Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Modern Lusatians are the remnant of the Lusatichi Serbs (or simply Serbs), one of the three main tribal unions of the Polabian Slavs, which also included the tribal unions of Lyutichi (Velets or Veltsy) and Bodrich (encouraged, reregs [16] [17]).


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Polabian Slavs (or, in German, the Wends) in the early Middle Ages inhabited at least a third of the territory of the modern German state — north, north-west and east [18].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Modern Luzhichans are descendants of two West Slavic tribes - Luzhichans and Milchans.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Slavs settled in the east of modern Germany in the VI century during the Great Migration of Peoples [19].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

They were mainly engaged in plow farming and animal husbandry.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the 8th century, the lands of the Serbian-Polabian tribes began to be raided by the Germans (primarily the Franks), and later also by the Czech and Polish kings [20].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the 9th century, part of the Serb lands briefly became part of Greater Moravia [21].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Serbs conquered by the Germans repeatedly raised uprisings, which were suppressed by the conquerors.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Milchans were finally conquered in 990.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Thousands of Serbs were exterminated, their villages and settlements were destroyed.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the period from 1018 to 1032, the territory of Upper Lusica was part of the possession of Poland, in 1076-1084 and 1158-1231 - under the possession of the Czech Republic.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the XII century, the Lusatian lands became part of the Lusatian brand and the land of Bautzen under the control of the Counts of the Wettin.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

From the 11th-12th centuries, the German colonization of the Serbolužice lands began [22].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the XIII century, the Polabian Slavs ceased to be divided into tribes, the names of the regions appeared - Lower Luzhitsa (former region of the Luzhichans tribe) and Upper Luzhitsa (Milchan region) [20].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1319, Upper Luzhitsa ceded to the Czech Republic, and Lower Lusica under Charles IV in 1373 [23].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1635, the Upper and most of Lower Lusitsa were ceded to Saxony, and the Lower Luzhitsky district of Cottbus was ceded to Brandenburg [24].


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

During the Reformation in Germany in the 16th century, most Luzhitans converted to Lutheranism.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Catholicism has been preserved only in some areas of Upper Luzhitsa.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The birth of Serbolužice literature dates back to the same century.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1667, Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg ordered the prohibition of worship in the Lusatian language and the destruction of the Lusatian script.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

From 1717 to 1735, King Frederick Wilhelm I of Prussia issued a number of decrees against the use of the Lusatian language.


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1815, the Congress of Vienna transferred the Saxon lands of Lower and Upper Lusatia to Prussia, which participated in the anti-Napoleonic coalition.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The beginning of the national revival was associated with the restoration in 1814, through the efforts of A. Lyubensky and A. Klin, “Serbolužice Preaching Society” in Leipzig.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Thanks to Ya.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Smoler, the scientific and educational society “Matica Serboluzhitskaya” was created [26].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the second half of the 19th century, new restrictions were introduced on the use of the Lusatian language.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

On October 12, 1912, Domovina was founded.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1919, the leaders of the Lusatian Serbs appealed to the Versailles Conference, demanding the creation of a Lusatian state.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

However, their proposal was not considered at the conference, and the applicant A. Bart was arrested for “treason” on his return to Germany.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1933, with the coming to power of the National Socialists, open terror was unleashed in Germany, followed by the arrests of patriots and the forced eviction of nationally oriented Lusatian priests and teachers [27].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Luzhitsky language (since 1940 — even in everyday life) and all press organs (in 1937) were banned.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Lusatian Serbs were declared “Vendian Germans” [28].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1945-1946, Luzhitans, with the active participation of Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

For the second time in their history, the Tsyzha made an attempt to secede from Germany, which was unsuccessful [29].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

After World War II, the Germanization of the Lusatian Serbs accelerated after Germans from Czechoslovakia and Poland moved to Lusica [30].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the following decades, with the reconstruction of the Lusatian press and schools, the Lusatian people experienced a cultural rise [31].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

From 1924 to the beginning of the 21st century, as a result of the development of coal deposits in Luzhitsa, more than a hundred villages were completely or partially demolished [32].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Headcount


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Lusatian Serbs are the smallest Slavic people [33].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the GDR, statistical calculations of the number of Lusatian Serbs were not carried out, and the documents constantly contained the same number — 100,000 people.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the last years of the GDR's existence, the Institute of Serbolužice Ethnology used calculations according to a specially developed questionnaire system, but the results of these calculations have been fully published were not [34].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In modern Germany, the number of ethnic minorities is not officially counted.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to various statistics, the population of the Lusatian Serbs from 1980 to 2010 ranged from 50 thousand to 500 thousand people.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The figure of 60,000 people appears in politics [35].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to data updated after 1989, there were 67,000 people in Luzhitans, including about 59,000 who spoke their native language [36].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to modern data, the number of Lusatian Serbs ranges from 50 to 67 thousand people.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

At the same time, discrepancies in figures indicate the difference between ethnic Luzhitans and Luzhitans who speak their native language [37].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Bautzen, the center of cultural life of Lusatians, their share is about 5-10% of the city's population [38].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to A. Flour in the early 1880s, the share of the Lower Lužice Serbs in the total number of the Serbolužice people accounted for 42.9%, and the Upper Lužice - 57.1%.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to A. Blueberries (1958), the share of Lower Lužice Serbs in the mid-1950s accounted for 28.4% [39].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Census data [40] [comment 3]:


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

On the territory of present-day Poland, the Lusatians were Germanized during the 16th century in, by the middle of the XVII century in Zary and in the XVIII century in the vicinity of Gubin and Lubsko.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the Krosno area at the beginning of the XVIII century, the share of Luzhitsky residents in the total population was 85.3%, but at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries, Lower Luzhitsky was not spoken there.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Lower Luzhitsky language stayed the longest on the right bank of Nysy-Luzhitsky in the village of Lenknitsa: in 1932, two families who spoke Lusatian lived there (380 Luzhitsky residents and three Germans lived there in 1884) [39].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Languages


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

All Luzhitans are bilingual [comment 4]: German is the main language, while the Upper Luzhitsky and Lower Luzhitsky languages are preserved in a limited way [41].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Luzhitsky languages (Upper Luzhitsky and Lower Luzhitsky) belong to the West Slavic languages.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Upper Luzhitsky language functions in Upper Luzhitsa, and is actively used primarily in the Catholic region of Upper Luzhitsa.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Lower Luzhitsky language is spoken in the vicinity of Cottbus in Nizhnyaya Luzhitsa.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

This language is mostly native to people over 70 years of age.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Both languages are divided into dialects.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

There are transitional dialects between Upper Luzhitsky and Lower Luzhitsky dialects [42].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

It is believed that the Upper Lužice language is close to Czech, and the Lower Lužitsky language is close to Polish [43].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The vocabulary of the Lusatian languages was influenced by German, as well as Czech and Polish (especially after World War II) [44].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Among the grammatical features of the Lusatian languages are the presence of a dual number, several forms of the past tense, the place of the predicate at the end of a simple sentence [45].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to the Serbolužice Institute (2009), the number of speakers of the Upper Lužice language in Saxony is 23,000 people [46], Lower Luzhitsky in Lower Lusatia is about 6,400-7,000 people [47].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Education


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

See also the article:


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The first schools in the villages of Upper Luzhitsa appeared in the 15th—16th centuries.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

These were private schools, from which church schools developed over time.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Such schools appeared, for example, in Krostvica in 1482, in Kitlitsa in 1489, in Radibor in 1550 [48].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The only textbooks in schools were the Catechism and the Bible [49].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the future, the Lusatian language was repeatedly banned [48].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Nazi Germany, Serbolužice textbooks were completely destroyed [50].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

During the GDR, there were two types of schools in Lužice: schools of type “A” taught only in the Lusatian language, in schools of type “B” — in German and Lusatian [51].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to 2016 data, there are 9 preschool institutions in Lower Lusatia, and 24 preschool institutions in Saxony, where children receive education in the Lusatian language.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Since 2013, the Serbolužice group has been operating in a preschool in Dresden [52].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Witaj language programme is being implemented in educational institutions in the Serbolužice settlement region for young children (and in Brandenburg, in schools).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Saxony, bilingual school education is based on the concept of “2plus” (German, Lusatian plus additional languages) [53].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the 2010-2011 academic year, 290 students of Serbolužice schools and Serbolužice Gymnasium studied Russian as a foreign language and 154 students studied Czech [54].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 2009, Saxony had 6 Serbolužice and 3 bilingual primary schools, 4 Serbolužice and one bilingual secondary school, as well as the Serbolužice Gymnasium in Bautzen.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Brandenburg, there were 5 Witaj primary schools and the Lower Luzhitskaya Gymnasium in Cottbus [55].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Germany's higher education system, the Lusatian language is taught only at the University of Leipzig (Institute for Sorabistics) [56].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Religion


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

By religious affiliation, most Lusatian Serbs have been Lutherans since the Reformation [20].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

At the time of A. Muki (d. 1932) professed Catholicism by 10% of all Lusatian Serbs.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Upper Luzhitsky Catholic Serbs already accounted for 2/3 of the number of the Serbolužice people [39].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lusatian Evangelical Serbs live in Upper and Lower Lusica, with the exception of the Catholic region.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

They are followers of several churches: the Lutheran Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia and the Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Saxony, as well as the Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church in Clitten and, and the Moravian Church.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In addition, the Serbolužice Evangelical Society has been operating in Upper Lusica since 1994; since 1946, the Serbolužice Congress of the Evangelical Church has been held.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Evangelical parishes, dominated by Lusatian Serbs, no longer exist.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Bautzen, a service in the Lusatian language takes place once a month at [57].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Catholics


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Mini|Rosenthal village in Catholic Lusatian


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lusatian Catholic Serbs numbering about 12,000 people live compactly in the triangle between the cities of Bautzen, Kamenz and Hoyerswerda, which includes 85 settlements.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

About a thousand crosses and chapels are scattered along the roads of the area.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Here, the Lusatian language is spoken in many families, schools, kindergartens and churches.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) confirmed the status of Luzhitsky as a language of worship.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Services in the Lusatian language are held in churches in the villages of Krostwitz, Ostro, Radibor, Nebelschutz, Ralbitsy, Wittichenau, Bacsony, as well as Reckelwitz, Panschwitz-Kuckau.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Bautzen, a service in Lusatian takes place on Sundays at.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Older women here still wear formal suits.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

During church holidays, weddings and other celebrations, young women and girls wear festive costumes.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The public holiday in the Serbo-Catholic regions of Saxony is the holiday of the Body and Blood of Christ.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The holidays of the Holy Trinity Day, the Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth and the Nativity of the Most Holy Theotokos are celebrated with solemn processions in Ralbitz.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Catholics also celebrate Bird Wedding (January 25), the “burning of witches” (April 30), St. Martin's Day (November 11), St. Barbara's Day (December 4), St. Nicholas Day (December 6) [58].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the past, the Catholic areas of Upper Lusitsa were heavily influenced by monasteries, including Marienstern; believers were forbidden to marry non-Catholics [59].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Culture


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Literature


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The oldest monument of Serbolužice writing is the text of the Latin psalm of the Magdeburg Manuscript (Magdeburgske glossy) of the 12th century with an interlinear translation into Old Lužice and German.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The history of Serbolužice literature dates back to the Reformation — the 16th century.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The earliest monument of business writing is the Budishinskaya Oath of 1532.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The first books were written and printed by Protestants in Lower Luga dialects: in 1548, M. Yakubica translated the New Testament, and in 1574 A. Moller published The Little Catechism.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1595, the first printed book in the Upper Luzhitsky language was published - Luther's Small Catechism, translated by V. Varichia.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

A significant role in the formation of Serbolužice literature was played by the Frenzel family, from which several representatives of the Serbolužice scientific and creative intelligentsia came out from the 1660s to the middle of the XVIII century, including M. Frenzel, who published the New Testament in 1706 in the Upper Luzhitsky language, encyclopedist A. Frenzel, poet M. Frenzel, chronicler S. B.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Frenzel [60].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Prominent poets of the XIX century were G. Seyler (whose attitude is similar to that of A. S. Pushkin in Russia [61]), the second largest poet Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Bart-Chishinsky, Ya.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Velya-Radyserb, M. Gornik, the first Lusatian poet G. Vichazets.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the 1840s, Serbolužice prose was actively developed.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Prominent writers of the XIX century were Velya-Radyserb, Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

B.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Muchink, Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

E.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Velan M. Gornik.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the work of poets M. Andritsky, Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Novak, Ya.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Tsyzh, writer M. Navka.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the interwar period, publicist Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Skala, writers Ya.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lorentz Zaleski, M. Novak-Nekhornsky, poets M. Navka, Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Khezhka, M. Vitkoits.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Writers were mainly from the clergy, less often from the intelligentsia (scientists, teachers, doctors) [62].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Until 1937, magazines, calendars and church literature were printed mostly in Gothic script [63].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

After the establishment of the Nazi regime in Germany, representatives of the Serbolužice intelligentsia were subjected to repression.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

On March 18, 1937, Domovina was actually liquidated (together with its press organs); Matica Serboluzhitskaya was dissolved, the publishing house and printing house were closed, the library and archive were arrested.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

A decree followed on the withdrawal of all Serbolužice literature from libraries.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The public use of the Lusatian language was banned.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The German press received an unspoken order to avoid any mention of the Lusatian Serbs, and even the use of the term “Lusatian Serbs” (Sorben, Wenden) was banned.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The atmosphere of arrests and threats caused the premature death of Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Rocks and Ya.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lorents-Zalessky; at this time Yu.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Hezhka [64].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the second half of the 20th century, the writer Yu.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Brezan, poets Yu.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Mlynka, Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Koch [65].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

folklore


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Collection by L. Haupt and A. Smolyar of the middle of the XIX century “Folk songs of the upper and lower Luzhitans” divided Lusatian songs into types: field or harvest, lullabies, suffering, wedding, dance, round dance, jokes and others.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

By the beginning of the 20th century, about 1,500 folk songs and 800 melodies were known.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Ancient epic songs include “Victories of the Serbs” (tells about the events of the 11th century [66]) and “Our guys are going from the war” (presumably originated in the 10th century [67]).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

After the First World War, Serbolužite youth sang “Sokol songs” with nationalist motifs.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The collection and study of Lusatian proverbs was carried out by Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Radyserb-Vela, who published in 1902 the collection “Proverbs and Sayings of the Upper Luzhitsky Serbs”, which included about 10 thousand proverbs and sayings.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Some proverbs ridiculed wealth (“It would be easy for a rich man to become a wise Solomon if wisdom was sold”, “The higher the palace, the lower the hut”), others praised everyday experience, thrift, modesty (“Pride suits Luzhichans as well as a beggar ring”).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Some sayings were devoted to the Luzhitans who betrayed their people (“There is no devil worse for a Luzhician than a numb Luzhician”).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Legends tell about exploits in the struggle for national freedom in the 9th-11th centuries, the death of the last Serbian rulers, and the history of some settlements [68].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Theater and cinema


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The history of the Serbolužice Theatre, which arose under the influence of the Czech National Theater, dates back to 1862, when the first performance of the play in the Lusatian language took place in Bautzen.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

A significant contribution to Serbolužice drama was made by writer Yu.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Vinar, the plays were written by the poet Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Bart-Chishinsky and A. Flour.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1948, the first Serbolužice People's Theater (now the German-Serbolužice People's Theater) opened in Bautzen [69].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the cinema, the Lusatian Serbs were first shown in the silent film “”, shot in 1911.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

During the interwar period, about ten films were shot, in which the Luzhitans were often presented as a “village” and endangered people.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The first Serbolužice film historian was G. Cerna (d. 1955).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1953, the first feature film on the Serbolužice theme “52 weeks — one year” was released [70].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The emergence of Serbolužice cinema dates back to 1971, when the “Working Circle of Serbolužice Cinematographers” was founded to train personnel for the future Serbolužice cinematography.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1972, this film school shot the first Serbolužice film “Struga — a Portrait of a Landscape” (the name is given along the river in Luzhica).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1980, the production and creative association Serbska Filmova Skupina was created at the DEFA film studio (and in fact within the framework of the Dresden TRIK-Film Studio).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the 1980s, documentaries dedicated to national culture were shot, including the film “The City” about the Serbolužice history of Bautzen.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1984, the first feature film of Serbolužice cinema “Rublyak, or the Legend of a Measured Country” was released in German (the films “Skupiny” were shot mainly in the Lusatian language) [71].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Since 1991, the studio has been called Sorabia-Film-Studio [72].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Music and visual arts


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1952, it was created, combining a choir, an orchestra and a ballet group [73].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Among traditional dances, Serbolužice dance is popular, as well as the dances “Wait” and “Go on”.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lusatian songs and dances are accompanied by musical performances.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Previously, the most common instruments were large and small (violin genus), bagpipes and cockroach.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Modern instruments include grand piano, guitar, accordion, clarinet, trumpet and harmonica.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Small harps, or “wedding harps”, in the 20th century were common in the Schleife-Muskau area.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

They are a three-string instrument of triangular shape, resembling a violin, and is not known to other peoples [74].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Until the end of the First World War, fine arts did not occupy a prominent place in the Serbolužice national culture.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Single artists left almost no trace.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1923, the Association of Lusatian Artists was formed, whose paintings were shown at exhibitions in Krostvica and other places.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1948, the Circle of Lusatian Artists was founded, headed by M. Novak-Nehornsky.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The circle organized traveling exhibitions, introduced the population to the paintings of Lusatian artists [75].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Clothes


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Serbolužice folk clothes have common features with the clothes of other Western Slavs, especially with Poles (women wearing an apron, an abundance of jewelry on festive costumes - embroideries, lace, ribbons).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The original clothes have been preserved mainly among women.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Luzhitsky ethnographer P. Nedo distinguished four complexes of women's clothing in Luzhitsa: Spreewald, Schleiffen, Goyersverdsky and Bautsen-Kamensky.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The latter complex is distributed in the districts of Bautzen, Kamenz and Wittichenau.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The festive clothes of the Bautsen-Kamenets complex include a white shirt made of canvas with short sleeves and a round neckline, a black woolen upper skirt and a woolen underskirt.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The upper skirt is sewn to the corsage, which is laced or fastened.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The headdress of the Bautsen-Kamenets complex consists of a black bonnet, from which two black ribbons hang to the knees.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The headdress, common in the Spreewald, is characterized by the presence of wide wings.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Black mourning robes are combined with a white headdress [76].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The men's costume of the XVIII-XIX centuries (not preserved) was close to the German costume of Brandenburg and Saxony.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

It consisted of a linen shirt with long sleeves, which was tucked into linen pants with buttons below the knees.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The shirt was worn with a cloth jacket, often bluish in color.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Now the costume can be seen on the artists of the Luzhitsky Song and Dance Ensemble.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Wooden shoes served as home shoes, and boots with high tops served as street shoes [77].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Holidays


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Serbolužice holidays were significantly influenced by Germany.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Luzhitans, like other peoples of Europe, celebrate Christian holidays.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

For Easter, boiled eggs are painted, which are given to children.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In terms of brightness and variety, they are inferior to the colored eggs of Slovaks, Ukrainians and South Slavic peoples [78].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

On St. Peter's Day, February 22, a straw scarecrow of winter was burned [79].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Since 1541, it has been known that the Easter cavalcade has been held, when men in tailcoats and top hats on horseback go with the news of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The procession is led by horsemen with banners, statues and crucifixes [80].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The day of Saint John the Baptist, June 24, was also celebrated.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

On Ivanov Day, they wondered and jumped over the fires.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Unlike other peoples of Europe, the Luzhitans did not have rituals related to water [81].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The harvest festival, known throughout Germany, was celebrated in August-September.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Upper Luzhitsa, the celebration was led by wealthy peasants.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Poor peasants and laborers congratulated the owner and gave him a wreath in gratitude for his bread and work.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the Spreewald, it was a custom to “tear the rooster” and “beat the rooster”.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to the beliefs of the Lusatian Serbs, after harvesting, the rooster, endowed with the power to protect the harvest, fulfilled his task and must be killed, otherwise he will cause evil [82].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In autumn, St. Michael's Day was celebrated on September 29, the holiday of “All Saints” on November 1, and the children's holiday Martins Day on November 11 [83].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Since 1875, the holiday of the Luzhitsky youth of Skadovanka has been celebrated [84].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Print, radio, television


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The daily Serbske Nowiny (under this name since 1854 [85]) is published in Upper Lužice, as well as religious publications: the Catholic Katolski Posoł and the Protestant Pomhaj Bóh.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The weekly Nowy Casnik newspaper is published in Lower Luga.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Magazines are published in both languages: scientific Lětopis (published twice a year), cultural Rozhlad (since 1950 [86]), children's Płomjo, pedagogical Serbska šula.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Half-hour TV shows are broadcast once a month: Wuhladko in Upper Lužice (MDR [87]) and Łužyca in Lower Lužitsky (rbb TV channel [88]).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Radio programs of Serbolužice radio are broadcast in two languages [89].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Settlements and buildings


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

See also the article:


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

See also the article:List of Serbolužice villages (1956)


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Currently, Lusatian Serbs make up an ethnic majority in 70 Catholic villages in Upper Lusica (northwest of Bautzen).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the Protestant areas of Upper Luzhica and throughout Lower Luzhica, villages with a predominance of Lusatian Serbs no longer exist [90].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Until the 20th century, Luzhitans had almost no mixed interethnic marriages, as they lived closed and separately from the Germans [91].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to the Luzhitsky poet Y.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Bart-Chishinsky (1904), German-Serbolužice marriages were rare.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the first half of the 20th century, the number of mixed marriages increased significantly due to the industrialization of Luzhitsa, the development of the brown coal basin and especially after the arrival of a large the number of German settlers at the end of World War II.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

According to M. AND. Seven ryagi (1955), especially many mixed marriages in the Spreewald (50% or more of the total number in the middle of the 20th century against 5% in 1900), in the vicinity of industrial centers - Cottbus, Fetschau, Luebbenau, in communities of Upper Luzhitsa.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

For Catholics, the couple came from the same village, while Protestants often had a bride and groom from different villages [92].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The oldest type of settlement planning is circular.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Cumulus layout is also common, in Nizhnyaya Luzhitsa - farm, in German districts - street.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

To the east of the Kamenz-Bischofswerda line, street planning is less common.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the Spreewald, settlements of a peculiar farm shape are common: due to the low-lying landscape and frequent floods, scattered villages are located on hills, estates are located along the canals.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The villages on the islands are connected by boat during summer.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In the Spreewald, estates are located along the canals.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The yard with buildings in Lower Luzhitsa is open, in Upper Luzhitsa it is closed.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The oldest type of buildings is a single-storey log building with residential and utility rooms under one roof.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

This type of Lusatian buildings in the second half of the 20th century was found in the villages of Spreewald and Hoyerswerda.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Half-timbered buildings associated with the German tradition were more common in Upper Luzhitsa.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Over time, wooden buildings were replaced by brick construction [93].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

National symbols


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The flag of the Lusatian Serbs is a cloth of blue, red and white horizontal stripes.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

It was first used as a national symbol in 1842.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1848, the flag was recognized among the Luzhitans [94].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Article 25 of the Brandenburg State Constitution contains provision for the Serbolužice flag.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Article 2 of the Constitution of Saxony contains a provision on the use of the coat of arms and traditional national colors of the Lusatian Serbs.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The Laws on the Rights of the Lusatian Serbs of Brandenburg and Saxony contain provisions on the use of Serbolužice national symbols (coat of arms and national colors). [95]


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The national anthem of the Lusatian Serbs since the 20th century is the song “Beautiful Luzhica” [96].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Previously, the anthem was the songs “Serbia has not yet died” (written by G. Seyler in 1840) [97] and “Our Serbia Rises from the Dust” (written by M. Homework, performed until 1945) [98].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Legal status


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Mini|bilingual inscription at Spremberg (Lužicki Grodk) train station


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The legal status of the Lusatian Serbs in Germany (in the states of Brandenburg and Saxony) is regulated on the basis of Article 35 of Protocol No. 14 of the Treaty on the Unification of Germany and the GDR of 1990.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Article 25 of the Brandenburg Constitution of 1992 guarantees the right of the Serbolužice people to protect, maintain and protect their cultural identity and place of residence.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Land, communities and community unions contribute to the realization of rights.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The article establishes the cultural autonomy of Luzhitans, the right to use the Lusatian language (including as the official language in their places of residence, when studying in kindergartens and schools), contains a reference to a special law on the participation of representatives of Lusatian Serbs in legislative activities.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Articles 5 and 6 of the Constitution of Saxony enshrine the right of national and ethnic minorities of German citizens to preserve their identity and to care for language, culture, traditions and religion [99].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Brandenburg in 1994, and in Saxony in 1999, similar laws were adopted on the rights of Lusatian Serbs.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Both laws refer to the autochthonous nature of the Luzhitans.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The concept of belonging to the Serbolužice people is defined (one who considers himself a Lužice Serb belongs to the Serbolužice people), establishes the legal status of the territory of residence of the Lusatians, defines the status of the Lusatian Serb Councils attached to the Diet (and the Lusatian Serb Commissioners in Brandenburg).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The laws contain provisions on education in the Lusatian language, bilingual inscriptions on the territory of traditional residence of the Lusatians, the reflection of the culture and interests of the Lusatian Serbs in the media information [100].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Inter-Slavic relations


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lusatian Serbs have strong historical ties with Poland and the Czech Republic.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Poland, positioning itself as the “guardian” of the Serbolužice people, criticizes the German government for insufficient efforts to preserve the Lusatian language.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In 1936, the Association of Friends of the Serbolužice People was established at the University of Warsaw.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

From 1945 to 1949, there was a youth organization “” (with a central representative office in Poznan) [101].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Since 2004, the Polish-Serbolužice Partnership “” [102] has been operating, which holds international scientific conferences, Days of Lusatian Culture, creative evenings with the participation of the Lusatian intelligentsia, events in memory of the figures of the Serbolužice national revival, organizes visits of Lusatian politicians and activists to Poland (and Poles to Lusatian), publishes literature.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

The second place in terms of cooperation with the Lusatian Serbs is occupied by the Czech Republic, in which the Society of Friends of Lusica (founded in 1907) is active, which publishes the popular science magazine “Czech-Lusatian messenger” [103].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

In Serbia, there is a scientific and educational project “Rastko Lužica”, which brings together scientists and researchers from Serbia.


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Lusatian Serbs sympathize with the Balkan Serbs, Serbolužice volunteers took part in the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s on the side of the Serbs [104].


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Since 1996, the Society for Friendship of Russians with Luzhitans has been operating in Russia, represented by Sergey Pryamchuk [105] (d. 2012).


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

See also


Question: How many languages do the people of Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Serbolužice surnames


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Notes


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

comments


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Sources


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Literature


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Encyclopedias


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

CS1 maint: Date and year (link)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Template:From TSB


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Template:Unavailable link — article from Encyclopedia Britannica ‹See Tfd› (in English)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

‹See Tfd› (in German)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Monographs


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

‹See Tfd› (in Ukrainian)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

‹See Tfd› (in English)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

References


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

“” Digital Library on Sorabistics


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

“” Historical program on Czech Television (2015)


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Page of the “Society of Friendship between Russians and Luzhitans”


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Category:People of Germany


Question: How many languages do Lusatians speak?

Luzhichans

Category:National minorities in Germany


Question: Who was the discoverer of the carbon nanotubes?

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Iijima

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Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Vethia Testament is the first, oldest of the two (along with the New Testament) parts of the Christian Bible, borrowed in Christianity from the Tanakh (ancient Jewish Holy Scriptures) and in Orthodoxy and Catholicism from other ancient Jewish religious books.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Old Testament in all Christian denominations includes 39 books of the Tanakh, which is the common sacred text of Judaism and Christianity.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In addition, in Orthodoxy and Catholicism, additional books are included in the Old Testament, called non-canonical in Orthodoxy, and deuterocanonical in Catholicism [1].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In Protestantism, there are no additional books in the Old Testament, and the composition of the books of the Old Testament fully corresponds to the composition of the books of the Tanakh [2].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The books of the Tanakh were written between the 13th and 5th centuries BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in Hebrew, with the exception of some parts of Daniel and Ezra [3] written in Aramaic [1] [4].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Non-canonical or deuterocanonical books were written in the last four centuries BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, partly in Hebrew, partly in ancient Greek [1] [5].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Later, in the period from the 3rd century BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

to 1st century BC


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, books written in Hebrew have been translated into ancient Greek [6].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This translation (Septuagint) was used by early Christians [7] in the formation of the Old Testament and played an important role in the formation of the Christian canon.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

From a Christian point of view, the Old Testament is a monument to the first of God's three revelations, which is God's preparatory discovery of Himself and His will to people [8].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Origin of the term


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The term “Old Testament” is a tracing paper from Ancient Greek: Palai Diaθka in Old Slavonic (Church Slavonic: vetkh - “old”, “ancient” [9]).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The ancient Greek word literally means “the former, the one that was before”, and means “testament”, “agreement”, “contract” or “covenant” [10].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

With this word, the creators of the Septuagint conveyed [11] the Hebrew word (Brit, “contract, agreement” [12]).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the biblical world, the “covenant” (Hebrew: “Brit” [13]) was a widespread type of relationship, expressed in a solemn agreement between the parties, accompanied by oaths.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

A covenant made between people often meant a mutual agreement of cooperation or peace.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Such a covenant could be a contract between individuals (,), an agreement between a king and a private person (,), or a treaty between kings or states (,).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Another type of covenant meant a solemn promise of a unilateral nature, a kind of “oath” in which one of the parties undertook to perform certain actions ().


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

A special kind was the covenant made between God and man.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This covenant is similar to a treaty on the granting of rights by the ruler to his subjects, which is widespread in the Middle East ().


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

For the first time, the term “Old Testament” (Ancient Greek: Palai Diathka) appears in, where it is associated with the Law of Moses recorded in the Pentateuch, and perhaps the author traditionally understands it as obligations. imposed by God on the people (cf.).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the allegory of Sarah and Hagar, the Apostle Paul contrasts the Sinai Testament, a new covenant for Israel that is no longer an obligation imposed, but is based on a living relationship between God and man.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

With regard to the books of Jewish scriptures and Christian works, the terms “Old Testament” (Palai Diathka) and “New Testament” (Kain Diaetka) first appeared in the 2nd century AD.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in the works of early Christian writers (Meliton of Sardia, Origen [14]).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

According to Christian tradition, the division of the Holy Scriptures into the New and Old Testaments is based on verses from the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah ([15]).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The content of the Old Testament (Tanakh)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Pentateuch (Torah)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

From the creation of the world and man to the arrival of Jews in Moab.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This book describes: the fall of sin, the expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise, the Flood and Noah's Ark, the lives of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Joseph is in Egypt.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The division of Israel into knees.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Prophets (Neviim)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

From conquering Canaan to dividing Israel into two kingdoms.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Events: the settlement of the tribes of Israel, the foundation of the kingdom, the reign of David and Solomon.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The foundation of Jerusalem and the construction of the First Temple.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The division of Israel into two kingdoms.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Scriptures (Ktuvim)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

From dividing kingdoms to restoring the Second Temple.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Babylonian captivity, the destruction of the First Temple.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In 515 BC


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

— The construction of the Second Temple by Zerubbabel after the fall of Babylon.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Events of Esther during the reign of Artaxerxes (465—424 BC).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The prophets Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Authorship


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The books of the Old Testament have been written by several dozen authors over the centuries.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Most books, according to tradition, had their own authors, who were indicated in the title of the book.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Some modern researchers are of the opinion that most books in the Old Testament were written by anonymous authors.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

[16] [17] [18] [19]


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Text sources


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The text of the Old Testament has survived to us in many ancient and medieval manuscripts used in modern publications.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This includes texts in Hebrew and ancient translations, among which the most important are the Septuagint, a translation into ancient Greek made in Alexandria in the 3rd and 1st centuries BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, Vulgate is a translation into Latin made by Jerome Stridonsky in the late 4th and early 5th centuries AD.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, Targums — translations into Aramaic and Peschitta — a Syrian translation made among early Christians in the 2nd century AD.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Among the manuscripts in Hebrew, an important place is occupied by medieval manuscripts of the Masoretic text, the official text of Judaism, among which Leningrad is considered the most authoritative and Aleppo Codes.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The oldest sources of Old Testament text are the Qumran manuscripts, which contain fragments of all books in the Old Testament, with the exception of Esther and Nehemiah, as well as the full text of Isaiah.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

An important place among the sources of the Old Testament is occupied by the Samaritan Pentateuch, a Hebrew text of the Pentateuch, recorded in one of the varieties of PaleoJewish writing (Samaritan script) and preserved by the Samaritan community.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Church Slavonic translations of the Old Testament — the Gennadiev Bible, the Ostroh Bible and the Elizabethan Bible — were made from the Septuagint.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Modern Russian translations — The Synodal translation and the translation of the Russian Bible Society are made on the basis of the Masoretic text.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Old Testament Canon


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The canon of the Old Testament is a collection of Old Testament books recognized by the Church as God-inspired (that is, containing the immutable truth).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The list of canonical Old Testament books is already found in Origen's doxography [20].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The inspiration of the books of the Old Testament canon, as well as its continuity, is noted in the New Testament ([21]), as well as by early Christian historians and theologians [22] [23].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Currently, there are three canons of the Old Testament, differing in composition and origin:


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Jewish canon (Tanakh), formed BC


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in Judaism; [24] and adopted in the Orthodox Church and Protestant Churches.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

A Catholic canon based on the Jewish canon and Deuterocanonical books translated by the Seventy (Septuagint or the Canon of Alexandria), but not included in the Jewish canon [1].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the history of the formation of the canon of the Old Testament, two stages are clearly distinguished: the formation of the canon in the Jewish environment and the adoption of this canon by the Christian Church.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Jewish canon


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Jewish canon is divided into three parts according to the genre and time of writing certain books.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Law or Torah including the Pentateuch of Moses


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Prophets or Neviim, which includes, in addition to prophetic ones, some books that are now considered historical chronicles.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Neviim, in turn, is divided into three sections.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Ancient Prophets: Books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel 1 and 2 (Kings 1 and 2), and Kings 1 and 2 (Kings 3 and 4)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Later prophets, including 3 books of “great prophets” (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) and 12 “minor prophets”.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the manuscripts, the “minor prophets” made one scroll and were considered one book.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Scriptures or Ktuvim, including works by the wise men of Israel and prayer poetry.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

As part of Ktuvim, there is a collection of “five scrolls”, including the books Song of Songs, Ruth, Lament of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes and Esther, collected in accordance with the annual cycle of readings in the synagogue.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The first letters of the names of these three parts of Scripture (Torah, Neviim, Ktuvim) in the Jewish canon make up the word Tanah.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Jewish tradition often refers to books by their first word.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The division of the Tanakh into three parts is witnessed by many ancient authors at the turn of our era.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

We find a mention of “the law, prophets, and other books” in the Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach, written around 190 BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Luke the Evangelist quotes Jesus in the last chapter of his Gospel: “Everything written about Me in the Law of Moses and in the prophets and Psalms must be fulfilled”.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

However, in most cases, evangelists use the term “law and prophets.”


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Three sections of the Tanakh are also called Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BC — c. 50 AD) and Josephus Flavius (37 AD —?).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Conventionally, the books of Judges and Ruth, Jeremiah, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ezra, and Nehemiah are considered in pairs as one book by common author, so that the total number of books of the Tanakh is equal to 22, according to the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Many ancient authors have 24 books in the Tanakh.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

All books of the Jewish canon were initially generally recognized in all Christian communities.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Canon of Alexandria (Septuagint)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Alexandrian Canon (Septuagint) was adopted at the turn of our era among the Jews of Alexandria who adhered to Hellenistic Judaism, and formed the basis of the Christian canon of the Old Testament (this applies to both text, as well as the composition and rubrication of books).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

It differs from the Jewish Tanakh in terms of their location and individual texts, as well as in the composition of the books included.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

After the destruction of the Second Temple, the Alexandrian canon was not accepted by Judaism and remained only in the lists of Christian origin.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Structurally, the Alexandrian canon is distinguished by the fact that the books Neviim and Ktuvim are redistributed between sections in accordance with a different idea of genres than in the Tanakh.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

These are 39 [25] books, which are the following sections:


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Legally Positive Books (Pentateuch) (Genesis Deuteronomy)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Historical books (Joshua Esther)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Teaching (poetic) books (Job — The Book of Solomon's Proverbs — The Book of Ecclesiastes)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Prophetic books (Isaia-Malachi)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In addition, a number of books have been added to the canon in whole or significantly textually supplemented.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Thus, the Second Chronicles includes the Manasseh prayer, which is often used in Eastern Christian worship.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The book of Esther adds the Prologue (follows Chapter 1), a list of Artaxerxes's decree on the extermination of the Jews (follows between verse 13 and 14 of Chapter 3), the prayer of Mordecai and Esther (follows in completion of Chapter 4) and a list of Artaxerxes's 2nd Decree repealing his first decree (follows between verse 12 and 13 of Chapter 8).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The book of the prophet Daniel added: the song of 3 youths in the foot (follows between verses 23 and 24 of the 3rd chapter, corresponds to verses 24-91 in the Russian full Synodal translation) and 2 additional chapters - 13th o Susanna and the 14th is about Vila and the Dragon.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The last Psalm 151 has been added to the Psalms.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Completely absent from the Hebrew Bible, but there are the Septuagint of the books of Tobit and Judith, the Wisdom of Solomon, and the Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach, the prophet Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Second Book of Ezra, and Maccabees books [26].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Slavic and Russian Bible as part of the Old Testament includes 39 canonical (Tanakh books) and 11 non-canonical books, which differs from the Roman Catholic Church, which has 39 in the New Vulgate books of the Tanakh and 7 Deuterocanonical books (Tobitus, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, the book of the prophet Baruch along with the Epistle of Jeremiah, the first and second books of Maccabees), which are recognized in Catholicism as the same authority as the books of the Jewish canon and inspired by God [27].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Protestant canon


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

During the Reformation era, the prevailing idea in the West about the canonicity and authority of biblical books is undergoing a radical revision.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Jacob van Liesveldt in 1526 and Martin Luther in 1534 published Bibles that include only books of the Jewish canon in the Old Testament.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Books that are not included in the Jewish canon receive in the Protestant tradition the name apocrypha, a term enshrined in the Eastern Christian tradition in late (2nd century BC — 1st century AD) literature, never which was not part of the Alexandrian and Christian canons.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Old Testament books


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Tanakh books


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The books of the Tanakh are the same in all Christian denominations (excluding translation and the presence of additional passages) and are recognized in them as canonical (inspired by God).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Tanah booksTitle


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in the Slavic [2] and Russian Bible [28] Title


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in Novaya Vulgate [29] Title


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in English language publications


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Bibles [30] Title


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in the Greek Bible [31] Rus.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Eng.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Name


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in the tanahPentateuch of GenesisGenesis — “origin”, “beginning” [32] Gen.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Genrasheet (Bereishit [33]; Beresheet — “At the Beginning” [32]) Book OriginExodusExodus — “Exit” [34] Ex.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Exhibit (Shemot — “And here are the names” [34]) Book LevitLeviticusLeviticusLev.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Levіră (Vaikra; Vaiikra — “And called...” [35]) Book NumerInumbers — “numbers” [36] Number.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Numb (Be-Midbar — “In the Desert” [37]) DeuteronomiideuteronomyAuthor.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Deutprim (Devarim; Debarim — “Words” [38]) Book of Jesus NavinIosueJoshuanav.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Joshua (Yeoshua) Book of Judges of IsraelIudicumJudges Court.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Judggfim (Shoftim — “judges” [39]) Book by Rufruthruthruf.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Ruth (Ruth) First Book of Kingdoms Samuelis1 Samuel1Tsar1Samuel (Shmuel I) Second Book of KingsII Samuelis2 Samuel2Tsar2Samuel in (Shmuel II) Third Book of KingsI Regum1 Kings3Kings1Kings1KingsChildrens (Melachim I - “Kings” [40]) Fourth Book of KingsII Regum2 Kings4Kings2Kings in (Melachim II) 1st Chronicles Paralipomenon1 Chronicles1Par1Chronon Ayamim I) 2nd Chronicles II Paralipomenon2 Chronicles2Par2Chronon (Divrey Ayyamim II) Book of Ridesdraeezraezdezraezraezraezraezraezraezraezraz (Ezra - “help” [41]) Book Neheminehemihemihemirezraz Aenehemiahnehnehnehneh (Nehemia) Book Esther Estherestheresphesther (Esther) Book of JovaiobjobjobyovJobyovjobyin (Iov) PsalterpsSalmorumpsalmsps/PsalpsBook of ProverbiorumProverbs (Teilim) Book of Proverbs of SolomonsProverbiorumProverbsProverbsProverbsProverbs Pritprov ( Michelay) Book of EcclesiaStecclesiasteSecclesiastesSecclesiastecclesKoelet Song of SolomonCanticum CanticorumSong of Solomon


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

(Song of Songs) Song Song (Shir Hashirim) The Book of the Prophet Isaiaiaeisaiahis/Isaiaiaiaiahis/Isaiaiaiaiaiahis (Yeshayahu) The Book of the Prophet Jeremiaejeremiaejeremiahierjerjerjerjerr Irmiyahu (Irmiyau) Crying JeremiaLamentationEslamentationsLamentationsLamentationsLamentationsLamentationsLamentationsLamentaizezeki (Yehezkel) The Book of the Prophet Daniel DanielisDanielisDanieldanieldanieldaniezezeki (Daniel) The Book of the Prophet Osiioseehoseaoshoshoshoshoshoshosis (Joshea) Book of the Prophet Joeljoeiljoeljoeljoel (Yoel) The Book of the Prophet Amosamosamosamosamosamosamos (Amos) Book of the Prophet AvdiaAbdiaeobadiahavdobadiahavdobadia Ovadia (Ovadia) Book of the Prophet Jonyaejonahionajonajonajonajonah (Yona) Book of the Prophet Michaeaemicahmihmicah (Micah) The Book of the Prophet Naumanahumnahumnahumnahumnahumnahumnahumnahumnyh (Nahum) Book of the Prophet HabakkuchabakkukavhabhabakkukavhababababababababakkukavhabhababababababababababababababababababababababababababababHawakuk Book The Prophet ZephoniaezephaniahSofzephaniahSofzephaniah (Safaniah) Book of the Prophet Haggaeihaggaiagghaggai (Hagai) The Book of the Prophet Zachariaezechariahzechariahzechechechariahzechecha (Zehariah)) Book of the Prophet Malachiaemalachimalachimalalachimalmalmalmalmalmalmalmalmalachimalachimalachimalachimalalachimal


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Additional excerpts in these books are available in Orthodox and Catholic editions of the Old Testament, but are absent in Protestant publications [2].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In Catholicism, these additions are recognized as inspired by God, in Orthodoxy they are not inspired by God [27].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Additional excerpts in Orthodox and Catholic editions of the Old Testament can be found in Esther (,,,,,), in the book of the Prophet Daniel: the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Youths (), the story of Susanna (), the story of Vila and the Dragon () [43].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In addition, Orthodox editions of the Old Testament include Psalm 151 and Manasseh's prayer at the end of Book 2 Chronicles [2], which are absent from the New Vulgate.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the ecumenical editions of the Bible: The Revised Standard Version of the Bible and the New Corrected Standard Version of the Bible, these passages are placed in a separate section called “Apocrypha” along with additional books of the Old Testament [44].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Additional Old Testament Books


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In addition to canonical books, Orthodox and Catholic editions of the Old Testament include additional books, the number of which varies in different Bibles.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the Russian Synodal translation of the Bible, these books are called non-canonical, in Catholicism they are called deuterocanonical.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In Catholicism, these books are recognized as inspired by God, in Orthodoxy they are not inspired by God (but useful and edifying), in Protestantism they are considered exclusively human work and are not included in the number of books in the Old Testament [1] [27].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

However, they are in a separate section in the ecumenical editions of the Bible: the Revised Standard Version and the New Corrected Standard Version of the Bible.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The latter received the approval of thirty-three Protestant churches, the American and Canadian Conferences of Catholic Bishops and the blessing of the Primate of the Greek Orthodox Church [45].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Ten non-canonical books of the Slavic-Russian Bible have been translated from Greek (Septuagints), the Third Book of Ezra has been translated from Latin [46].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The table shows the titles of additional books of the Old Testament in the Slavic-Russian Bible, the Greek Bible, the New Vulgate, and the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Additional books of the Old TestaRussian nameEslavyanskaya [2]


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

and the Russian Bible [28] Title


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in the Greek Bible [31] Title


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in Novaya Vulgate [29] Title


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

in the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

(separate section) [44] The Second Book of RidesDras A'No1 EsdrasBook of TovitaestthobistobitBook of JudaesiudithJudithBook of Wisdom Solomonaestosofilomontosapientiaewism of SolomonBook of Wisdom of Jesus, Son of SirachovaSophia SierecclesiasticRussirach (Ecclesiasticus) Epistle Jeremiae


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

(included in the sixth chapter in the book of Baruch) Letter of JeremiahBook of the Prophet BaruhaeβarucbaruchBaruchThe first book of MaccabaeesThe first book of MaccabaeesThe second book of MaccabaeesThe second book of Maccabaeismathmaααωn Β'II Maccabaeorum2 MaccabeesThird Book of MaccabaiskaThere is a Maccabaeωn γ'No3 MaccabeesThe fourth book of MaccabeesThe fourth book of Maccabaiskaianetμαkaβαωn Δ'


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

(in appendix) No4 MaccabeesThird Book of RidingNoNo2 Esdras


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The second and third books of Ezra were appended to the Vulgate with the titles of the third and fourth books of Ezra, respectively, without giving them canonical status [2].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Texts and translations


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The modern Hebrew Bible is based on a Masoretic text, which was compiled on the basis of earlier texts of the Jewish Bible and approved in the 10th century AD.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

[47] [48]


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the 3rd century BC


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

At the behest of the Egyptian king Ptolomew Philadelphus, the books of the Tanakh were translated from Hebrew into Greek.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Since there were 72 translators, according to ancient testimonies, or, rounding, 70, this translation is called the translation of the Seventy (Septuagint) [49].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

According to legend, the translation was completed in 72 days.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This translation later included other Jewish books written in the 3rd and 1st centuries BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, as well as books originally written in Greek (non - canonical books).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This is the translation used by the authors of the New Testament.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

According to some estimates, of 235 Old Testament quotes in the New Testament, 215 are taken from the Septuagint and only 20 are from the Hebrew text [47].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

From the first translations of the Bible into Latin, an ancient Italian translation is known, in which the Latin translation of books of the Old Testament was made from the Septuagint.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Soon this translation was replaced by the translation of Blessed Jerome Stridon, who translated Old Testament books from the Hebrew original into Latin, but also used ancient Greek texts.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This translation was completed by 405 and was later called “Vulgate” (that is, “generally accepted”) [47].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Old Testament of the Slavic Bible is translated from the Septuagint, but this translation is influenced by numerous influences from the Vulgate [50].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the Synodal translation of the Bible into Russian, made in the 19th century, the canonical books of the Old Testament are translated from the Hebrew Bible (Masoretic text), but in some cases from the Septuagint (for example, ), ten non-canonical books have been translated from Greek (Septuagint), but one (Ezra 3) has been translated from Latin [51] [52].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the Russian Orthodox Church, the Synodal translation is not used in divine services.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Biblical critique of the Old Testament


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Biblical criticism examines directly the text of the Bible to determine authorship, timing of compilation and author's intentions.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

It should be distinguished from criticism of the Bible, which denies it as a source of information or a code of moral conduct, as it may contain translation errors [53].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

In the 17th century. Thomas Hobbes collected all the evidence available that Moses could not write the bulk of the Torah.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Shortly thereafter, Baruch Spinoza published a critical analysis in which he argued that the problem parts of the Bible are not isolated cases that can be analyzed one by one, but a common place in all five books: “The fact that the Pentateuch is not written by Moses is clear as the sun at noon” [54] [55].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

At the same time, archaeological discoveries confirmed that most of the stories of the Pentateuch of Moses are consistent with the historical, cultural and literary data of the second millennium BC.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

An ancient tradition shows that Moses himself was the author of the Pentateuch.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

This is indicated by the phrases “the book of Moses” or “the book of the Law of Moses” in later Scriptures of the Old Testament (,,) and the New Testament ().


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The story of his death (), according to some ancient Jewish interpreters, belongs to Joshua, according to most people, was recorded by Moses himself, just as he predicted events a much more distant future [56].


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

See also


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Torah


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Pentateuch


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Tanah


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

New Testament


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Old Testament Church


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Bible chronology


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Notes


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Literature


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Shifman I. SH.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“The Old Testament and Its World”, ed.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

SPbU, 2007.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Tantlevsky I. R. “Introduction to the Pentateuch”, M. RSUH, 2000.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Tov, E.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Textology of the Old Testament.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

— M.: BBI, 2003


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“Teaching. The Pentateuch of Moses”.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Transl., introduction and commentary by I. SH.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Shifman, M. Respublika, 1993.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Shchedrovitsky D. IN. Introduction to the Old Testament.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

The Pentateuch of Moses: T.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

1. The Book of Genesis.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Ed.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

6th; T.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

2. Book Exodus.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Ed.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

5th; T.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

3. Books of Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Ed.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

5/M: Oklik, 2010.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

— 1088 p. — Bibliography.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

98 names


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

— ISBN 978-5-91349-010-0; 978-5-91349-004-9 (vol. 1-3).


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

F. Vigourou.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

A guide to reading and studying the Bible.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

— MOSCOW, 1916


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Freedman D.N., Myers A.C., Beck A. B. “Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible”, Eerdmans, 2000.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

J.A. Mendenhall.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“Covenant Forms in Israelite Tradition”, Biblical Archaeologist 17, 1954


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

D.R. Hillers.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“Covenant: The History of a Biblical Idea”, Baltimore, 1969


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

L. Perlitt.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“Covenant” in “Encyclopedia of Christianity”, Grand Rapids, Eerdmans-Brill, 1998


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

E.W. Nicholson.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“God and His People: Covenant and Theology in the Old Testament”, Oxford University Press, 1988


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Herman Ridderbos.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“The Epistle of Paul to the Churches of Galatia”, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

E.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Yang.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“Introduction to the Old Testament”, Zaoksky Theological Academy, 1998


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Arthur G. Patzia.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“The making of the New Testament: origin, collection, text & canon”


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

William J. Leffler, Paul H. Jones.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“The structure of religion: Judaism and Christianity”


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Geoffrey W. Bromiley.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

“International Standard Bible Encyclopedia”.


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

References


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

(in English)


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, Dmitry Shchedrovitsky


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

, Dmitry Shchedrovitsky


Question: Who wrote the Old Testament?

Old Testament

Interpretations


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (Gian Lorenzo Bernini; Italian: Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini; December 7, 1598 — November 28, 1680) was an Italian architect and sculptor [1].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

He was a prominent architect and leading sculptor of his time, and is considered the creator of the Baroque style in sculpture [2].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

As noted, “What Shakespeare is for drama, what Bernini became for sculpture: the first pan-European sculptor whose name is instantly identified with a certain manner and vision, and whose influence it was too much...” [3].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

In addition, he was an artist (mostly small oil works) and a theater man: he wrote, staged and played plays (mostly satirical, for carnivals) and even designed scenery and theater cars.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

He also spent time creating decorative items such as lamps, tables, mirrors, and even carriages.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

As an architect and urban planner, he designed churches, chapels and secular buildings, and developed large objects that combine architecture and sculpture, such as public fountains and tombstones monuments.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

It is also known for a series of temporary structures (stucco and wood) erected for funerals and carnivals.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Bernini had the ability not only to depict a dramatic narrative with characters experiencing strong experiences, but also to organize large-scale sculptural projects that conveyed genuine greatness [4].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

His mastery of marble has overshadowed other sculptors of his generation, including his rivals, François Duquenois and Alessandro Algardi, and made him a worthy successor to Michelangelo.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

His talent extended far beyond sculpture, he showed attention to the environment in which his work would find himself, his ability to combine sculpture, painting and architecture into a single conceptual and art historian Irving Levin called the visual whole “the unity of the fine arts” [5].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

In addition, as a deeply religious person [6] and working in Rome during the Counter-Reformation period, Bernini used light as a theatrical and metaphorical tool in his religious buildings, often using hidden light sources that could enhance the effect of worship [7] or increase the drama of the sculptural narrative.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Bernini and his contemporaries, architect Francesco Borromini and artist and architect Pietro da Cortona, played a leading role in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

At the beginning of their career, they worked together on Palazzo Barberini, first under Carlo Maderno, and after his death, under Bernini.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

However, in the future, competition for contracts broke out between them, which grew into outright enmity, especially between Bernini and Borromini [8] [9].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Despite perhaps the greater architectural ingenuity of Borromini and Cortona, Bernini's artistic superiority, especially during the reign of Popes Urban VIII (1623-44) and Alexander VII (1655-65), meant that he took the most important contracts in Rome, major projects to decorate St.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Peter, completed under Pope Paul V, and, after the addition of Maderno's nave and facade, finally consecrated by Pope Urban VIII, who completed a century and a half of design and construction.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Bernini's design of St. Peter's Square in front of the cathedral was one of his most successful and innovative projects.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Inside the cathedral, Bernini authored (a bronze ciborium above the altar, supported by four columns), St. Peter's pulpit in the apse, the Holy Communion Chapel in the right nave and decorations (floor, walls and arches) in the new nave.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Throughout his long career, Bernini has carried out numerous assignments, most of them related to the Holy See.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

In his early years, he came to the attention of Cardinal Nephew Scipione Borghese, and in 1621, at the age of 23, he was knighted by Pope Gregory XV.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

At his accession to the throne, Pope Urban VIII reportedly remarked: “It is a great fortune for you, gentleman, that you were able to see Cardinal Maffeo Barberini be made pope. However, we are even more fortunate to have Bernini's Cavalier with our pontificate.” [10]


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Although he did not achieve great success during the reign of Innocent X, during the reign of Alexander VII he regained his artistic dominance and was still held in high esteem under Clement IX.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Bernini and other artists were forgotten during the period of neoclassical Baroque criticism.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

It was only at the end of the 19th century that art critics, in search of understanding a work of art in the cultural context in which it was produced, came to recognize Bernini's achievements and restore it reputation.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Art critic Howard Hibbard concluded that in the 17th century “there was no sculptor or architect comparable to Bernini” [11].


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Biography


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Early years


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

Bernini was born in 1598 in Naples to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini, originally from Florence.


Question: How many buildings did Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini design?

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini

He was the sixth child out of thirteen [12] [13].