tradition, cite prophetic dreams of his father, which promised Jovian power.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Thus, the author of Excerpts on the Life and Customs of the Roman Emperors writes that he “was instructed in a dream that his son, whose birth in his family was already expected at that time, should be named Jovian” [3], since the name is formed from one of the imperial epithets (since the time of Diocletian) - “Jobius”, that is, “Jupiter”.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Ammian Marcellin says that “his father Varronian knew the fate of his son in advance from a revelation received in a dream” [4].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Ammian also sees Jovian's prediction of imperial rank in the fact that Jovian, who accompanied the embalmed corpse of the recently deceased Constantius II to Constantinople, “was provided with samples of grain allowances of soldiers, or, as it is called, samples, were put up for review of horses of the state post, and the people, according to custom, greeted him in crowds” [5].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The orator Themistius also saw this as a divine omen [6].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The merits of his father played an important role in the fate of the future emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian did not achieve noticeable success, was not endowed with any outstanding merits and was known in the army precisely because of Varronian [2] [7] (although, for example, Theodorite Kirsky writes that Jovian “was known her husband is excellent and famous and gained fame for many reasons” [8], but he does not give these reasons).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

He made a career in the Imperial Guard, being a domestic protector (Latin: protector domesticus) under Constantius II and Julian, and rose under the latter to the primicerie of domestics (Latin: primicerius domesticorum) - chief of the guard.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Christian sources spread a version that Jovian was dismissed from service by Julian II for his adherence to Christianity [9] [10] [11].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Modern researchers recognize this legend as having no real basis [12] [13] — Jovian accompanied Emperor Julian II in his Persian campaign against Shapur II as chief imperial bodyguards.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Appearance and personal qualities


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The most complete description of Iovian's appearance and personality was left by Ammian Marcellin:


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“His posture during movement was distinguished by dignity, his face was very friendly, his eyes were blue, he was very tall, so for a long time they could not find any royal clothes suitable for him. ... sometimes did serious business in the afternoon and had a habit of joking fun in the company of loved ones. ... he was of low education; he was friendly in nature and, as far as could be judged from the few cases of appointments made by him, cautious in choosing dignitaries. He made excesses in food, had a tendency to wine and love pleasures, vices that he might have gotten rid of out of respect for the imperial rank” [14].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

At the same time, Ammian calls it “stooped” [15].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian's tall stature and stately build are emphasized by other authors.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Christian writers add apologetic characteristics to this:


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“He was very tall and had a great soul, was usually distinguished in wars and exploits even more important, because he boldly spoke against wickedness, was not afraid of the power of the tyrant [that is, Julian II — Wiki] and We were jealous of the martyrs of our Savior” [8].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The situation in the Roman Empire


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian's predecessor, Julian II, pursued an active domestic and foreign policy.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

After coming to power, he organized judicial investigations into the activities of former associates of Constantius II, some of whom were executed and many dismissed, which created the emperor natural opposition.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The main direction in Julian's domestic policy was the rejection of state support for Christianity and a return to the old Roman religion (albeit in a somewhat reformed form).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Christians were not executed, the main “persecution” consisted in removing them from teaching in schools and eliminating financial support from the state for the Christian Church.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This policy also undoubtedly contributed to the formation of the internal opposition.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In the field of foreign policy, Julian intended to end the long-lasting war with the Persians.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Having equipped the army at the beginning of 363, he moved to Persia.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The campaign was initially successful, Julian defeated the Persian army and occupied several fortresses.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, not daring to besiege the capital of the Sassanids, Ctesiphon, Julian was tricked into the desert by the Persians, and in battle was mortally wounded.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Elected emperor


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

When the highest ranks of the army gathered to choose the successor of the deceased Julian (since he did not leave an official heir), Jovian gained power (June 27, 363), although he could not hope for her.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Ammian writes in the most detail about his gaining power [17].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The historian reports that the army chiefs during the elections were divided into two parties:


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“Arintheos [18], Victor [19] and the rest of the court state of Constantia were looking for a suitable person from their party; on the contrary, Nevit [20], Dagalife [21] and the noble Gauls were looking for one of their associates” [ 22].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

It is impossible to find direct information in the sources as to what their differences were.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, several main lines can be traced.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

First, the religious preferences of various army officials obviously affected — there were clearly two camps in society — pagan and Christian [23].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Secondly, there were some “territorial clans” within the elite — and the Pannonians were not in the least place — because both Jovian and his successor Valentinian came from Pannonia [24].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In addition, Ammian in one place directly speaks about the support of Valentinian by his countrymen [25].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Thirdly, an internal struggle can be observed between the former courtiers of Constantius II and Julian's associates.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

It is not known exactly how the internal struggle over the choice of the emperor went, it is only known that the title was offered to Praetorian Prefect Secunda Sallustia [26], a pagan by religion and ally of Julian, who was actually the second person in the state under Julian [27].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

He, however, refused, citing his age [28].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Since the army was in a critical situation — in the desert, retreating in front of the attacking Persians, it was necessary to make a quick decision.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

According to Ammian, “... several hotheads, as is often the case in difficult circumstances, chose Jovian as Emperor” [2].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, it is likely that Dagalife resolved the difficulty — perhaps he supported Jovian's candidacy, leaving Nevitta's side [29] [30].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This is partly confirmed by the fact that Dagalife later held senior government positions, while none of the sources that have survived to us mention anything else about Nevitta's fate.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

So purple was given to Jovian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

He was obviously elected emperor as a compromise figure who suited the rival commanders of the empire, and was not very independent in his decisions — Ammian calls him” a shadow of imperial power” [31].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

It is interesting [32] that only Ammian gives this interpretation of the election of the emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

All other sources, both pagan and Christian, report that Jovian was elected not by some part, but by the whole army that demanded him king [8] [9] [33] [7] [34].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Researchers offer three main explanations for this contradiction.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

First, there may be some misinformation on the part of Ammian Marcellin.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The historian treated this emperor badly and, obviously, did not consider him a fully legitimate ruler, trying to convince his readers of this, attributing the election only to a certain army group [35].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Secondly, such misinformation is possible on the other hand: for example, Themistius delivered his speech just before Jovian and the whole court, so he could well replace some not quite pleasant the emperor's moments for more beneficial to him.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Similarly, later Christian writers, in order to justify Jovian's coming to power, could write about his unanimous election by the army [35].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Thirdly, it is possible that the authors of the sources simply recorded the granting of power to Jovian by the army, and, without going into details, wrote about the army, and not about some part of it or the highest army superiors [27].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Christian historiography did not dwell on the analysis of the election of a new emperor, only welcoming the acquisition of the throne by a Christian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, Christian authors all cite the following episode as one: “When, brought to power, he saw the imperial insignia, went out to the army and said: “I cannot rule you, for I christian.” Then they all answered with one voice: “And we are Christians.” And he agreed to take power no earlier than he heard it” [36] [8].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This legend appeared at the end of the 4th century [37] — Grigory Nazianzin does not mention it yet [38].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, this story may have some real grounds: coupled with reports that Jovian's purple owed much to the merits of his father, who was once the commander of the Jovian Legion, this information suggests that he was chosen primarily by this legion, after which Jovian was recognized by others.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jobias were, for the most part, obviously Christians — their flag bearers refused to remove the labarum from the banners during the reign of Julian and were replaced by others.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This version may, according to some researchers, confirm the fact of flight after the election of Jovian the flag bearer of this legion to the Persians.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This standard-bearer was in bad relations with the father of the new emperor [31] and probably opposed the support of Jovian by the legion [37].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

It is also possible that the main force that advocated the election of Jovian was the detachments of domestic protectors [39].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Ammian, in contrast to Christian authors, writes that when the new emperor began to bypass the army,


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“then the vanguard troops, hearing the shouts of “Jovian Augustus”, repeated them even louder. Misled by the similarity of his name to that of Julian, since the difference lies in just one letter, they thought that it brought Julian to recover with cries of joy and glee, as It used to be normal. But when we saw that this tall and stooped man was coming up, we guessed what had happened, and everyone burst into mournful groans and tears” [15].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

John Lead, the only one, cites the version according to which Julian called Jovian his successor before his death [40].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Management Board


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Foreign policy


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Having gained power, Jovian continued the retreat of the army, especially since Shapur II learned from the defector about the death of Julian [41] and began to press even more on the Romans.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Crowded on all sides by the Persians, the Roman army retreated first to Sumera, and then to Kharha, where it was surrounded by the enemy.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Exhausted by poor food, the soldiers began to demand an immediate crossing over the Tigris, despite the fact that at this time the river overflowed greatly, and the opposite bank was occupied by the enemy.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In order to calm the soldiers, the emperor ordered Gallic and German soldiers, numbering about five hundred, to cross the river.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This adventure was successful and the Roman detachment occupied the opposite bank.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Nevertheless, it was not possible to quickly build a crossing and transfer the main part of the troops.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Under these conditions, King Shapur offered peace on difficult conditions for the Romans.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In exchange for the passage of the Roman army and the conclusion of peace for 30 years, the Persian king was to receive five regions for the Tiger: Arzaken, Moxoen, Zabdicen, Regimen and Corduin with fifteen fortresses, and in addition to Nisibis, Castra Mavrorum (Latin: Castra Maurorum) and Singara.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The emperor also had to abandon the alliance with the Armenian king Arshak II [12].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian was very concerned about rumors that, before going on a campaign, Julian had left his relative Procopius a purple imperial cloak and bequeathed to seize power in the event of his death, Julian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Fearing for his position, Jovian accepted all Shapur's conditions, stipulating only that before the surrender of Nizibis and Singara, residents must leave the cities.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This decision caused sharp condemnation from contemporaries.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Even Christian writers who praised Jovian recognize the disadvantage of the treaty, however, noting its necessity, and sometimes directly presenting it as an achievement [9] [33] [42] [43] [44].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Pagan authors — Ammian, Zosim, Eutropius — directly condemn the emperor for him [45] [46] [47].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Moreover, he was imprisoned, according to Ammian, not in such a hopeless situation; Jovian needed him, because Augustus feared the performance of some usurper in Gaul or Illyric.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In order to prevent hostile actions, the parties exchanged hostages.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Despite this, the Persians, according to Ammian [48], planned to attack the lagging Romans, but were exposed of their intentions and abandoned them.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

During the retreat, many warriors died of hunger, drowned in the river while crossing, or, lagging behind, were captured by the Persians.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Peace between the Empire and the Persians was concluded for thirty years.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Domestic policy


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Upon arrival in Roman territory, Jovian appointed his father-in-law Lucillian master of cavalry and infantry and ordered him to go to Mediolan to prevent possible coup attempts.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian sent messengers to remote parts of the empire to find out the mood of the governors and, if possible, prevent the dissatisfied from speaking.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

These messengers were ordered to report in the provinces that the Persian campaign ended safely.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

These propaganda measures were supplemented by appropriate inscriptions, both on mile poles and on coins (on which the expressions “RESTITVTOR REIPVBLICAE” - “Restorer of the Republic” were engraved on them,” VICTORIA AVGVSTI” — “Victory of Augustus” and “VICTORIA ROMANORVM” — “Victory of the Romans” and the like [49]).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

When the retreating army approached Nisibis, the emperor did not enter the city, but ordered to camp outside its walls, as he was ashamed to surrender the impregnable city to the enemy during his stay there [50].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The inhabitants of Nisibis asked the emperor to allow them to defend their city themselves, without the help of the army, but the emperor refused them and ordered them to leave it within three days.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

August tried in every possible way to eliminate possible rivals — for example, his namesake, the primicerie of notaries Jovian, was killed [51], in whose favor several votes were heard in the elections [52].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

To strengthen his position, Jovian gave the famous commander Malarich [53] command of troops in Gaul, but he refused the honor granted.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

At the same time, Procopius [54], a relative of Julian, was sent forward with part of the army to Tarsus, with an order to bury the latter near this city (as Julian himself ordered during his lifetime).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

After the funeral, Procopius disappeared, and appeared only after the death of Jovian, trying to seize power.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian spent some time in Antioch na Oronta, where he resolved religious issues.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Here he was visited by a delegation of the Senate of Constantinople (it was the first delegation, the second, perhaps, visited it in Ankira) [55].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Residents of the city, according to some reports [56], greeted the new emperor rather inhospitable — apparently due to the fact that Antioch was always under threat of invasion by the Persians, and the loss of the key to the East — Nisibisa — residents were perceived very anxious [57].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The mood of the inhabitants of the city was obviously influenced by the fact that Jovian ordered (prompted by his wife, as John of Antioch writes) to burn down a pagan temple built under Hadrian, which Julian turned to the library [58].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The hostility of the inhabitants of the city towards Jovian was so great that they, having later learned of his death, rebelled and ruined the estates of the Censory Dacian, an official close to the emperor [59].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, the Antiochians rarely had good relations with the emperors: they had previously clashed with Julian II and his brother Caesar Gall.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian did not stay long in Syria, and hurried to the West, trying to be in Constantinople as soon as possible.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

After passing Tars, where he demonstratively took care of decorating the grave of Julian, the emperor arrived in the Cappadocian city of Tianu, where some of the messengers he had previously sent to the West arrived to him.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In particular, he was informed that his father-in-law Lucillian, who went to Germany after Mediolan, died as a result of a riot in Remach (modern day. Reims), who caused his untimely actions (see below) [12].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Augustus was informed about this by Valentinian, the future emperor who managed to escape during the riot.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In addition to this unpleasant news, Jovian was also told that the legions in Gaul had recognized him.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Augustus moved on and, arriving in Ankira, entered the consulate with his young son Varronian, about which a big speech was given to him and the whole court by a well-known rhetor Themistism, in which he praised the new Augustus in every possible way.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

There are few laws left over from Jovian's time.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The period of his reign in the Code of Theodosius marks 6 laws (of which three are designated as belonging to Emperor Julian, two to Valentinian and Valent), in the Code of Justinian - 1 law, marked as owned by Valentinian and Valent.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

At the same time, researchers consider to belong to Jovian the law marked by the drafters of the code of Theodosius as his, but with the date of February 19, 364 (that is, two days later than the most mentioned date of death).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The greatest attention of modern researchers is attracted by laws related to the religious policy of the emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Religious policy


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian's work in religious matters was rather cautious.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Despite his obvious sympathy for Christianity, he did not immediately take any drastic actions in favor of this religion after coming to power.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Moreover, according to Ammian Marcellin, he began his reign by turning to the haruspics, who conducted divination by the insides [60].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

As soon as Jovian set foot on empire territory, he


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“first of all, he issued a law announcing the return of bishops from exile and together commanded that churches be given to those who preserved the Nicene faith intact” [44].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

By doing so, the emperor actually continued the policy of Julian, who had previously ordered the return of the Nicaeans from exile in order to oppose them to the Arians, who occupied a dominant position under Constantius II [61].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This law has been preserved only in narrative sources.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Socrates Scholastik reports that at the behest of the emperor, “pagan temples at the same time were all closed, and the pagans themselves were hiding where it happened”, but this information is obviously inaccurate, for example, the famous pagan sophists Maxim and Prisk, who were friends and advisers to Julian, remained at court [62], and Themistius in his speech a little later praised the tolerant religious policy of Augustus [63] .


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Obviously, the destruction of pagan temples occurred, but they were unofficial in nature, undertaken by individuals with the tacit consent of the authorities [64].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This obviously explains the inscription dedicated to Iovian from Corfu, in which the author says that he destroyed a pagan temple and erected a church in its place [12].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Hermius Sozomen, recounting Jovian's stay in Antioch, says that in addition to restoring all the privileges and benefits given to churches by Constantine the Great and his sons, Augustus also


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“A second, who held the post of Praetorian prefect, was given a general law that imposed the death penalty on anyone who dares to marry a virgin dedicated to God, or even look at her shamelessly, or kidnap her. This law was given because during the reign of Julian, other insidious people with such virgins entered into marriage and dragged them to corruption either by violence or by persuasion, which usually happens when faith is neglected and contempted, and when shameful passion can dare to do so unpunished” [65].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This law has survived to us in the Code of Theodosius, in which, however, it dates back to February 19, 364 (that is, 2 later after the generally accepted date of death of Jovian) and is attributed to Valentinian and Valent [66].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In Antioch on the Oronta, Augustus was besieged by representatives of various Christian sects flocking from everywhere, hoping to attract the emperor to his interpretation of the Christian faith.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The greatest activity was shown by Athanasius of Alexandria, a consistent supporter of the decisions of the Council of Nicene, who immediately after receiving news of Julian's death again became Bishop of Alexandria.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

According to various reports, he either came to Antioch himself, or was summoned there by Jovian to present questions of faith [12].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Athanasius wrote a rather voluminous message to Jovian, in which he explained the basics of the Nicene faith (the text of the message survived to us in the work of Theodorite of Kirsky [67]).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The emperor, however, was careful not to give anyone a clear advantage, but recognized the Nicene Creed [67] [68].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In the same place, in Antioch, according to Theodorite, Augustus


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“issued another law, which ordered the churches to return to the churches the amount of food that Constantine the Great appropriated to them, because Julian, having begun to fight against God and our Savior, deprived them of of this benefit. But since the famine that happened for his wickedness did not allow him to collect the contributions established by Constantine, Jovian ordered only a third to be given (churches), and promised the full amount of bread deliver to them when the time of famine is over” [69].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The Act of 11 January 364 (also attributed to Valentinian and Valent) was apparently a reaction to Julian's school legislation (which banned Christians from teaching in schools) and allowed them to study teaching to everyone who had the relevant knowledge [70].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The most controversial is Jovian's belonging to the law [71], which is marked in the code of Theodosius as published on February 4, 364 in Mediolan.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Since there was no emperor in Mediolan in February 364, some researchers change the place of publication (the law is attributed to Jovian), others date it to 365 (February 365 Valentinian was just in Mediolan, the law, accordingly, is attributed to this emperor).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

It refers to the return to the state of all lands granted or sold to pagan temples by previous emperors [12] [72].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In connection with the restoration of the dominant position of Christianity, labarum was reintroduced - the letters “Hi” and “Ro” (Christ), removed by Julian, reappeared on military standards, about which testify to coins [73] (on which, however, the emperor is depicted not only with the Christian labarum, but also with the pagan goddess Victoria).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Death


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian joined the consulate on January 1, 364.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

However, he did not have a chance to stay consul for long:


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

“Jovian soon found himself in the hour of death intended for him. When he arrived in Dadastan, a border town between Bithynia and Galatia, he was found dead at night. Many questionable assumptions have arisen about his death. It was said that he was killed by the poisonous smell left after whitewashing the room in which he spent the night, that he died from the frenzy caused by the brazier that smoked too much, and finally that as a result excessive abundance of food, he received fatal indigestion. He died at the age of 33” [74].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This event took place on February 17, 364 [12].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

There was no investigation into his death, which is separately emphasized by Ammian Marcellin.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The most common version in sources is about the natural death of the emperor, but already in ancient times there was a version about his murder.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

John Chrysostom speaks directly about this [75], and Ammian Marcellin and John of Antioch quite actively hint.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

According to Eutropius, after his death, Jovian, according to the old Roman tradition, was added to the gods [76] (although he was a Christian).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian was buried in Constantinople in the Church of the Apostles [77].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

His body probably stayed there until the capture of the city by the Crusaders in 1204, when the church was looted and the burials of the emperors were opened.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

family


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Varronian is a father [78].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Military man, the tribune of the Legion of Jovie.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

He had quite a lot of authority in the troops.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Varronian is a son [79].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

He was the eldest (apparently) son of Jovian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian appointed him consul along with him.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Harito is his wife [80].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The name of Jovian's wife is mentioned only by Zonara [81].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Harito was the daughter of a very powerful officer Lucillian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Almost nothing is known about her life.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

She was the mother of two children of Jovian (the first was Varronian, the name of the second is unknown [82]).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

She was probably still alive in 380 [83].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Harito was buried next to her husband in Constantinople in the Church of the Apostles [84].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Lucillian is father-in-law [85].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

He held high positions under Emperor Constantia II, in particular, was a master of the army in Illyric.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Julian II dismissed him from service, and he returned to the army only after his son-in-law became emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian sent Lucillian west to consolidate his power, but he died during a sudden soldier rebellion in Remach (modern day. Reims).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Management Board Results


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The main content of the reign of Flavius Iovian was, firstly, the conclusion of peace with the Persians, and secondly, the restoration of pro-Christian state policy.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Around the world with the Sassanids, areas with several important cities in the east of Roman Mesopotamia were torn away from the Roman Empire.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The Romans also pledged not to help Armenia in its struggle against the Persians.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The Roman-Persian border was established for quite a long time, but rivalry soon resumed in Armenia, and it was divided between the two empires.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In the field of religion, all the privileges of the Christian Church received under Constantine the Great and his sons and selected by Julian were restored.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

No movement in Christianity was officially supported, but the emperor was inclined to the Nicene creed.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

At the same time, Christianity finally took a dominant position in society to the emperor, never yielding to it again.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

If Jovian and his closest successors pursued a rather tolerant religious policy, without infringing on paganism too much, then later the emperors began to act exclusively in the interests of the Christian churches, oppressing the old Roman religion in every possible way.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

During his short reign, Flavius Claudius Jovian did not have time to do much, but the main directions of his policy were obviously continued by his successor Valentinian I.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian in historical literature


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Primary sources


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The most complete information about Jovian's life and work is contained in Acts (better known as Roman History) by Ammian Marcellin.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This Greek historian knew the future emperor personally, participating with him in the Persian campaign of Julian II.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Among the contemporary authors, we can note Eutropius (author of Breviary from the Foundation of the City, an abbreviated history of Rome), who also participated in the campaign against the Sassanids, an unknown author of Extracts on life and customs of the Roman emperors” (the work is usually attributed to Aurelius Victor), Ruth Festus and Jerome Stridon.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Historians of the Christian Church pay quite a lot of attention to this emperor - both orthodox (Theodorite Kirsky, Socrates Scholastik, Sozomen, Rufin Aquileia) and Philostorgy, the author of the only surviving church history written from the point of view of Arianism.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Among later historians, Paul Orosius, Zosim (the last Greco-Roman pagan historian), John of Antioch, John Malala, John Zonara, John Lid, Theophanes of Byzantium and some others wrote about Jovian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Information about Jovian is present in late antique journalistic works, for example, the pagan rhetor of Libanius and some letters and work of John Chrysostom (Ad viduam iuniorem).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The most voluminous journalistic work dedicated to Jovian is the speech of the speaker Themistia (speech 5), delivered by him on the occasion of the emperor's entry into the consulate.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

From legal sources, the most important is the Theodosius Code.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Some of the laws marked by this period are contained in the Justinian Code of the 6th century.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

From epigraphic monuments, several official inscriptions and a certain number of coins of different preservation have been preserved.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Assessment of Iovian's Personality and Government in Historiography


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Various assessments of Jovian's rule and personality date back to antiquity.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Various views are also present in subsequent historiography.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Basically, differences in assessments and views relate to the following issues: 1. Election of Jovian as Emperor 2. Making peace with the Persians 3. The level of tolerance of his religious policy 4. Iovian's personality assessment.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

At the same time, the emphasis on these issues in ancient and modern historiography is often placed in different ways.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

1. The election of Iovian as emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In ancient times, this issue was considered from the point of view of the legitimacy of the new Augustus.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

According to modern researchers, Ammian could focus on the election of Jovian not by the entire army, but only as a consistory, part of the army, because he did not consider him a fully legitimate ruler and wanted to convey this idea to my readers [86].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Themistius, on the contrary, emphasized in his court speech that Jovian was elected by unanimous decision of the army [87].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Later Christian writers also wrote about unanimous election, perhaps to give this emperor more legitimacy.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In subsequent historiography, this issue was considered from a slightly different angle — researchers were more interested in what forces contributed to the election of the emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

2. Making peace with the Persians.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In antiquity, the question of the need for this world was first of all considered.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Three points of view on this world can be distinguished in ancient writings: negative, neutral and positive.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Ammian wrote that peace was concluded hastily, described it as shameful and unnecessary.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Eutropius called it “shameful, but necessary”.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Most Christian writers welcomed this world.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Mostly the first two points of view passed into modern historiography (in particular, it is noted that Julian was primarily to blame for the severe consequences of the world, while Jovian had no other choice exit).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

3. Tolerance of religious policy.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

This question is more relevant for modern research.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

In antiquity, the assessment of Augustus's actions in relation to religion can be found mainly in the speech of Themistia, where he welcomes Jovian's tolerant attitude towards all religions, and in the works of Christian writers who welcome support for Christianity.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The new historiography mainly established the opinion about the tolerance of Jovian's policy, although there is also a point of view that in the last month and a half of his reign he increasingly moved away from such politics and was increasingly inclined to support Christianity to the detriment of paganism [88].


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

4. Iovian's personality assessment.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The question is mainly typical for ancient historiography and the works of modern times (classical examples are the works of Gibbon and Mommsen).


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

The most widespread was the rather negative characteristic of Jovian, leading its origins, obviously, from Ammian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Supporters of this view speak of this emperor as an incapable, rather limited person.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

A more positive characteristic comes from ancient Christian authors who sought to exalt Jovian.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian in works of art


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Later cultural figures practically did not refer to the image of this emperor.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

One of the exceptions is Henrik Ibsen, who made Jovian one of the heroes (secondary) of the second part of the dilogy “Caesar and the Galilean”.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Jovian also appears in the historical novel by D. S. Merezhkovsky “Julian the Apostate”, which is part of the trilogy “Christ and the Antichrist”.


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

comments


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Notes


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Literature


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Sources


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(This list contains only the most informative sources on the topic, translated into Russian, as well as the most informative ones translated into English.)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

translation:


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Literature


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in German)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in German)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

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Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

(in English)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

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(in German)


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

References


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Category:Deified monarchs


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Category: 330 births


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Category: 331 births


Question: Under what circumstances did Flavius Claudius Jovian die?

Iovian

Category:4th century Roman emperors


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Kurt Lehovec (born July 12, 1918 in Austria-Hungary, died February 17, 2012 in Los Angeles) is a Czech and later American physicist and inventor. semiconductor researcher.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

At the beginning of 1959, Legovets invented and patented the technology, one of the three fundamental technologies that made it possible to create monolithic integrated circuits.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets is the author of the space charge model in the surface layers of ionic crystals (Legovec effect [sic], 1953), co-author of the first theoretical model of a light-emitting diode on silicon carbide (1951), equivalent circuit of a MOS transistor (Legovek-Slobodsky model, 1961—1964), a physical model of a MOS transistor (Legoveka-Zuliga model, 1968—1970).


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

All these works by Legovets were created in the United States, where he was taken in 1947 during Operation Paperclip.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Origins and education


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Kurt Legovets was born at the end of World War I in the Sudetenland of Austria-Hungary.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

His mother was an ethnic German, his father was an ethnic Czech, an officer of the Austrian army, and after the declaration of independence of Czechoslovakia, the Czechoslovak army [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

His parents divorced when Kurt and his older brother were still in preschool age [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets recalled that his mother raised her sons in isolation from society, strictly controlled their reading circle and inspired them with distrust of women [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The older brother was his mother's favorite, and Kurt, who inherited his father's appearance, grew up as an outcast in his own family [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Throughout his subsequent life, Legovets was haunted by an inferiority complex inherent in childhood, which he himself called the “Charlie Chaplin complex” (English: my Charlie Chaplin complex) [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In his old age, Legovets wrote:


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It is likely that [my mother's dislike] gave rise to an unfulfilled desire for death in me, which made me fearless in the most dangerous circumstances.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Now I believe that the emotional catastrophe [of childhood] was a hidden gift of fate.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It pushed me into science, which was the only means of mental survival...


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1936, after Legovets graduated from high school, his mother moved the family to Prague [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets entered the Physics Department of Charles University in Prague.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In March 1939, Germany occupied Czechoslovakia, and then the university was beheaded — Jewish teachers disappeared somewhere [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The only professor remained at the faculty, and he was a chemist [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Gradually, Germans who came from Germany filled the empty spaces [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

One of these Germans, Professor Bernhard Goodden, a researcher of the photoelectric effect in semiconductors, organized a semiconductor laboratory at the university and became the scientific supervisor of Legovets.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1941, twenty-three-year-old Legovets “accelerated” received a Ph.D. diploma for studying the photoeffect in lead selenide [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

War and emigration


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Immediately after awarding his diploma, Legovets was drafted into the Wehrmacht and sent to the Eastern Front [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets did not talk about where and how he served — only that army life finally freed him from the oppression of his powerful mother [2].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

After the winter of 1941-1942, he was recalled to Prague and appointed senior group of researchers at the Physical Institute of Charles University [2] [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

At this time, the Germans deployed two laboratories in the Czech Republic for military-applied research of semiconductors: the Prague Goodden laboratory, which included Legovets, was engaged in rectifier diodes, the other the laboratory, in, was engaged in crystal detectors of radar signals [4].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets's group studied selenium rectifiers under a contract with Nuremberg (SAF) [3] [4].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets discovered that thallium impurity significantly suppresses the reverse conductivity of a locked rectifier [4].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The customer was interested in the find, and thanks to patrons from Nuremberg in 1942, Legovets was admitted to the forefront of military developments - to the secret “material X” (Germany) [4].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets's works on thallium impurities were published in Germany and the United States after the war [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In May 1945, Goodden and most of his staff died during the Soviet offensive on Prague [5].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Elmar Frank stayed in Prague and survived, and Legovets ran his bicycle to the west [6].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

He settled in the American sector of the future West Germany, tried to do science, and published a number of works on the photo effect in semiconductors — but it was impossible to live science in a ruined country.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1947, British agents from the thirtieth assault group (according to Legovets himself, American agents [3]) found Legovets and offered him to leave for the United States as part of Operation Paperclip [6].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets, who did not know English and had no means of livelihood, immediately agreed [6].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The Englishman recruiter gave Legovets several blocks of cigarettes and sent him to the black market to dress up before leaving [6].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Soon Legovets sailed to the United States in a group of 210 German specialists.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Twenty-four of them, including Legovets and, were assigned to work in New Jersey.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets was one of the youngest Germans who came to the United States as part of the Paperclip [7].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Works i Fort Monmouth


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Prior to the public announcement of the transistor's invention, Colonel Young and I attended a private meeting at Bell Labs.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

I was amazed at how close I was to this discovery.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

I had two chances and missed both.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Upon arrival in Fort Monmouth, Legovets worked on familiar topics of photoelectric effect in semiconductors and selenium rectifiers [3] at the Institute of Advances Studies Communication enclosures.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In August 1948, he published a lengthy article in the Physical Review, in which he proposed a hypothetical “equation of state” (English: equation of state), a model of the photoelectric effect on the metal barrier semiconductor [8].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Then he was involved in working on a promising technology for photocopying documents using selenium films — together with specialists from Haloid (the future Xerox) [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

According to Legovets, he worked in attacks without lingering on one topic (English: I was a 'hit and run' scientist), and he often had to overcome the inertia of the “establishment” [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Inside the laboratory, Legovets and other Germans were obstructed by Jewish colleagues [7].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets's “colleague” Ben Levin led the “resistance” under the slogan “If we don't give the Germans chairs, let them sit on the floor!” [9].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The situation in the laboratory returned to normal only when Joseph McCarthy expelled Levin for his leftist sentiment [10].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

On June 30, 1948, Bell Labs announced the invention of the transistor, and state laboratories began a fierce competition for budgets that had not yet been allocated for work on transistors [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets fell into the very center of bureaucratic strife: his working hours were divided between two competing laboratories [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets worked two days a week in Fort Monmouth, two days in [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Having discovered samples of silicon carbide (SiC) in Camp Evans, Legovets repeated the experience of O. IN. Losev [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

When an electric current was passed through the SiC crystal, individual regions of the crystal glowed with a bright yellow light [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The director of the laboratories of the Communications Corps supported this area of research, and in December 1950 Legovets, Karl Accardo and Edward Jamgochyan presented a theoretical model of radiation to the public for the first time [11] light in semiconductors [12] (published in 1951 [13]).


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

According to Legovets, the radiation was generated by the recombination of electrons and holes at the p-n junction.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The works of Legovets, Accardo and Jamgochyan have stood the test of time [14] and became the theoretical foundation of the LED industry [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Since 1949, Legovets coordinated the joint work of the military department and Bell Labs [15].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

As part of the same transistor program, Legovets worked with a group of Professor Karl Lark-Horowitz from Purdue University, and then oversaw agreements between the Communications Corps and Purdue University [16].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets refused the offer to move to Horowitz, and in old age considered it “one of the worst decisions of his life” (English: one of his worst decision) [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets's memoirs do not mention any military, closed projects.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

His work was published in scientific journals, he regularly consulted private customers and began writing a review monograph on semiconductors commissioned by McGraw-Hill [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Laboratory secretary Gisela, who helped Legovets work on the book, became his wife in 1952 [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Four daughters were born in this marriage and broke up in the seventies [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

While working on the book, Legovets became interested in the concentration of inhomogeneities in ionic crystals [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

A simple conclusion that the concentration of inhomogeneities in the surface layers should be greater than inside the crystal led him to the conclusion that there is a region in the surface layers of ionic crystals space charge, [3] and, as a result, internal stresses.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

For example, in a salt crystal, according to Legovets's calculations, the electrostatic potential of the surface should have been 0.28 V lower than the potential of the crystal body.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

This phenomenon, first described by Lehovets in 1953, became known as the “Lehovec effect” (English: Lehovec effect), or the “Frenkel-Lehovec space charge” (English: Frenkel-Lehovec space- charge) [17].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets's only article on this topic, “The Space Charge Layer and the Distribution of Lattice Defects in Ionic Crystals”, became his most cited work.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It continues to be quoted in the 21st century [18] [19].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Works on Sprague


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

By the nature of his work, Legovets often communicated with representatives of private companies and had a good idea of the working conditions in large corporations [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1952, shortly before his marriage, he refused offers from Bell Labs and Pacific Semiconductors, but accepted the offer of Sprague Electric Company of Massachusetts [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets highly appreciated the personal and business qualities of Robert Sprag, who ran the company with his brother Julien, but he liked the nature of New England even more [20].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Before leaving the state laboratory, Legovets had to legalize in the United States: all scientists brought to the United States during the Paperclip were in the country illegally [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It was necessary at least to legally enter the United States and then prove their political trustworthiness: the law prohibited granting residence permits to former Nazis [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Colleagues found a way out: Legovets was brought by car to the Rainbow Bridge in Niagara Falls, Legovets crossed the US-Canada border on foot, turned around, and legally returned to American soil [6].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

His legal stay in the United States has begun to count.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Five years later, a remarkable dialogue took place in the Citizenship Court:


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Judge: What country did you come from to the United States?


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets: From Canada.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Judge: Where did you come to Canada from?


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets: From the USA [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The judge did not object, and Legovets became a US citizen [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Robert Sprag purchased a license for a point transistor from Bell Labs and instructed Legovets to introduce it into production [21].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The purchased technology had two drawbacks: manual assembly and adjustment of contacts under the microscope, and a high probability of contact displacement at subsequent stages of production [12].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets figured out how to bypass these problems and proposed a technology for automated assembly of the contact assembly (US patent 2773224, application December 4, 1956) [21].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The cost of Legovets transistors was ten times lower than the cost of Western Electric, and Sprague got a chance to become the main supplier of transistors for the telephone monopoly AT&T, but management Sprague refused the deal [22].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1953, Legovets developed an improved version of the transistor technology on grown transitions.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Instead of pulling an entire crystal out of the melt, he proposed “growing” doped layers by melting the surface layer of a plate already cut off from the crystal [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Sprague management refused to implement Legovets's proposal, as the company had already purchased electrochemical technology from it, and soon stopped producing point transistors [23].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The decision was strategically correct: until 1963, Sprague remained the only supplier of electrochemical transistors and made good money on them [24].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets did not agree with the Sprag brothers' choice, but was forced to support “foreign” technology [23], and then switched to work on capacitor dielectrics, Sprague's main business.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

As part of this direction, Legovets developed and patented a battery with a solid electrolyte (US patents 2689876, 2696513 and others), but this development did not go into series [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In the late 1950s, Legovets proposed the so-called “capillary melting process” (English: capillary alloying process), which automated the supply of alloying impurities in the production of alloy transistors [25].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The “capillary” technology provided accurate control of the doping depth and made it possible to create several p-n junctions on one surface of the tablet (transistor workpiece) [25].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

However, it came too late: Fairchild Semiconductor has already launched planar transistors [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The invention of p-n junction insulation


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Problem


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The main problem we faced [in early 1959] was that we knew how to make planar transistors, but we could not isolate them from each other.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Then solving this problem became the subject of big patent wars, and it just so happened that three key technologies [necessary to create an integrated circuit] fell into the hands of three different people.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

TI's Jack Kilby received a patent for integrating circuit elements on a single chip.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Fairchild received a patent for a metallization technology that connects elements of a planar scheme.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Kurt Legovets from Sprague received a patent for diffuse insulation of these elements.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Isolation was our main problem.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

about the events of 1959 at Fairchild Semiconductor.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

At the end of 1958, Torkel Walmark of RCA presented a report at Princeton on the prospects for the development of electronics, in which he listed the main problems that prevented the creation of an integrated circuit [25] ( the phrase integrated circuit has not yet come into use, but the idea of integration has been actively discussed since at least 1952 [26]).


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

One of these fundamental obstacles was the impossibility of electrical insulation of elements formed on a single semiconductor chip [27]).


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The germanium crystal of Jack Kilby's first integrated circuit — a bar 10 mm long and 1.6 mm wide [28] — was actually a single resistor.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Thanks to the electrical taps, it served as three resistors connected in series, but it could not even replace two insulated resistors.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Physical separation of the crystal was considered the only alternative.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

For example, in the first Fairchild planar chip (May-October 1960), an ultra-thin (80 micron) plate with formed transistors was cut by etching into separate devices, which then” monolithic” with epoxy resin.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Solution


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

On his way home from Princeton, Legovets found a solution to the problem:


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It is well known that the p-n junction has a high resistance, especially when a blocking voltage is applied to the junction, or in the absence of bias.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Therefore, by placing a sufficiently large number of successive p-n junctions between two semiconductor elements, it is possible to achieve any necessary degree of electrical insulation of these elements.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

For most schemes, one to three transitions will be enough... — Kurt Legovets, US Patent 3029366 [29]


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The Legovets scheme, as well as the Kilby scheme, was a one-dimensional structure — a bar or bar, divided into isolated n-type cells by narrow “packages” of insulating p-n junctions [29].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The prototype [30] of three transistors and four resistors had a size of 2.2×0.5×0.1 mm [31].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Layers and transitions in the plate were formed by the method of growing from the melt, similar to the “grown” transistors of the 1950s [32].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The type of conductivity of the layer (n-type or p-type) was determined by the crystal drawing rate: at a slow speed, a p-type layer (enriched with indium) was formed in the crystal, and an n-type layer at high speed ( enriched with arsenic) [32].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The layer thickness in the bag ranged from 50 to 100 microns [33].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Transistors were formed by an alloy method: indium or indium gallium beads — collectors and emitters of alloy PNP transistors — were welded to n-type cells on both sides [32].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

All electrical connections were made by hand with gold wire.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The low supply voltage (-1.5 V) allowed the use of direct connections between the stages (there are no separation capacitors in the circuit) and minimized the likelihood of thyristor snapping PNPN structures of separation packets.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Patent disputes


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

When Legovets brought his papers to Sprague's legal adviser to file a patent application, he did not find time to do so [34].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The company was at war for influence, and management was not interested in distant microelectronic prospects.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

On April 22, 1959, Legovets independently, at his own expense, applied to the Federal Patent Office [35], then took a long leave and went to Austria for two years [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets returned to the United States in 1961 [3], and in April 1962 received US patent 3,029,366 for insulation by p-n junction [35].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

During his departure, the situation inside Sprague deteriorated [3], and Fairchild became the leader in the semiconductor industry [36].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Robert Noyce of Fairchild came to the need for isolation with a p-n junction a few weeks after Legovets's invention [37].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Neuss was familiar with Legovets's works on Sprague [38] (although he himself denied it in 1976 [39]), and borrowed the idea, but not the implementation, of isolation by transition from Legovets [38].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Noyce's first record of isolation by transition in a planar version is dated January 23, 1959 [37].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

At the end of July 1959, Neuss filed his first application for his invention, and was refused, as the Patent Office had already accepted Legovets's application [37].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It was not until 1964 that Fairchild's lawyers managed to convince the patent office that Noyce's application described an independent invention.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Neuss received patents for his technology, Legovets remained with his patent [37].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1962, immediately after Lehovts was granted patent 3,029,366, the Texas Law Firm (TI) claimed that patent 3,029,366 violated the rights of TI and Jack Kilby [35].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

TI argued that isolation by the p-n junction is an “automatic, obvious solution” (English: automatically an obvious solution) and that Jack Kilby's prototype, created in 1958, was a practical an example of p-n junction isolation [35].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The decisive battle in the patent war took place in Dallas on March 16, 1966.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

TI attracted dozens of lawyers and a strong expert, but Legovets managed to refute all their arguments [35].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

TI expert was forced to admit that the resistors in the Kilby circuit were not isolated from each other, and could not explain why TI did not apply the “obvious solution” before the publication of patent 3,029,366 [40].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

TI staged a spectacular demonstration of “Kilby's original developments”, but again it turned out that there was no isolation by the p-n junction in them [41].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Three weeks later, the patent arbitration ruled in favor of Legovets [41] [42].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Only after winning the patent war, Sprague paid Legovets a prize for the invention — exactly one dollar [41].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Patent 3,029,366 became an important subject of patent bidding for Sprague: in exchange for it, Spraque bargained favorable cross-licensing conditions from Fairchild, TI and Western Electric [43].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Also in 1966, Fairchild and TI, who concentrated the most important patents of the industry in their hands, entered into an amicable agreement and exchanged rights to their technologies [44].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Thanks to the end of patent wars and the cross-licensing of the technology package, chip manufacturers have been able to legally use all three fundamental technologies: Kilby integration, Noyce metallization, p-n insulation by Legovets transition.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Fairchild and TI received a source of constant income (royalties) [44], and Sprague, torn apart by conflict within the Sprag family, failed to use its competitive advantage and left the semiconductor market [18].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Critical assessment


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In the early 1960s, the American press put Legovets's invention on a par with the works of Noyce, Kilby and Jean Ernie [45].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Then, under the influence of the mass of information coming from large corporations, the list of “fathers of the integrated circuit” was reduced to two names: Kilby and Neuss [27].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Kilby was Texas Instruments, behind Noise Fairchild and Intel.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Ernie and Legovets, who are not affiliated with big business, receded into the shadows [27].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In real production, insulation with a p-n junction was replaced by more advanced LOCOS technologies (proposed in 1970) and ion etching (RIE, mid-1970s) [46].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Classical p-n junction insulation (development of Noyce's 1964 patent) has been preserved only in the production of relatively slow circuits on bipolar transistors.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In the professional environment of the 1960s and 1970s, there was no consensus on the value of Legovets's invention.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

in an authoritative review of 1968, he called the patents of Legovets and Ernie the “culmination” of progress in the industry, the foundation of the semiconductor industry [47].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Kilby spread the opposite point of view [47].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Noyce's comrade Gordon Moore said in 1976 that “Legovets is the inventor of the integrated circuit only from the point of view of the patent office... I believe that the engineering community does not recognize him as an inventor IP, because he did nothing but apply for a patent. A successful business always has many fathers.” [48]


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In Morris's History of the Semiconductor Industry (1990), Legovets's patent is given one sentence (Kilby — two pages) [49].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The authors of review books on the history of the industry published in the 2000s (Michael Riordan, Bo Loek, Arjun Saxena, Neuss biographer Leslie Berlin) returned Legovets due: “The inventions of Ernie and Legovets were absolutely are necessary for the monolithic circuit invented by Noyce” [50]; “Without Ernie, without Moore, without Kurt Legovets of Sprague, Neuss could not have come up with an integrated circuit...” [51].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Arjun Saksena noted the methodological weakness of Legovets's patent.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The patent does not mention that at positive offsets (300 mV and above), the p-n junction turns from an insulator to a conductor.