Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyes are chemical compounds that have the ability to intensively absorb and convert the energy of electromagnetic radiation in the visible and near ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum and used to give this ability to other bodies.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The term “dye” owes its origin to A. E.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Porai-Koshitsu [1] [2] and was introduced into scientific terminology by him in 1908.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

A distinctive feature of the dye is the ability, due to capillary and diffusion processes, to impregnate the material to be dyed (for example, textiles, paper, fur, hair, leather, wood, food — food dyes) — and give color throughout its volume, fixing in one way or another on active centers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The terms “dye” and “pigment”, although often used as equivalents, refer to clearly different concepts.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyes are soluble in a dye medium (solvent), and pigments are insoluble.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

During the dyeing process, dyes penetrate into the material and form a more or less strong bond with the fibers; when using pigments, the bond with the material to be dyed provides a binder, and not pigments.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In paints, color-forming agents (in this case, pigments) are found in the binder (drying oil, nitrocellulose, etc.), and the properties of the paint (with the exception of color) depend more on the binder than on the pigment.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyes are usually organic substances; pigments are mostly fine powders of inorganic substances, often oxide compounds.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Classification of dyes


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyeing technologists classify dyes by application.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Chemical specialists engaged in the synthesis (production) of dyes and studying the relationship between the structure and properties of substances classify dyes according to their chemical structure.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Since the term “dyeing” does not cover all methods of giving color to textiles and other materials, the term “coloring” is more convenient.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Classification of dyes according to their use for coloring various types of fibers


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The textile industry typically uses dyes of eight major classes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyes of the first four classes (direct or substantive, sulfur, active [3] and vat) are used mainly for dyeing cellulose fibers, for example, cotton and viscose.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Acid and active dyes are used for dyeing wool and polyamide, dispersed dyes are also used for coloring polyamide and polyester materials, cationic basic dyes are used for coloring polyacrylonitrile.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Acid metal complex dyes are also used for dyeing wool, which have higher color strength and light strength.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Brief description of dye classes


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Direct dyes give the least strong color on cellulose fibers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This is due to the fact that they attach to the fiber by weak hydrogen and ionic bonds.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This type of bond is destroyed already under the action of water or soap solutions at 30-40° C.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

To increase the color resistance to wet treatments, fabric dyed with direct dyes is treated with solutions of special fixers - water-soluble polymers, which, when attached to the fiber , prevent the dye molecules from separating from it.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The affinity of direct dyes to the fiber is related to the size and shape of their molecule.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Direct dye molecules are coplanar and have a very long length.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In addition, the coincidence of the distance between the sulfo groups in the dye molecule and the hydroxy groups of adjacent units of the cellulose macromolecule is important.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyeing with direct dyes is carried out more often by a periodic method.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

To facilitate the addition of dyes to cellulose fiber, 1-2% soda ash (sodium carbonate) and 5-20% of table salt (sodium chloride) by weight of the dyed are introduced into the dye bath material.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Active (reactive) dyes give the cellulose fiber the strongest color due to the formation of a chemical bond between the fiber and the dye.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The active dye molecule consists of a chromophore, the part that gives the dye color, and an active group that reacts with the hydroxyl group of cellulose under dyeing conditions.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

However, during the dyeing process, as well as during long-term storage of the dye, some of the active groups enter into a competitive reaction with water or air moisture and hydrolyze, losing their chemical activity.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Thus, in order to achieve a durable color, it is necessary to remove the hydrolyzed dye from the fiber at the end of dyeing by boiling in a surfactant solution.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The chemical structure of the active group determines the temperature conditions of the dyeing regime.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

For example, trichlorotriazine dyes stain cellulose fiber at 20-30° C, vinyl sulfone at 60° C, and monochlorotriazine dyes at 80° C.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Molecules of active dyes, as opposed to molecules of direct dyes, are small and compact.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They contain a large number of sulfo groups, which gives them a high solubility in water (100 g/l) and a fairly low affinity for cellulose fiber.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Therefore, their use in the periodic dyeing method is possible only with a high content of neutral electrolyte (table salt) in a dye bath - up to 70-80 g/l.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

On the other hand, active dyes are more widely used in continuous dyeing methods - plus rolling (cold), plus and steaming and fusing.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The essence of these dyeing methods is to impregnate the fabric with a concentrated solution of the active dye to the required weight gain and chemical fixation of the dye in the first case - aging at room temperature in a humid state for a certain time, in the other two cases — treatment with superheated steam or hot air.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

After dyeing, the textile material should also be exposed to a surfactant solution to remove the hydrolyzed dye.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The next class of dyes that gives cellulose fibers a strong color is vat dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The color strength in this case is initially due to their insolubility in water, due to the absence of ionic functional groups in the molecules.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

To impart solubility to vat dyes, it is necessary to transfer the carbonyl groups contained in their molecules by reduction in an alkaline medium to enol ones.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Enol forms of dyes are leukocompounds and have an affinity for cellulose fibers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

After the dyeing process is completed, the leuko compound of vat dyes is oxidized in the fiber to the initial insoluble quinone form.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The non-oxidized part of the dye is removed from the fiber by treatment with a boiling surfactant solution.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The high strength of colors with vat dyes to wet treatments is also due to the significant value of their molecules, and very good light fastness is associated with the polycyclicity and aromaticity of their chemical structure.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Due to the fact that the dyeing process with vat dyes is very laborious due to the additional stage of converting the dye into a soluble form, their water-soluble derivatives, cubosols (USSR), were developed.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Cubosols are sodium salts of acid sulphate esters of leukocompounds of vat dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They are highly soluble in water and, accordingly, have a significantly lower affinity for cellulose and protein fibers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This makes it possible to obtain more uniform colors of weak and medium intensities.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Under the action of acids and oxidizing agents, cubosols on the fiber turn into an insoluble form of the original vat dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Another option for easy-to-use water-soluble dyes of the “vat” nature is cubogens developed in the USSR in the 1980s.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Cubogens are derivatives of aromatic carboxylic acid, which, under the action of reducing agents, such as ronhalite, turn into colored polycyclic, insoluble in water connections.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This transformation is carried out directly on the fiber during dyeing and printing.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The resulting colors of scarlet, red, purple and blue colors have brightness, purity of tone and high resistance to light and wet treatments at the level of the best vat dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

When baking or cooking some aromatic compounds (amines, phenols, nitro compounds, toluidins) with sulfur or aqueous solutions of sodium sulfide, sulfur dyes are formed.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Sulfur dyes are insoluble in water, but when reduced by sodium sulfide in an alkaline medium, they turn into water-soluble leuko compounds that can be sorbed by cellulose fiber.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

At the end of the dyeing process, leuko compounds of sulfur dyes on the fiber are oxidized with atmospheric oxygen to form an initial insoluble form.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The color range of sulfur dyes is limited, mainly to dim yellow, orange, brown, blue, green and black colors.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Sulfur dyes have high color stability to wet treatments and to light.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They are used for dyeing cotton, viscose and PE/cellulose fibers, yarns and fabrics.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Acid dyes are used to dye protein fibers (wool, natural silk), polyamide, as well as leather and paper.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They are highly soluble in water, as they contain sulfo- or carboxyl groups.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Due to the presence of amino- and carboxyl groups of protein fibers in macromolecules, they have amphoteric properties.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In an acidic medium, anions of acid dyes can be sorbed on positively charged amino groups of the fiber to form ionic bonds.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Acid dyes, depending on their chemical structure, have different ability to smooth colors under dyeing conditions.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

With an increase in the affinity of the dye to the fiber, its diffusion ability decreases and the resistance of colors to wet treatments increases.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Accordingly, dyes with high affinity turn out to be poorly leveling, and with low affinity - well leveling.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

To achieve even colors with acid dyes, levelers must be introduced into the dye bath.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In recent decades, acid metal-complex dyes have been more often used for dyeing wool.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Among them, the most popular are chromium (III) complexes of 1:2 composition, which are stable over a wide pH range and can color wool and polyamide from a neutral bath.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Chromium (III) complexes of 1:1 composition are stable only at low pH and can be used for dyeing wool from acidic baths, which adversely affects its properties.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

When a metal ion is introduced into the dye molecule, a deepening of the color (batochrome shift) is observed and the dye becomes dimmer.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

EFFECT: improved resistance to light and oxidizing agents.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Mordant dyes are also used for dyeing wool.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Mordant dyes are anionic water-soluble dyes that are sorbed by fibrous material from aqueous solutions and fixed with the help of so-called mordants - metal compounds with a degree oxidation +3 (usually Cr, less often Fe, Al) with the formation of intensively colored intracomplex compounds resistant to various physico-chemical influences.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Due to the use of predominantly Cr compounds as a mordant, mordant dyes are often called chromium dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Na2Cr2O7•2H2O or K2Cr2O7 are most often used as mordants.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The process of applying mordant or chrome plating is carried out more often after dyeing, however, sometimes during or before dyeing.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Currently, due to the increased requirements for environmental protection, mordant dyes, due to the need to purify wastewater from heavy metal salts, are used in a limited way and are replaced for metal-containing acid dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

For dyeing hydrophobic fibers, for example, polyester, polyamide and acetate, sometimes polyacrylonitrile, disperse dyes are used.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

These are nonionic dyes used in the form of highly dispersed aqueous suspensions.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Their solubility in water, due to the absence of sulfo- and carboxyl groups, is limited to a few milligrams of dye per liter.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Molecules of dispersed dyes are small in size (molar mass up to 500).


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This facilitates the penetration of the dye as a result of diffusion into the depths of a sufficiently densely packed synthetic fiber with the formation of a solid solution in the polymer.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The dye is retained in the fiber by Van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Disperse dyes are the only class of dyes suitable for dyeing polyester and acetate fibers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyeing process is carried out in the presence of 1-2 g/l of non-ionic surfactant.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

According to the periodic method, the polyamide fiber is dyed at 98-100° C, polyester - at 130° C under pressure, due to the denser packaging of its macromolecules.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The resistance of colors to wet treatments with dispersed dyes on polyamide fiber is quite low, on polyester fiber it is, on the contrary, high.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In accordance with this, for example, when dyeing cotton/polyamide mixtures, direct and disperse dyes are used if the requirements for color strength are not high.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

And, on the contrary, dyeing of cotton/polyester mixtures, in case of increased requirements for color stability, is carried out by active and disperse dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Cationic dyes are used to dye polyacrylonitrile fiber (PAN fiber) and some other fibers containing COOH or SO3H groups.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They are salts of colored organic cations with uncolored anions of mineral or carboxylic acid.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The dyeing of PAN fibers with cationic dyes is carried out with gradual heating (about 1.5 hours) of the dye bath to a temperature close to boiling.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The rate of selection of different cationic dyes from the fiber bath is not the same.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In the case of mixed dyeing, dyes with similar values of this value are selected.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The most widely used is the continuous method of dyeing in gel, when in the production of PAN fibers, freshly obtained yarns (“wet tourniquet”) are passed through a dye bath for a few seconds at at a temperature of about 50° C, continuously replenished with a dye solution.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This dyeing speed is possible due to the fact that the fiber is in a gel-like, loose state, and the dye solution freely penetrates into its pores.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The colors on PAN fibers obtained with the help of cationic dyes, in terms of combining brightness with resistance to light and other influences, exceed the colors obtained by other classes of dyes on any other fibers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Some cationic dyes are used to color the skin, are part of inks and ink pastes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Fat-soluble dyes are synthetic dyes that are highly soluble in non-polar and low-polar organic solvents.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They are insoluble in water, which is due to the absence of polar groups in their molecules: sulfo- and carboxyl (as well as in dispersed ones).


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Fat-soluble dyes are used for coloring plastics, gasoline, artificial leather, rubber, technical.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

fats, oils, waxes, household chemicals (mastics, varnishes, shoe creams, etc.).


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Confectionery and cosmetic products are also painted.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Acetone-soluble dyes, synthetic dyes that are highly soluble in polar organic solvents, including acetone.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They are complexes of anionic type Co or Cr 1:2 with monoazo dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Powdered acetone-soluble dyes are used: for dyeing chemical fibers (for example, acetate, polyvinyl chloride) molded from acetone solutions, as well as plastics based on polymers and copolymers of vinyl chloride, phenol-formaldehyde, polyester and epoxy resins; in the production of non-ferrous nitrovarnishes used in the printing, furniture, leather and other industries industry.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Liquid acetone-soluble dyes, which are solutions of dyes in mixtures of organic solvents, are used for surface dyeing and finishing of natural leather.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Acetone-soluble dyes in the form of fine powders are used for dyeing polyamide fibers and fur.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Alcohol-soluble dyes are synthetic dyes soluble in ethanol and other media close to it in dissolving power.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Alcohol-soluble dyes include some metal-containing dyes, indulins, nigrosins and other dyes produced in the form of salts with an organic cation that promotes solubility.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Alcohol-soluble dyes are used to color nitrolacs, pastes for ballpoint pens, some plastics and other substances.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Pigments stand separately, although they may be close to dyes in structure and production methods, but they have very poor solubility in the dyed medium, so they require grinding to size particles no more than a few micrometers.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The coloring power of pigments depends on the size of their particles and increases sharply with the decrease in the average particle size of the dispersion.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Pigments can be organic or inorganic.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

For coloring products made of polymeric materials, they are most often used in the form of masterbatches (see masterbatches).


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Classification of dyes by chemical structure


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Dyes and pigments have a diverse structure.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

However, more than half of all dyes can be classified as azo dyes and anthraquinone dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

By the nature of chromophore groups, the following groups of dyes can be distinguished [4]:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

acridine dyes, acridine derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

anthraquinone dyes, anthraquinone derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

arylmethane dyes:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

diphenylmethane dyes based on diphenylmethane;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

triarylmethane dyes, triphenylmethane derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

azo dyes based on the -N = N- group;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

sudan dyes;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

cyanine dyes containing methine chains =CH-;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

diazonide dyes, derivatives of diazonium salts;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

nitro dyes based on -NO2 nitro group;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

nitroso dyes based on -N = O nitrous group;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

phthalocyanine dyes, phthalocyanine derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

quinone-imine dyes, quinone derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

azine dyes:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

yurchodin dyes;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

safranine dyes, safranin derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

indamines;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

indophenol dyes, indophenol derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

oxadine dyes, oxazine derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

oxazone dyes, oxazone derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

thiazine dyes, thiazine derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

thiazole dyes, thiazole derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

xanthene dyes, xanthene derivatives;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

fluorene dyes, fluorene derivatives:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

pyronin dyes based on pyronin;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

fluoron dyes based on fluorone:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

rhodamine dyes, rhodamine derivatives.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Methods for testing color stability


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Textile materials dyed with dyes are subjected to physico-chemical tests in order to assess the color stability.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The tests are carried out in the color intensity corresponding to the standard tone (selected according to the standard tone scales) and evaluated according to the scales of blue and gray standards.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Blue standard scales are used to assess the light fastness of dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Gray gauge scales are used to determine the results of the rest of the tests.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The blue reference scale is a set of eight strips of wool fabric dyed with individual dyes with varying degrees of resistance to light.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The scale of blue standards allows you to evaluate the light fastness of dyes in points from 1 to 8, where 1 point means the lowest light fastness, and 8 points means the highest.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The scales of gray standards make it possible to assess the stability of colors in the range from 1 to 5 points, of which a score of 1 means the lowest, and a score of 5 means the highest degree of color stability.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The gray reference scale for determining changes in the original color as a result of tests is 5 or 9 pairs of neutral gray strips.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Both stripes of the first pair are identical in color and the contrast between them is zero.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

They mean a color fastness of 5 points.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Scores from 4 to 1 are represented by two stripes, one of which is identical to the 5-point stripes, and the other is lighter with increasing contrast.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The scale for determining the degree of coloring of white materials consists of five or nine pairs of strips, which make it possible to evaluate the coloring from 5 to 1 point.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

A score of 5 points indicates the highest degree of color stability and is represented by two white stripes, the contrast between which is zero.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Scores from 4 to 1 are presented in the form of two stripes, one of which is white, identical to the stripes of 5 points, the second stripes are gray with increasing contrast.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

A working sample is prepared for testing.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

A 10x4 cm sample is cut out of the fabric or knitwear to be tested, placed between two adjacent fabrics, one of which is of the same material as the test sample, and the other from the fiber specified in specific test method and stitched with a hint seam.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733-0.83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The most important tests are the following.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Tests of resistance to light under artificial lighting conditions.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The method is based on the effect of xenon lamp light under certain conditions on the tested colored samples together with eight blue standards.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733-3.83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Daylight resistance tests.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The sample, together with blue standards, is exposed to daylight under certain conditions.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Color stability is assessed by comparing the change in the color of the sample with the change in the color of the blue standards.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733-1-91.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The dye is classified as light-resistant with light fastness above 4 points, otherwise the dye is classified as not light-resistant.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Testing of resistance to distilled water.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The method is based on immersing the test samples together with samples of uncolored fabrics in distilled water and keeping them at a certain pressure, temperature and time in a testing apparatus.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733.5-83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Sweat resistance tests.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The methods are based on the treatment of the test sample together with samples of uncolored adjacent tissues with solutions containing histidine with table salt or table salt under certain conditions.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733-6.83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Washing resistance tests.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The method is based on mechanical mixing of the working sample together with adjacent fabrics in washing solutions at a certain temperature and time.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733.4-83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Friction resistance tests.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The method is based on painting over a dry or wet fabric when rubbing against a dry test sample.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733.27-83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Ironing resistance tests.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The method is based on the effect of a certain temperature, pressure and time on the colored sample under conditions of dry ironing, ironing with steaming and wet ironing.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733.7-83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Tests of resistance to organic solvents.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The method is based on the treatment of the test working composite sample with an organic solvent used in dry cleaning.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

GOST 9733-13.83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Color theory


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In 1876, O. Witt formulated a chromophore-auxochrome theory of chromaticity, according to which dyes consist of unsaturated functional groups (chromophores) and salt-forming groups (auxochromes), the latter enhance the color and give the molecule the ability to color.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Typical chromophores are ethylene -CH = CH-, carbonyl -COOH, azo -N = N-, nitro -NO2, nitroso -N = O groups, and hydroxy -OH, amino -NH2 and mercapto -SH groups are auxochromes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Although chromophore-auxochrome theory made a significant contribution to the development of dye chemistry, it considered the molecule of the colored substance when interacting with light as something unchanged.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In addition, according to this theory, the presence of color of the substance is reduced to the presence of chromophore and auxochrome groups.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The rest of the molecule is considered as a passive carrier of these groups.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

According to the modern electronic theory of chromaticity of organic compounds, developed in the works of V. A. Izmail (since 1913), Adams, Rosenstein (1914), Lewis (1916), Dilthey, Wiesinger (1928) and other scientists, the ability to absorb light is determined by the presence of a fairly long chain conjugated double bonds and electron-donor (supplying electrons) and electron-acceptor (receiving electrons) substituents attached to it.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The color of the dye depends on the excitation energy required to transfer the molecule from the ground state to the excited state.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

A substance becomes visually colored if it absorbs energy portions from 158 to 300 kJ/mol.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Only C-H and C-C bonds are present in saturated hydrocarbon molecules.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Such molecules go into an excited state from a portion of energy of more than 800 kJ/mol, which corresponds to the far ultraviolet part of the spectrum.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

For this reason, they are colorless.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In molecules of unsaturated hydrocarbons, electrons that form double bonds are more delocalized, as they experience less attractive effect from atomic nuclei, and in this case energy the excitation of such molecules is less.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In molecules with conjugated double bonds, a single electron cloud is formed, the degree of electron delocalization increases, and the excitation energy of the molecule decreases.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

As the conjugate chain of bonds lengthens, less energy is required to move the molecule into an excited state, and absorption shifts to the long-wave region.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

In the chemistry of dyes, aromatic and heterocyclic compounds with closed systems of conjugated double bonds play an important role.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Here, electron clouds overlap and form a single electron cloud, as a result of which the excitation energy of the molecule also decreases, and the absorption of light turns into a longer wavelength region.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Coloring occurs.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The introduction of polarizing substituents (electron-donor and electron-acceptor) into a molecule with conjugated double bonds leads to a shift in electrons, to the appearance at the ends of the molecule of a positive and negative charges.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Electron-donor substituents give their electrons to the conjugate system, and electron-acceptor substituents attract the electrons of the conjugate system, and create their constant displacement.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

As a result, in both the first and second cases, the excitation energy decreases, and the absorption of light moves to the long-wave region.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The ionization of their molecules in an alkaline or acidic environment, as well as complexation by metals, also contributes to the change in the color of dyes.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Color index


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

C.I.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

(color index number) - color index or color index, an international dye designation system.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

A multi-volume handbook created and updated by the British Society of Dyers and Colorists (SDC), as well as the American Association of Chemists and Colorists (American association of chemists and colorists (AATCC), has been published since 1925.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

It is currently published on the Internet.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Each chemical that is used as a dye is assigned a five-digit number strictly in accordance with the “colour index generic names” and “colour index constitution numbers”.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

This number is unique for each dye and pigment.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

The main information that S.I.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

dye type: direct (acid), active (reactive), basic (mordant), sulfur (sulfur), vat (vat), dispersed (disperse), pigments (pigment) and others;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

color: purple (violet), blue (blue), green (green), yellow (yellow), orange (orange), red (red), brown (brown) and black (black);


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

structural formula;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

method of obtaining.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

CI numbers are grouped depending on the chemical structure of the dye.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

For example:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

11000-19999 — monoazo dyes;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

20000-29999 — bisazo dyes;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

58000-72999 — anthraquinone dyes;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

74000-74999 — phthalocyanine dyes;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

77000-77999 — inorganic pigments.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Examples:


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

“C.I. 17757 Reactive orange 16”;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

“C.I. 35435 Direct black 22”.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Sources


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Literature


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) v


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Chemical technology of textile materials: [Textbook. for universities on special. “Khim. -technology and equipment. finishing production”]/G. E.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Krichevsky, M. IN. Korchagin A. IN. Senakhov; Ed.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

G. E.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Krichevsky, 640 p. ill.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

22 sm, M. Legprombytizdat 1985


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Venkataraman K., Chemistry of synthetic dyes, translated from English.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

, vol.1-6, L., 1956-77.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Borodkin V. F. Dyestuff chemistry.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

M.- Khimiya 1981


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyestuffs

Gordon P., Gregory P., Organic Chemistry of Dyes, translated from English.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

, MOSCOW, 1987;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

Stepanov B.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

I., Introduction to chemistry and technology of organic dyes, 3rd ed.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

, M., 1984;


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

GOST 9733.0 - 27.83.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

Textile materials.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

Methods for testing color stability.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

GOST 9733.1 - 91.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

Textile materials.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

Test method for color fastness to light.


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

References


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes

Notes


Question: When did you get the first synthetic dye?

Dyes


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Experiment Stanley Milgram (English: Stanley Milgram) is a series of experiments in social psychology, the first of which was described in 1963 by psychologist Stanley Milgram of Yale University in article Submission: A Study of Behavior, and later in a book (1974).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Introduction


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In his experiment, Milgram tried to clarify the question: how much suffering are ordinary people willing to cause to other, completely innocent people, if such pain is part of their job duties?


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

It demonstrated the inability of the subjects to openly resist the “boss” (in this case, a researcher dressed in a lab coat) who ordered them to complete the task despite supposedly severe suffering caused to another participant in the experiment (in reality, a decoy actor).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The results of the experiment showed that the need to obey authorities was so deeply rooted in our minds that the subjects continued to follow the instructions, despite moral suffering and a strong internal conflict.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Background


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In fact, Milgram began his research to clarify how German citizens during the Nazi rule could participate in the extermination of millions of innocent people in concentration camps.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

After fine-tuning his experimental techniques in the United States, Milgram planned to go with them to Germany, whose residents he believed were very inclined to obey.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

However, after his first experiment in New Haven, Connecticut, it became clear that there was no need to travel to Germany, and it was possible to continue doing scientific research next to home.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“I found so much obedience,” Milgram said, “that I don't see the need to conduct this experiment in Germany.”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Subsequently, Milgram's experiment was repeated in Holland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria, and Jordan, and the results were the same as in the United States.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

A detailed account of these experiments is published in Stanley Milgram's book (1973) or, for example, in Mius and Raymakers (Meeusw.h.j., Raaijmakersq.a.w. (1986).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 311-324).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Experiment description


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

This experiment was presented to participants as a study of the effect of pain on memory.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The experiment involved an experimenter, a subject and an actor who played the role of another subject.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

It was stated that one of the participants (the “student”) should memorize pairs of words from a long list until he memorized each pair, and the other (the “teacher”) should check the memory of the first and punish him for every mistake more and more powerful electrical discharge.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At the beginning of the experiment, the roles of teacher and student were distributed between the subject and the actor “by lot” using folded sheets of paper with the words “teacher” and “student”, and the subject always got teacher's role.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

After that, the “student” was demonstratively tied to a chair with electrodes.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The “teacher” received a “demonstration” electric shock.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The “teacher” went to another room and sat down at the table in front of the generator device.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The generator was a box, on the front panel of which were placed 30 from 15 to 450, in steps of 15.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The experimenter explains to the “teacher” that when you press each of the switches, the appropriate voltage is applied to the student, and when the switch is released, the current stops.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The pressed switch remains in the lower position so that the “teacher” does not forget which switch has already been pressed and which has not.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Each switch has a corresponding voltage written above it, in addition, the switch groups are signed with explanatory phrases: “English: Slight Shock”, “Moderate Blow” (), “Strong Blow” (), “Very Hard Blow” (), “Intense Strike” (), “Extremely Intense Strike” (), “Danger: Difficult Blow” ().


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The last two switches are graphically separated and labeled “X X X”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The instrument panel is made in high quality, there are inscriptions about the purpose (generator 15-450) and the manufacturer (), and there is a dial voltmeter on the panel.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Pressing the switches was accompanied by the corresponding bulbs on, as well as the buzzing and clicking of the relay.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In other words, the device made a serious impression of the real, giving no reason to doubt the authenticity of the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

After the briefing, an experiment began, and the “teacher” read to the “student” a list of associative pairs of words that the “student” had to remember.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Then the “teacher” read the first word of the couple and the four answers.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The “student” had to choose the right option and press the corresponding one of the four buttons at his fingertips.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The student's answer was displayed on a light board in front of the teacher.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In case of an error, the “teacher” reported that the answer was incorrect, reported what voltage the “student” would receive, pressed the button allegedly punishing the “student” with an electric shock, and then reported the correct answer.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Starting at 15, the “teacher”, with each new mistake, had to increase the voltage in steps of 15 up to 450.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

When reaching 450, the experimenter required that the “teacher” continue to use the last switch (450).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

After using the last switch three times, the experiment stopped.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In fact, the actor who played the “student” only pretended to receive blows, the student's answers were standardized and selected in such a way that, on average, for each correct answer, there were three erroneous answers.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Thus, when the “teacher” finished reading the questions to the end of the first sheet, the student was assigned a blow of 105, after which the “teacher” took the second sheet, and the experimenter asked to start again at 15, and reaching at the end of the sheet, start reading the questions again until the student has learned all the pairs.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

This very “teacher” was given the opportunity to get used to and get used to his duties, in addition, it was clearly shown that the experiment would not stop when the end of the list of questions was reached.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

If the subject showed fluctuations, the experimenter demanded the continuation of one of the predetermined phrases [1]:


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“Please continue” ();


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“The experiment requires you to continue” ();


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“It is absolutely necessary that you continue” ();


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“You have no other choice, you must continue” ().


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

These phrases were pronounced in order, starting with the first, when the “teacher” refused to continue the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

If the “teacher” continued to refuse, the next phrase on the list was said.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

If the “teacher” refused after the 4th sentence, the experiment was interrupted.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In addition, there were two special phrases.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In case the subject asked if the “student” would be injured, the experimenter replied: “Although electric shocks can be painful, they will not lead to long-term damage fabrics” ().


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

If the subject noticed that the “student” refused to continue, the experimenter replied, “Whether the student likes it or not, you must continue until he has learned all the pairs of words correctly” () .


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the course of the experiment, Milgram's film shows that the experimenter used other phrases if necessary, for example, assuring that he was responsible if something happened to the “student”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At the same time, however, the experimenter did not threaten doubting “teachers” in any way.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Participants received a cash reward of 4.5 for participating in the experiment, but before starting the experimenter warned that the money was paid for coming to the laboratory, and they would remain with test subjects regardless of what happens next.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Subsequent studies on 43 who participated without remuneration, but are students of the same Yale University, showed similar results [1].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Basic version of the experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the first version of the experiment, which Milgram described in his work [1], the “student” was in the next to the “teacher”, soundproofed room.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The “teacher” did not hear the exclamations of the “student”, but at 300 he began to knock clearly on the wall for the “teacher”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

After that, the student stopped giving answers using the scoreboard.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The experimenter demanded to interpret the lack of response within 5-10 as an incorrect answer and appoint the next blow.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

On the next blow (315), there were also knocks on the wall without an answer on the scoreboard, and later no answers or sounds were given from the student.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The film “Obedience”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram's documentary “Obedience”, which shows the course of the experiment, shows a modified version.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In this variant, the “student” warns before starting the experiment that he has had heart problems in the past.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In addition, the “student” was not soundproofed by the “teacher”, so the latter could hear screams from electric shocks.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At 150, the “student” actor began to demand to stop the experiment and complain about the heart, but the experimenter told the “teacher”: “The experiment must be continued. Please continue.”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

As the tension increased, the actor played more and more discomfort, then severe pain, and finally yelled to stop the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At 300, the “student” stated that he refused to continue participating in the experiment and would not give answers, but continued to shout heartily when appointing a blow.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Starting at 345, the “disciple” stopped screaming and showing signs of life.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The “Apprentice” demanded to release him, stop the experiment, complained about his heart, refused to answer, but did not scold the “teacher” or experimenter, did not threaten revenge or prosecution, and even I simply did not contact the “teacher” directly.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

results


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In one series of experiments in the main version of the experiment, 26 out of 40, instead of taking pity on the victim, continued to increase the voltage (up to 450) until the researcher gave the order to finish the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Only five subjects (12.5%) stopped at a voltage of 300, when the victim showed the first signs of discontent (knocking on the wall) and answers stopped coming.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Four more (10%) stopped at 315 when the victim knocked on the wall for the second time without giving an answer.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Two (5%) refused to continue at 330 when the victim stopped receiving both answers and knocks.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

One person each — at the next three levels (345, 360 and 375).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The remaining 26 out of 40 reached the end of the scale.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Discussions and assumptions


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

A few days before the start of his experiment, Milgram asked several of his colleagues (graduate students specializing in psychology at Yale University, where the experiment was conducted) familiarize yourself with the research plan and try to guess how many “teachers” subjects will, no matter what, increase the discharge voltage until they are stopped (at a voltage of 450) experimenter.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Most of the psychologists surveyed assumed that from one to two percent of all subjects would do this.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

39 were also interviewed.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

They gave an even less correct prediction, assuming that no more than 20% of the subjects would continue the experiment to half the voltage (225) and only one in a thousand would raise the voltage to the limit.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Therefore, no one expected the amazing results that were obtained — contrary to all forecasts, most of the subjects obeyed the instructions of the scientist who led the experiment and were punished.” student” with electric shocks even after he started screaming and kicking the wall.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Several assumptions were made to explain the cruelty shown by the subjects.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subjects were hypnotized by the authority of Yale University.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

All subjects were men, so they had a biological tendency to act aggressively.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subjects did not understand how much harm, not to mention pain, could cause “students” such powerful electrical discharges.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subjects simply had a tendency to sadism and enjoyed the opportunity to cause suffering.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

All participants in the experiment were people who were prone to obey the authority of the experimenter and cause suffering to the subject, since the rest simply refused to participate in the experiment immediately or after learning its details without causing a single electric shock to the “apprentice”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Naturally, those who refused to participate in the experiment were not included in the statistics.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In further experiments, none of these assumptions were confirmed.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The results did not depend on the authority of the university


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram repeated the experiment, renting a room in Bridgeport, Connecticut, under the guise of the Bridgeport Research Association and abandoning any reference to Yale University.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The Bridgeport Research Association was a commercial organization.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The results changed slightly: 48% of the subjects agreed to reach the end of the scale.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subject's gender did not affect the results


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Another experiment showed that the sex of the subject is not decisive; female “teachers” behaved in the same way as men in Milgram's first experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

People were aware of the danger of electric current for the “student”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Another experiment explored the assumption that subjects underestimated the potential physical harm they caused to the victim.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Before starting an additional experiment, the “student” was instructed to declare that he had a heart condition and would not withstand severe electric shocks.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

During the experiment, the “student” would start shouting: “That's it! Let me out of here! I told you I had a heart condition. My heart is starting to bother me! I'm refusing to continue! Let me out!”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

However, the behavior of the “teachers” did not change; 65% of the subjects conscientiously performed their duties, bringing the tension to the maximum.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subjects were ordinary people


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The assumption that the subjects had a disturbed psyche (or a special tendency to obey) was also rejected as unfounded.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

People who responded to Milgram's announcement and expressed a desire to take part in an experiment to study the effect of punishment on memory were by age, profession and educational level average citizens.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Moreover, the answers of the subjects to the questions of special tests that allow assessing personality showed that these people were quite normal and had a fairly stable psyche.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In fact, they were no different from ordinary people, or, as Milgram said, “they are you and me.”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The test subjects weren't sadists


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The assumption that the subjects enjoyed the suffering of the victim, that is, were sadists, was refuted by several experiments.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

When the experimenter left and his “assistant” remained in the room, only 20% agreed to continue the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

When the subject was given the right to choose the voltage himself, 95% remained within 150.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

When instructions were given over the phone, obedience was greatly reduced (up to 20%).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At the same time, many subjects pretended to continue experimenting.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

If the subject was in front of two researchers, one of whom ordered to stop and the other insisted on continuing the experiment, the subject stopped the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Additional experiments


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In 2002, Thomas Blass of the University of Maryland published in the journal Psychology Today a summary of all repetitions of the Milgram experiment made in the United States (with an average result of 61%) and their limits (66%).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The minimum result was 28%, the maximum was 91%.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

No significant dependence on the year of the experiment was found.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

If Milgram is right and the participants in the experiment are ordinary people like us, then the question is, “What can make people behave like this?” — becomes personal: “What can make us do this?”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram is sure that we have a deep-rooted awareness of the need to obey authorities.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In his opinion, in his experiments, a decisive role was played by the inability of the subjects to openly resist the “boss” (in this case, a researcher dressed in a laboratory coat), who ordered the subjects to complete the task, despite the severe pain caused to the “student”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram makes strong arguments to support his assumption.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

It was obvious to him that if the researcher did not demand to continue the experiment, the subjects would quickly leave the game.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

They did not want to complete the task and suffered to see the suffering of their victim.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subjects begged the experimenter to let them stop, and when he did not allow them to do so, they continued to ask questions and press buttons.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

However, at the same time, the subjects were covered with perspiration, trembled, muttered words of protest and again begged for the release of the victim, grabbed their heads, clenched their fists so hard that their nails dug into their palms, bit their lips until they bleed, and some started laughing nervously.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Here is what the person who watched the experiment says:


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

I saw a solid businessman enter the lab, smiling and confident.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In his 20s, he was driven to a nervous breakdown.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

He trembled, stuttered, constantly pulled his earlobe and twisted his arms.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Once he punched himself on the forehead and muttered, “Oh, let's stop this.”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Nevertheless, he continued to react to every word of the experimenter and obeyed him unconditionally.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram conducted several additional experiments and, as a result, obtained data that even more convincingly showed the correctness of his assumption.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subject refused to obey a person of his rank


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Thus, in one case, he made significant changes to the scenario.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Now the researcher told the “teacher” to stop, while the victim bravely insisted on continuing the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The result speaks for itself: when only a subject like them demanded to continue, the subjects refused to issue at least one additional electrical discharge in 100% of cases.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In another case, the researcher and the second “subject” changed roles in such a way that the experimenter was tied to a chair.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At the same time, the second “subject” ordered the “teacher” to continue, while the researcher vigorously protested.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Again, not a single subject touched the button.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the event of a conflict of authorities, the subject ceased to act


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The propensity of the subjects to unconditional obedience to authorities was confirmed by the results of another version of the main study.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

This time, the “teacher” was faced with two researchers, one of whom ordered the “teacher” to stop when the victim begged for release, and the other insisted on continuing the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Contradictory orders confused the subjects.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Confused subjects looked from one researcher to another, asked both leaders to act in concert and give the same commands that could be done without hesitation perform.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

When the researchers continued to “quarrel” with each other, the “teachers” tried to understand which of the two of them was more important.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the end, not being able to obey authority, each “teacher” subject began to act on the basis of his best intentions, and stopped punishing the “student”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Other versions of the experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram additionally conducted experiments in the option when the “student” sits in the same room with the “teacher”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In this case, obedience diminished.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In another version of the experiment, also conducted by Milgram, the “student” was next to the “teacher” and “received” blows only if he pressed his hand against a metal plate.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

At 150, the “student” refused to put his hand to the plate, and in this case the experimenter demanded that the “teacher” hold the “student” by the hand and put his hand to the plate forcibly.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In this case, obedience was even less.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Thus, the victim's closeness has a reverse effect on obedience.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In other versions, one or two additional “teachers” also participated in the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

They were also played by actors.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the version where the “teacher” actor insisted on continuing, only 3 out of 40 stopped the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In another case, two “teachers” actors refused to continue the experiment — and 36 out of 40 did the same.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

When one experimenter was a “student” and demanded to stop the experiment, and another experimenter demanded to continue, 100% of the subjects stopped it.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

findings


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

According to Milgram, the data obtained indicate the presence of an interesting phenomenon: “This study showed an extremely pronounced willingness of normal adults to go unknown how far, following the authority's direction.”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Interpretations


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Milgram put forward two theories:


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The first of these is the theory of conformism, based on Asha's experiments, describing the fundamental relationship between the reference group and the individual.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The subject, without the ability or competence to make a decision, gives it to the will of the group and its hierarchy.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The second is the theory of subjectivity, according to Milgram, “the essence of submission is that a person comes to consider himself as a tool for fulfilling the wishes of another person, and therefore, no longer considers itself responsible for its actions. As soon as this critical shift in view occurs, it is followed by all the main signs of submission” [2].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Alternative interpretations


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In his book Irrational Exuberance, economist Robert Schiller argues that there are other factors that may be partly responsible for the outcome of the experiment:


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

[People] are used to the fact that if experts tell them everything is fine, it is likely that it is, even if it seems like it is not.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

(In fact, it's worth noting that the experimenter was really right in this case: everything was fine and it was possible to continue the electric shocks — although most subjects were unaware of the reason.) [3]


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the 2006 experiment, a computer avatar was in the place of a student receiving electric shocks.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Despite the fact that the participants in the experiment were aware that the student was unreal, the experimenters indicated in the report that their physiological reaction was “as if everything was real” [4].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Another explanation [5] of Milgram's results suggests the effect of persistent persuasion as the main reason.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

You can't rely on people to realize that seemingly benevolent power is actually malicious, even when faced with overwhelming evidence that power is really malicious.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Therefore, the main reason for the striking behavior of the subjects may well be speculative, and the alleged “ability of a person to abandon his humanity... as he attaches his a unique personality to a larger institutional structure” has nothing to do with it.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

This latest explanation gets some support from a 2009 episode in the BBC documentary series Horizon, which mentions a repetition of Milgram's experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Of the twelve participants, only three refused to continue the experiment until the end.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Speaking during the episode, social psychologist Clifford Stott discussed the impact that the idealism of scientific research had on volunteers.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

He noted: “The influence is ideological. We are talking about what, in their opinion, is a science, that science is a positive product, it gives useful results and knowledge that is useful for society. Thus, there is a feeling that science provides a system for the benefit” [6].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Based on the influence of idealism, some recent researchers have proposed the concept of an “engaged follower”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Based on an analysis of the Milgram archive, in a recent study, social psychologists Alex Haslam, Stephen Reicher, and Megan Birney of the University of Queensland found that people were less likely to obey the proposals of the lead experimenter when the proposals resemble an order.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

However, when the experimenter emphasizes the importance of the experiment to science (i.e., “The experiment requires you to continue”), people are more willing to obey [7].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Researchers suggest the concept of “engaged following”: people do not just obey the orders of the leader, but instead want to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and due to the lack of identification with the student [8].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Neurophysiological research also supports this concept, namely, observing a student who receives electricity blows does not activate the brain areas that control empathy in them [9].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Haggard study


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In 2015, Patrick Haggard of University College London and colleagues from the Free University of Brussels conducted a new study that complicated the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In the course of this experiment, which included the removal of EEG, it was found that a person disclaims responsibility for actions, regardless of the nature of the order submitted [10].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Repeating the experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In 2017, Polish social psychologists from the University of Social Psychology and Humanities Dariusz Dolinski, Tomasz Grzyb, Michal Folvazny, Patricia Grzybala, Karolina Krzzycha, Karolina Martinowska and Jakub Troyanovsky tried to repeat Milgram's experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The results of their work were published in the article “Would you cause an electric shock in 2015? Obedience in the experimental paradigm developed by Stanley Milgram for 50 years after original research” in a scientific journal [11].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The experiment involved 80 aged 18 to 69, the number of men and women was equal.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Half of the participants were offered to press ten different buttons for a fee, which allegedly were supposed to cause physical pain by means of electrical shocks of various voltages the other half of the subjects (in fact, none of the participants were subjected to electric shocks).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

As a result, it was found that almost 90% of the participants were ready to do this.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

It was also found that if the victim was a woman, the number of those who agreed to cause physical suffering decreased [12].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Mentions in popular culture


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“And... Like Icarus” is a French political detective film (1979)


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The Experimentator (2015)


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The play by V. S. Krasnogorov “A Cruel Lesson” [13]


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Peter Gabriel's song “We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)” (1986)


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Harry Potter and Methods of Rational Thinking by Eliezer Yudkovsky (fanfiction)


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

During the filming of his film Bruno, British comedian Sasha Baron Cohen decided to independently test Milgram's famous psychological experiment, remembering that Milgram tried to find out how far a person can enter in his actions under the influence of authority.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Before the interview, Sasha Baron Cohen suggested that singers Paul Abdul and La Toya Jackson use Mexican workers standing on all fours in the form of chairs, referring to the fact that allegedly actor Johnny Depp is also so did, and they would sit down [14].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The scene with Paula Abdul was included in the final cut of the film.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

1373 episode of “Footprint” “Secrets of the Brain”


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

In Vault 11 of “Fallout: New Vegas”, the main character learns that a similar experiment was previously conducted here, formally Milgram's experiment, which studied the measure of determination on submission to authority in the face of the Vault computer and later to the leaders of political blocs with subsequent struggle [15].


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

See also


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo Experiment)


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Asch's experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Ethology


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

The “Third Wave” Experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Dominance hierarchy


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Jane Elliott and her blue-eyed/brown-eyed exercise


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Notes


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Literature


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Blass, Thomas.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

(2004), The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Basic Books (ISBN 0-7382-0399-8).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Levine, Robert V., American Scientist.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

July-August, 2004.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Book review of “The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Thomas Blass.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

xxiv + 360 pp.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Basic Books, 2004.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Miller, Arthur G., (1986).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

“The obedience experiences: A case study of controversy in social science”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

New York: Praeger.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Parker, Ian, “Obedience”.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Issue 71, Autumn 2000.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Includes an interview with one of Milgram's volunteers, and discusses modern interest in, and scepticism about, the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Tarnow, Eugen, Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education and Research, 10 (1).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Wu, William,


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

(in English) is a magazine article by Milgram describing the experiment.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963, Vol.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

67, No.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

4, 371—378


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

References


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

(in English).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

(in English).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Zimbardo F.


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

(in English).


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Baker P. , magazine


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Sokolov M. M.//PostNauka, 11.06.2015


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Unknown parameter |datepublished= ignored (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Category:Psychological experiments


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Category:Social Psychology


Question: How many kids did Stanley Milgram have?

Milgram experiment

Category:Social experiments


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The legal state (German: Rechtsstaat) is a state whose all activities are subject to the norms of law, as well as [note 1] fundamental legal principles aimed at protecting dignity, freedom and human rights [1] [2] [3].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The subordination of the activities of supreme authorities to stable laws or court decisions is a distinctive feature of constitutional political regimes [4] [note 2].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The principle of compliance with the regulations of law by all its subjects, including persons or bodies in power, is called legality in Russian jurisprudence [5] and the rule of law (English: rule of law law) in common law countries [6].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

It should be borne in mind that in Russian jurisprudence there is also the term rule of law, which means the subordination of all by-laws and acts of law enforcement to the law [7].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The rule of law is one of the main components of the rule of law [8].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The idea of the rule of law, first of all, is the opposite of arbitrariness in all its varieties [9] [10]: the dictatorship of the majority, despotism, the police state, as well as the lack of law and order.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

This idea has a number of goals:


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Limitation and direction of the process of exercising power [1] [6].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The rule of law does not seek to belittle the importance of competence, authority, personal will and other qualities of leaders, but establishes a standard for the legitimacy of leadership methods [4].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The formation of a sense of certainty and legitimate expectations regarding the behavior of all subjects of law [11] [12].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Protection of established public ideas about morality, justice, freedom and equality, as well as protection of the dignity and rights of citizens according to these ideas [2] [13].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Some legal scholars [note 1] believe that this function is inseparable from ensuring a more complete realization of these values [8] [14].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The rule of law requires the following institutions:


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The imposition of penalties for offenses exclusively in accordance with published and clearly defined procedures and regulations [15] [16].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Equality before the law, so that all citizens receive the same protection under the law, and violators of law and order are subject to proportionate punishment, regardless of their political, social or economic situation [2] [6].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Existence of independent, effective, impartial and accessible courts, police and other law enforcement agencies [3] [17].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Performing the function of regulatory regulation of state actions by a legislative body separated from the executive branch [6].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

An important role is played by agreement among the ruling classes regarding the norms of political behavior, principles of conflict resolution and basic cultural values, including legality [9].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

There are two main concepts of the rule of law.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The formal interpretation is related to the theory of legal positivism and focuses on the effectiveness and predictability of legal procedures [13] [16].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The meaningful interpretation is related to the theory of natural law and raises the question of the fairness of the laws themselves, while proclaiming fundamental human rights as the highest value [14].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Principles


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The ideal of the rule of law is not tied to any national experience, and among the most important principles, legal scholars usually distinguish the rule of law, equality, compliance with the requirements of law, protection civil liberties.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

At the same time, the realization of this ideal in each country had many individual characteristics, due to different customs and their history.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The institutions of the rule of law also depend on the current tasks facing society.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The most successful models were such legal order models in which [9]:


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

courts are separated from other branches of government (executive and legislative) and isolated from external pressure;


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

court decisions are based on a reasonable interpretation of existing laws;


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

there are guarantees for a fair trial.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Board by law


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

The rule of law means that the law has the highest legal force, and all other legal acts and acts of law enforcement must comply with it.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

It follows that no official or authority, including the government, parliament and (under democracy) the people as a whole, may act outside the limits established by law [2] [ 15].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Legal regulations can be issued and amended only in accordance with existing legal or pre-agreed procedures.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

There must be legal and effective ways to force the government and any officials to comply with the law.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Rule by law is also an antithesis to a lack of law and order and lynching [3].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

One of the main tasks of the state is to ensure security, in particular, the state should be the only source of legitimate use of force [18].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Legal processes should be sufficiently strong and accessible, and the activities of law enforcement agencies should be effective.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Equality before the law


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Laws apply equally to everyone without exception, including those who issue laws [9].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Justice must not take into account the origin, power, wealth or social status of the persons before it.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

19] Courts that rule on ordinary citizens should have jurisdiction over all citizens. [19]


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Deviations from this norm in modern times are called “selective justice” [20] [21].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Generalization of legal norms.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Laws should formulate the conditions for their applicability in general terms, without referring to specific individuals, organizations or small social groups [16].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

They should not be issued for specific purposes if, under other circumstances, similar actions by the authorities would be illegal.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

However, in some cases, the requirement of generalization faces difficulties.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

For example, in social states, some norms apply to persons of clearly defined socio-economic status, and since part of society does not consider these laws justified, from the point of view critics, they are a form of legal discrimination [12].


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Equal access to the legal system.


Question: When did the term legal state appear?

The rule of law

Due to social inequality, some people have better access to resources to protect their interests and, therefore, better chances of winning a lawsuit [9].