Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— No. 8.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. On the concept of history/Transl. s him.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

and a comment.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

S. Romashko//New Literary Review.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 2000.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— No. 46.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. On some of Baudelaire's motives (excerpt) /Per. A. Maguna//Blue sofa.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— No. 1, 2002.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— P. 107—124.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. Paul Valerie//Vestnik Evropy.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 2002.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— No. 7—8.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. Surrealism.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

A snapshot of the current European intelligentsia /Transl. with him.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

AND. Boldyreva//New Literary Review.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 2004.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— No. 68.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. Historical and philosophical theses. Transl. s nem.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

IN. Bilenkina//Levaya Rossiya.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— No. 7 (20).


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— March 19, 2001.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. Moscow


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. The author as a manufacturer/Per. B.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Skuratov and I. Chubarov said.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin V. /Trans. c nem.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

AND. Boldyrev, ed.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

A. Glazovoy//Rhinoceros.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

#8 — 2018.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

C. 81-100.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Literature


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Tiedemann R., Studien zur Philosophie W. Benjamins, Fr.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

/M.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

, 1965.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Momme Brodersen: Walter Benjamin.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Leben, Werk, Wirkung.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

(= Suhrkamp BasisBiographie 4).


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2005, ISBN 3-518-18204-8.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Werner Full: Walter Benjamin.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Eine Biographie.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Rowohlt, Reinbek 1990, ISBN 3-499-12675-3


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Sven Kramer: Walter Benjamin zur Einführung.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Junius, Hamburg 2003, ISBN 3-88506-373-5


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Burkhardt Lindner (Hrsg.): Benjamin-Handbuch.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Leben — Werk — Wirkung.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Metzler, Stuttgart und Weimar 2006, ISBN 3-476-01985-3


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Detlev Schöttker: Konstruktiver Fragmentarismus.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Form und Rezeption der Schriften Walter Benjamins.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-518-29028-2


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Sigrid Weigel: Walter Benjamin.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Die Kreatur, das Heilige, die Bilder.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-596-18018-9


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Gershom Scholem: Walter Benjamin — die Geschichte einer Freundschaft.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main 1975, ISBN 3-518-01467-6


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Witte, B., 1991, Walter Benjamin: An Intellectual Biography, Detroit: Wayne University Press.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Wizisla, E., 2009, Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht: the Story of a Friendship, London: Libris.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Island H.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

, Jennings M. Walter Benjamin.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Critical life/Translation from English.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

N. Edelman.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

- M.: Publishing House “Delo” RANEPA, 2018.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

- 720 p. ISBN 978-5-7749-1291-9


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Arslanov V. G., “Left” version of the aesthetics of decline (V. Benjamin)//The myth of the death of art.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— Moscow: “Iskusstvo”, 1983.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— P. 42—141.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Yampolsky M. Singles community//


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Pavlov Ye.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Memory shock.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Autobiographical poetics by Walter Benjamin and Osip Mandelstam/Authoris.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

translated from English.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

A. Skidana.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— M.: New Literary Review, 2005


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Yermolenko V. Opovidach i philosof.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Walter Benjamin that yogo hour.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Kyiv: Criticism, 2011


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Pavlov Ye.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Memory shock: Autobiographical poetics by Walter Benjamin and Osip Mandelstam/Transl. from English.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 2nd ed.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— M.: New Literary Review, 2014.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 224 p. — (Scientific library).


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 1500 copies


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— ISBN 978-5-4448-0104-8


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Sholem G. Walter Benjamin is a story of a friendship.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— M.: Grundrisse, 2014.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— ISBN 978-5-904099-08-4


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Arendt Kh.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Walter Benjamin.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

1892—1940/Translation from English by B.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Dubina.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— M.: Grundrisse, 2014.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— 168 p. — ISBN 978-5-904099-09-01


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Rykov A. //Actual problems of theory and history of art: collection.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

scientific


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

articles.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Vol.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

/Ed.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

A. IN. Zakharova, S. IN. Maltseva.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— SPb.: NP-print, 2014.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— C. 381—391.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Rykov A. IN. Walter Benjamin//Rykov A.V.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Formalism.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Sociology of art.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Press, 2016.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Vitsisla E.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Benjamin and Brecht — a story of friendship/Transl. with him.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

ed.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

S. Romashko.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

— M.: Grundrisse, 2017.


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Notes


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

References


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Media related to Walter Benjamin at Wikimedia Commons


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

(in German)


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Category:Philosophers who committed suicide


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Category:Frankfurt School


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Category:Photography critics


Question: What language did Walter Benjamin write in?

Walter Benjamin

Category:Suicides who took poison


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The reforms of Peter the Great are transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter the Great in Russia.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

All the reformist activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods (stages): 1696—1715 and 1715—1725.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The peculiarity of the first stage was haste and not always thoughtful character, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In the second period, reforms were more systematic.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Some historians, for example V. O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that Peter the Great's reforms were only a natural continuation of the changes that took place during the XVII century.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Historians who analyzed Peter the Great's reforms adhere to different views on his personal participation in them.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

One group believes that both in drawing up the reform program and in the process of implementing them, Peter did not play the main role (which was attributed to him as king).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter the Great in carrying out certain reforms.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Public administration reforms


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

After visiting the West, Peter I was finally convinced of the need to Europeanize the country.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

This verdict, made by Peter, can be called the main result of all trips to European countries.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Upon arrival in Moscow, Peter began to introduce “Foreign Customs”, which is what the people called them.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As it seemed to ordinary citizens, Peter himself did not fully understand the essence of the reforms introduced by him.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Most of the indignation was caused by reforms related to clothing and appearance in general, which was the cost of the beard tax.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As Peter himself will later explain, he was driven by a great desire to make Russia at least outwardly similar to Europe as soon as possible, but due to the randomness, many did not share this idea, since there were loyal people who, looking at a misunderstanding of Peter's actions, stayed with him and supported him in every possible way.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the field of public administration.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The emergence of a new state institution or a change in the administrative-territorial administration of the country was dictated by the waging of wars, which required significant financial resources and mobilization of the population.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds for the reorganization and increase of the army, the construction of a fleet, and the construction of fortresses in St. Petersburg.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

From the first years, Peter's policy tended to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in governing the state.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1699, the Near Chancellery was organized under the tsar [1], and later the Concilias (Council) of Ministers met in its premises, which included up to 15 proxies who managed individual orders.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

This was a prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed in the year.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The last mention of the Boyar Duma (more precisely, about the “congresses of the boyars”) dates back to 1708: at this time, participants in the meetings of the “konziliums” could be called both “boyars” and “ministers” [2].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1708, a certain mode of operation has been established in Conselia: each minister had special powers, reporting and minutes of meetings appear.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1711, the Senate was established instead of the Boyar Duma and Concelia, which replaced it.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter formulated the main task of the Senate as follows: “To look at expenses throughout the state, and unnecessary, and especially in vain, to set aside. Collecting money, as much as possible, is the artery of war.”


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar went on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the colleges), gradually turned from temporary to a permanent higher government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, monitored the serviceability of the serving of military service by the nobles, and he was transferred the functions of the Discharge and Embassy orders.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Decisions in the Senate were made collectively, at a general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time placed personal responsibility on its members.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Simultaneously with the Senate, the post of fiscal officers appeared.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The duty of the chief fiscal officer under the Senate and fiscal authorities in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the Tsar.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, and in 1718 he was renamed Chief Secretary.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor, to whom prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Prosecutor General and his deputy chief prosecutor reported directly to the Tsar.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but their implementation required an administrative apparatus.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which 13 boards were created in parallel with the system of orders [3] with their vague functions according to the Swedish model — predecessors of future ministries.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Unlike orders, the functions and areas of activity of each board were strictly delimited, and relations in the board itself were based on the principle of collegiality of decisions.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The following were introduced:


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Collegium of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs replaced the Embassy Order, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Military Collegium (Military) — manning, arming, equipping and training of the ground army.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Admiralty Board — naval affairs, navy.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The patrimonial collegium replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, the search for fugitives were considered).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

It was founded in 1721.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Chamber Collegium is the collection of state revenues.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The State Office Board was in charge of state expenditures.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Audit Board — control over the collection and expenditure of public funds.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Board of Commerce — shipping, customs and foreign trade issues.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Berg Collegium — mining and metallurgical business (mining industry).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The manufactory collegium is a light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Justice Collegium was in charge of civil proceedings (the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts — deeds of sale, sale of fiefdoms, spiritual wills, debt obligations ).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

She was engaged in civil and criminal courts.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Spiritual Collegium, the Most Holy Governing Synod since 1721, managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch and the Councils of the Russian Orthodox Church.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

This collegium included representatives of the highest clergy.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and his decisions were approved, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular authorities were controlled by the chief prosecutor, a civil official appointed by the tsar.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By a special decree, Peter I ordered the priests to carry out an enlightenment mission among the peasants: to preach to them, instruct them, teach children prayers, and educate them in respect for the tsar and the church.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Little Russian Collegium exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

After the death in 1722 of Hetman I. AND. Skoropadsky new elections of the hetman were banned, and the hetman was first appointed by tsarist decree.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The board was headed by a tsarist officer.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since the year, the General Regulations have introduced a single system of records management in the state apparatus for the whole country.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

According to the regulations, the board consisted of the President, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Order (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

These institutions were under the authority of the emperor himself.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In addition, the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Chancellery operated.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The “first” collegiums were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

There were two institutions as collegiums: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The colleges were subordinate to the Senate, and to them - the provincial, provincial and district administrations.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The results of the management reform of Peter I are ambiguously considered by historians.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Regional reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1708—1711, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power on the ground and better provide the army with supplies and recruits.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares that united 5,536 yards.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The first regional reform did not solve the tasks set, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces led by voivods, and provinces into districts led by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Only military and judicial cases remained in charge of the governor.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Judicial reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Under Peter I, the judicial system underwent radical changes.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Senate and the Judicial Board received the functions of the Supreme Court.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Below them were: in the provinces - Gofgerichts, or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegial lower courts.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants, except monastic ones, as well as citizens not included in the settlements.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1721, the court cases of citizens included in the settlement were conducted by a magistrate.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In other cases, the so-called sole court acted (cases were decided alone by a zemstvo or city judge).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

However, in 1722, the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode [4] [5].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Judges were also separated from the administration.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Control over the activities of civil servants


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In order to monitor the implementation of decisions on the ground and reduce widespread corruption, a post of fiscal officers was established since 1711 to “secretly visit, report and denounce” all abuses, both senior and lower officials, prosecute embezzlement, bribery, and receive denunciations from individuals.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At the head of the fiscal authorities was the chief fiscal, who was appointed by the emperor and obeyed him.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The chief fiscal was a member of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscal officials through the fiscal table of the Senate Chancellery.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Reprisal Chamber, a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712—1719) [6] [7].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1719-1723, the fiscal authorities were subordinate to the Justice Board, and with the establishment in January 1722, the posts of Prosecutor General were under his supervision.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1723, the fiscal general appointed by the Tsar became the chief fiscal, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Judicial Board and regained departmental independence.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level [6] [7].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Military reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to a foreign model, began long before Peter the Great, under Alexei Mikhailovich.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

However, the combat capability of this army was low [8].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The reform of the army and the creation of the fleet became necessary conditions for the victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Preparing for war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and begin training military personnel (soldiers, dragoons, reitar, etc.) according to the model established by the Preobrazhentsy and Semyonovtsev.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

This first recruitment set gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1705, one recruit was to be put up for lifelong service every 20 yards.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Subsequently, recruits were taken from a certain number of male souls among peasants.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Recruitment to the Navy, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In addition to the organizational structure, Peter changed the material supply system of the army and did a lot to provide the army with domestic weapons.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Already at the height of the Northern War of 1700-1721, Peter opened many weapons factories, the most famous of which were the Tula Arms Plant and the Olonets Artillery Plant.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In terms of material support, Pyotr Alekseevich introduced uniform uniforms in the Russian army for land (green caftans and black hats) and cavalry troops (blue caftans and black hats).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

According to the Military Regulations of 1716, the supply of food was also standardized, and grocery stores were opened throughout the country.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

If at first there were mainly foreign specialists among the officers, then after the start of the navigation, artillery, engineering school, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from nobility.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1715, the Maritime Academy was opened in St. Petersburg.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, which strictly defined the service, rights and duties of military personnel.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As a result of the reforms, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand. (of which there were 2,600 in the guard, 41,560 in cavalry, 75,000 in the infantry, 14,000 in garrisons) and up to 110,000 irregular troops.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The fleet consisted of 48 battleships, 787 galleys and other vessels; there were almost 30,000 people on all ships [9]


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Church reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

One of the transformations of Peter the Great was the reform of church administration carried out by him, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy To the emperor.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received a new the title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

To manage the property of patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including their peasants (approximately 795,000), the Monastery Order headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of monastery peasants and control the income from church and monastic land holdings.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were decrees 24 and St.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the compilation of which was entrusted to the bishop of Pskov, close to Tsar Little Russia Feofan Prokopovich.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As a result, there was a radical reform of the church, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In Russia, the Patriarchate and the Synodality of the Russian Orthodox Church were abolished.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Spiritual Collegium was established at its first meeting, in 1721, renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern Patriarchs as an equal patriarch.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him when they took office.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

St.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Synod was the supreme body of public administration in its power equal to the Senate.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

On the spiritual part, he gave instructions to all lower institutions of the empire.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

St.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Synod and the Senate were demolished by the “Vedenya”.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Under Peter I, these bodies held joint conferences.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Wartime stimulated the withdrawal of valuables from monastery vaults.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter did not agree to the complete secularization of the church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Religious policy


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's era was marked by a tendency towards greater religious tolerance.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter terminated the “12 articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which the Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were to be burned at the stake.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

“Schismatics” were allowed to profess their faith, provided that the existing state order was recognized and taxes were paid in double the amount [10].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Full freedom of faith was granted to foreigners who came to Russia, and restrictions on communication between Orthodox Christians and Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Nevertheless, after an armed clash with the monastery brethren in the Polotsk Basilian Monastery on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which occurred during Vespers on July 11, 1705 and in which Four Uniates were mortally wounded, and Peter ordered one of the monks who denounced him to hang [11].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Financial reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent recruiting army created by Peter I required huge funds, to collect which financial reforms were aimed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At the first stage, it was all about finding new sources of funds.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Traditional customs and tavern levies were supplemented by fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes , tax on oak coffins, etc.), mandatory use of stamp paper, minting coins of lower weight (damage).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main currency was not money, but a penny.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

From now on, it began to be equal not to ½ money, but to 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At the same time, the irreplaceable ruble, which had been a conventional currency since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard in exchange transactions, was also abolished.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The most important measure in the course of the financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously existing household taxation.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1710, a “household” census was conducted, which showed a decrease in the number of yards.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

One of the reasons for this decrease was that in order to reduce taxes, several yards were covered with one wattle fence, and one gate was made (this was considered one yard in the census).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to a poll tax.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1718-1724, a second population census was carried out in parallel with the revision of the population (revision of the census), which began in 1722.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

According to this audit, 5,967,313 people were filed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Based on the data obtained, the government divided by the population the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As a result, the amount of the poll tax was determined: serfs of landowners paid 74 kopecks to the state, state peasants — 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay rent), the urban population — 1 ruble 20 kopecks.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Only men were taxed, regardless of age.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempt from the poll tax.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The soul was counting — between audits, the dead were not excluded from the filing lists, newborns were not included, and as a result, the tax burden was distributed unevenly.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

If in 1710 revenues extended to 3,134,000 rubles; in 1725 it was 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign information — up to 7,859,833 rubles).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Transformation in industry and commerce


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Realizing during the Grand Embassy the technical lag of Russia, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming the Russian industry.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In addition, the creation of its own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians [12].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Having started the Northern War with Sweden in order to gain access to the sea and proclaimed as a task the construction of a modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier in Azov), Peter was forced to build manufactories, designed to meet the dramatically increased needs of the army and navy.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms, sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempt from military service with children and craftsmen, were subject only to the court of the Manufactory Board, got rid of taxes and internal duties, and could do duty-free bring the tools and materials they needed from abroad, and their homes were freed from military standstill.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The first silver smelter in Russia was built near Nerchinsk in Siberia in 1704.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The following year, he won his first silver medal.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Significant measures have been taken for geological exploration of minerals in Russia.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on foreign countries in terms of raw materials, primarily Sweden (iron was transported from there), but after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other useful there is no need for iron purchases in the Urals.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1723, the largest iron-making plant in Russia was founded in the Urals, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, Nizhny Tagil were founded.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Arms factories (cannon yards, arsenals) appear in the Olonets Territory, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, and the leather and textile industries are developing in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and Left-Bank Ukraine, which was due to the need to produce equipment and uniforms for the Russian troops, silk spinning, the production of paper, cement, sugar appear factory and trellis factory.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1719, the Berg-Privilege was published, according to which everyone was given the right to search, melt, cook and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to payment of a “mining tax” of 1/10 of the cost of production and 32 shares in favor of the owner of the land where ore deposits were found.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

For concealing ore and trying to prevent mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment and even the death penalty “through the fault of watching”.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The main problem at Russian manufactories of that time was the lack of labor.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and villages were attributed to the manufactories, whose peasants worked out their taxes to the state at manufactories (such peasants will be called registered ), criminals and beggars were sent to factories.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed “merchant people” to buy villages whose peasants could be moved to manufactories (such peasants will be called possession peasants).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Trade has been further developed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the country's main port passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

River canals were being built.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In particular, Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshnevolotskaya water system) and Obvodny canals were built.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga-Don Canal failed (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, the working conditions were difficult, and mortality is very high [13].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Some historians describe Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and establishing increased duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of mercantilism).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced — high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or have already been produced by domestic enterprises.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to 233 [14], including about 90 were large manufactories [15].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Autocracy reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Before Peter I, the procedure for succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated by law in any way, and was entirely determined by tradition.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter I introduced a decree in 1722 on succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king will appoint “the most worthy” as his successor).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

This law was in force until the reign of Paul I.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter himself did not have time to use the law [16] [17].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Estate policy


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

As a result, a new structure of society has developed, in which the class character has been more clearly formed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of peasants was strengthened.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Nobility


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Key milestones:


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The unity of inheritance decree of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The rest were obliged to serve.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar patrimony, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

When reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of a personal nobleman.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in the public service.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Personal length of service mixed representatives of the former ancestral nobility with people raised by the service.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Military science, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but due to decrees on unity of inheritance and audit, he is responsible to the state for the tax serviceability of their peasants.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The nobility is obliged to study in order to prepare for service.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the gentry environment to people of other classes through the Report Card of Ranks.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

On the other hand, by the law on unity of inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility to merchants and clergy to those who wanted it.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic class, the rights of which are created and hereditarily determined by the civil service, and not by birth.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peasantry


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's reforms changed the situation of peasants.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom dependence on landowners or the church (black pine peasants of the north, non-Russian peoples, etc.), a new single category was formed state peasants — personally free, but paid rent to the state.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is wrong, since the population groups that made up state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Peter the Great period - they were attached to the ground (Cathedral Code of 1649) and could be granted by the king to individuals and churches as serfs.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to class bodies, etc.), but there were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the XIX century, when this category was finally established as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Legislative acts related to the serf peasantry proper were contradictory in nature.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Thus, the intervention of landowners in serf marriages was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to expose serfs instead of themselves as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the owner's debts [18].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The norm on the transfer to guardianship of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants was also confirmed [18], and slaves were given the opportunity to register as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom [19 ] (by decree of imp. Elizabeth of the Year serfs lost this opportunity).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall of 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were granted the right to move to posadas, exempt from serfdom (if the peasant is in such was) [20].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, landowners were allowed to recruit serfs.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By decree, it was allowed to cede, for unpaid debts of “local” serfs, which was actually a form of trade in serfs [20].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The taxation of slaves (that is, personal servants without land) by a poll tax led to the merger of slaves with serfs.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Church peasants were subject to the monastery order and removed from the power of monasteries.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created — peasants assigned to manufactories.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

These peasants in the XVIII century were called possession peasants.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By decree of 1721, nobles and merchants and manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work on them.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The peasants bought at the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to the production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work [21].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Urban population


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The urban population during the era of Peter the Great was very small: about 3% of the country's population [22].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The only major city was Moscow, which was the capital before Peter's reign.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Although in terms of development of cities and industry, Russia was much inferior to Western Europe, but during the 17th century they gradually grew.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The social policy of Peter the Great, concerning the urban population, pursued the provision of payment of poll taxes.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, artisans of workshops) and irregular citizens (all others).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The difference between the city regular man in the street at the end of Peter's reign and the irregular was that a regular citizen participated in the city administration by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or carried a monetary duty in a share that fell on him according to the public layout.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1722, craft shops according to the Western European model appeared.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The main purpose of their creation was to unite disparate craftsmen to produce products necessary for the army.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

However, the workshop structure in Russia did not take root.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

During the reign of Peter, the city management system changed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The governors appointed by the tsar were replaced by elected City Magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Magistrates collected taxes and performed judicial functions.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

These measures meant the development of city self-government [23].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Cultural transformations


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter changed the beginning of the chronology from the Creation of the World to the birth of Christ.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Byzantine 7208 was 1700 AD, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In addition, under Peter, a uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

After returning from the Grand Embassy, Peter I fought against the external manifestations of the “outdated” lifestyle (the most famous ban on beards), but no less drew attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper, called Vedomosti, was founded [24], and translations of many books into Russian are being published.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter made success in his service dependent on education for the nobles.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Under Peter in 1703, the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared (Arithmetic by Leonty Magnitsky).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Before that date, they were indicated by letters with titles (wavy lines).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified lettering (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), the two letters “xi” and “psi” were excluded.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter created new printing houses, in which 1,312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as much as in the entire previous history of Russian printing).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Due to the rise in printing, paper consumption increased from 4-8 thousand sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50 thousand sheets in 1719 [25].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

There have been changes in the Russian language, which includes 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages [26].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Academy of Sciences being organized (opened in 1725 after his death).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades).


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, the economy, but also art.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In the second quarter of the 18th century “Peter the Great's pensioners” began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

g. Peter issued a decree ordering to write names in petitions and other documents completely instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), do not fall on your knees in front of the tsar, in winter in the cold do not take off the hat in front of the house in which the king is located.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

He explained the need for these innovations as follows: “Less meanness, more diligence in service and loyalty to me and the state — this honor is characteristic of the king...” [27]


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724), he prohibited forced marriage and marriage.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between engagement and wedding, “so that the bride and groom could recognize each other.”


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

If during this time, the decree said, “the bride's groom does not want to take, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist, “to be freedom.”


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Since 1702, the bride herself (and not only her relatives) was granted the formal right to terminate the engagement and upset the consensual marriage, and neither party had the right “to pay a penalty with her brow to beat.”


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Legislative regulations of 1696—1704 on public celebrations introduced mandatory participation in celebrations and celebrations for all Russians, including “women” [28].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas developed among the nobility, which radically differed from the values and worldview of most representatives the rest of the classes.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Education reform


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter was clearly aware of the need for education and discussed this issue, including in 1698-1699 with Patriarch Adrian (this, among other things, was due to the fact that church schools were a serious part of education of that time) [29].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The Tsar took a number of decisive measures to reform this direction.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

A school of mathematical and navigation sciences was opened in Moscow.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural plants.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

The goals of mass education were to be digital schools created by decree from year [30] in provincial cities, designed to “teach children of all ranks literacy, cifiri and geometry.”


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In 1721, garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created to train priests.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

In the Senate, the emperor signed a ruling “on the Academy” and two days later he approved the draft regulations on the Academy of Sciences, the university and the gymnasium under it [29].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

According to Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory training of nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance from the nobles and was canceled.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools stopped after his death, most digital schools under his successors were converted into class schools for training of the clergy), but, nevertheless, during his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia [31].


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

See also


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Notes


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Literature


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Lebedev V. AND. Moscow; L., 1937—379 p.


Question: What was the reason for the beginning of Peter the Great's reforms?

Peter I's reforms

Category:Reforms of Peter I


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (also AML, acute non-lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia) is a malignant tumor of the myeloid blood germ in which altered white ones multiply rapidly blood cells.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

By accumulating in the bone marrow, they inhibit the growth of normal blood cells, which leads to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, platelets, and normal white blood cells.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The disease is manifested by fatigue, shortness of breath, frequent minor skin lesions, increased bleeding, frequent infectious lesions.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The clear cause of the disease is still unknown, but some risk factors have been identified.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

AML is an acute disease that develops rapidly and without treatment leads to the death of the patient in a few months, sometimes weeks.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

This is the most common type of acute leukemia in adults, and its incidence increases with age.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Although acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare disease, accounting for only 1.2% of malignant deaths in the US [1], it is expected to increase with aging of the population.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

There are several types of AML, the treatment and prognosis for them are different.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The survival rate for five years ranges between 15% and 70%, and the remission rate ranges from 78% to 33%, depending on the subspecies of the disease.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

At the beginning, AML is treated with chemotherapy drugs in order to achieve remission; then supportive chemotherapy may be performed, or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is performed.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Grading


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The most commonly used AML classification schemes are the long-standing Franco-American-British (FAB) system and the more modern system of the World Health Organization (WHO).


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

World Health System Classification of Acute Myeloid Leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The WHO classification system for acute myeloid leukemia is developed taking into account the FAB system and is aimed at more effective clinical use and takes into account the most prognostically significant signs diseases.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Each of the types (categories) of AML according to the WHO classification includes several subspecies (subcategories) of a descriptive nature of interest to hematologists and oncologists; however, most clinically important information in the WHO classification is linked through distribution to the subspecies listed below.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

WHO subspecies of acute myeloid leukemia: [2]


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

There are subspecies of acute leukemia in which altered white blood cells cannot be defined as lymphocytes or granulocytes, or when malignant cells of both germs are present.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Such leukemia is sometimes referred to as biphenotypic acute leukemia.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Franco-American-British Classification


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The Franco-American-British Classification (FAB) system divides AML into 9 subspecies, from M0 to M8, based on the types of cells that are precursors of leukocytes, and the degree of maturity of the altered cells.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Determination of malignant cells is carried out on the basis of external signs by light microscopy and/or cytogenetically, revealing underlying changes in chromosomes.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Different AML subspecies have different prognosis and response to treatment.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Despite the advantages of the WHO classification, the FAB system is still widely used.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

According to FAB, there are nine subtypes of AML.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Unusual phenotypes of acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The morphological subtypes of AML include many extremely rare subtypes not included in the FAB classification.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

All of them, with the exception of acute myeloid dendritic cell leukemia, are included in the WHO classification.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

These subtypes are listed below.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute basophilic leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute eosinophilic leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute mast cell leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid dendritic cell leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute panmyelosis with myelofibrosis


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Myeloid sarcoma.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia manifestations


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Most of the symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells by leukemia cells.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Insufficient formation of white blood cells causes a high susceptibility of the patient to infections - despite the fact that leukemic cells come from leukocyte precursors, the ability they do not have to resist infections.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

[3] Decreased red blood cell count (anemia) can cause fatigue, pallor, and shortness of breath.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

A lack of platelets can lead to mild skin damage and increased bleeding.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Early signs of AML are often vague and non-specific, and may be similar to those of influenza or other common diseases.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Some common symptoms of AML are fever, fatigue, weight loss or decreased appetite, shortness of breath, anemia, increased damage to the skin and mucous membranes and bleeding, petechiae (flat, the size of pinhead spots inside the skin at the site of hemorrhages), hematomas, bone and joint pain, and persistent or frequent infections.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

With AML, there may be an enlargement of the spleen, but it is usually minor and asymptomatic.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Lymph node enlargement in AML occurs infrequently, in contrast to acute lymphoblastic leukemia.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

In 10% of cases, skin changes develop in the form of cutaneous leukemia.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Occasionally, with AML, Sweet Syndrome occurs, which is also a paraneoplastic syndrome - inflammation of the skin around chloroma-affected areas.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Some AML patients develop swelling of the gums due to tissue infiltration by leukemia cells.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Occasionally, the first sign of leukemia is chloroma, a dense leukemic mass outside the bone marrow.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Sometimes the disease is asymptomatic, and leukemia is detected by a general blood test during a preventive examination.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The reasons


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

A number of factors were identified that contribute to the occurrence of AML — other disorders of the hematopoietic system, exposure to harmful substances, ionizing radiation, and genetic effects.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Pre-leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

“Pre-leukemia disorders of hematopoiesis, such as myelodysplastic syndrome or myeloproliferative syndrome, can lead to AML; the likelihood of disease depends on the form of myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative syndrome.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Exposure to chemicals


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Antitumor chemotherapeutic effects, especially alkylating substances, can increase the likelihood of AML in the future.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The highest chance of getting sick is 3-5 years after chemotherapy.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

[6] Other chemotherapeutic drugs, especially epipodophylotoxins and anthracyclines, also bind to post-chemotherapeutic leukemia.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

leukemia of this type is often explained by specific changes in the chromosomes of leukemia cells.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Occupational exposure to benzene and other aromatic organic solvents as a possible cause of AML remains controversial.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Benzene and many of its derivatives show carcinogenic properties in vitro.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Some observations confirm the possibility of occupational contact with these substances affecting the likelihood of developing AML, but other studies confirm that if there is such danger, it is only an added factor.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

[8] [9]


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Ionizing radiation


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Exposure to ionizing radiation increases the likelihood of developing AML.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb survivors have an increased incidence of AML, [10] as well as radiologists who received high doses of X-rays at a time when radiological protections were insufficient.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Genetic factors


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

There is probably a hereditary increased likelihood of having AML.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

There are a large number of reports of many familial cases of AML, where the incidence was above the average.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

[12] [13] [14] [15] The likelihood of developing AML in a patient's next of kin is three times higher.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

A number of congenital conditions can increase the likelihood of AML.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Most often, this is Down syndrome, in which the probability of AML is increased by 10 to 18 times.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Diagnostics


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Changes in the ratio of cellular elements in a general blood test are the first thing that suggests the possibility of AML.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The most common is leukocytosis, an increase in the total number of leukocytes, sometimes with the appearance of blast (immature) forms, but it happens that AML manifests itself as an isolated decrease in platelets, red blood cells, and the number of white blood cells may even be reduced (leukopenia).


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

[18] A preliminary diagnosis of AML can be determined if blast forms of leukocytes are detected in peripheral blood smears, but appropriate ones must be identified for a final diagnosis changes in the analysis of bone marrow aspiration biopsy specimen.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Bone marrow and blood are examined by light microscopy and flow cytometry to diagnose and differentiate AML from other leukemia, for example, from acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and to clarify the AML subtype.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

A blood or bone marrow sample is usually tested for the presence of chromosomal translocations using conventional cytogenenitic methods, or by fluorescent hybridization in situ.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Genetic studies are also carried out to identify characteristic mutations that can affect the outcome of the disease — for example, in FLT3, nucleoplasmin, or KIT.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Cytochemical dyes for blood and bone marrow smears are very useful for the differential diagnosis of AML and ALL, as well as for the isolation of AML subtypes.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The combination of myeloperoxidase or Sudanese black dye and non-specific esterase dye provides the necessary information in most cases.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Myeloperoxidase or Sudanese black reactions are most useful for diagnosing AML and differentiating it from ALL.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

Nonspecific esterase dye is used for monocytarone component of acute myeloid leukemia and for differentiation from the immature form of monoblastic leukemia from ALL.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

The diagnosis and classification of AML can be a difficult task, this should be done by a qualified hematopathologist or hematologist.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

In obvious cases, the presence of some characteristic morphological features, such as Auer bodies, or AML-specific results of flow cytometry make it possible to reliably separate AML from others leukemia; however, in the absence of such obvious signs, the diagnosis is significantly complicated.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

In accordance with widely used WHO classification criteria, the diagnosis of AML is established if it is proved that more than 20% of cells in the blood and/or bone marrow are myeloblasts.


Question: Who was the first to describe acute myeloid leukemia?

Acute myeloid leukemia

[21] AML should be carefully differentiated from so-called preleukemia conditions, in particular myelodysplastic syndrome or myeloproliferative syndrome, which are treated differently.