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1. Under these conditions, the Seimas considers itself authorized to conclude an agreement with Turkey.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

2. Starting negotiations with Turkey, the Seimas aims to conclude a final truce.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

3. The Peace Treaty should be based on the principle of restoring the Russian-Turkish borders of 1914, by the time the war broke out.


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First Republic of Armenia

4. The delegation should try to acquire the rights to self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Anatolia, in particular, autonomy for Armenians within Turkey.


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First Republic of Armenia

While positions were being coordinated in the Seimas, the Turks, having broken the three-day resistance of a few Armenian volunteers, captured Ardagan with the help of the local Muslim population.


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First Republic of Armenia

Armenian troops and refugees from Erzurum began to retreat.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

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a retreating crowd of thousands reached Sarykamysh.


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With the fall of Erzerum, the Turks actually regained control over the whole of Western Armenia.


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The commander of the Armenian corps, General Nazarbekov, was appointed commander of the front from Oltu to Maku; the Oltu-Batum line was to be defended by Georgian troops.


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First Republic of Armenia

Nazarbekov commanded 15,000 people at the front with a length of 250 km.


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Trebizond talks


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the delegation of the Transcaucasian Seimas, headed by A. Chkhenkeli, arrived in Trabzon, where she was kept on a ship for several days, not allowed to disembark due to the absence of the Turkish delegation.


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The peace conference has only begun.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On March 3, Turkey signed the Brest Peace Treaty with Soviet Russia.


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According to Art.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The IV Brest Peace Treaty and the Russian-Turkish Supplementary Treaty, Turkey was transferred not only the territories of Western Armenia, but also the regions of Batumi, Kars and Ardahan inhabited by Georgians and Armenians, annexed by Russia as a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877—1878.


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The RSFSR undertook not to interfere “in the new organization of state, legal and international legal relations between these districts”, to restore the border “as it existed before the Russian-Turkish war of 1877—78”, and dissolve all Armenian volunteer squads on its territory and in the “occupied Turkish provinces” (that is, in Western Armenia).


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First Republic of Armenia

The course of the Trebizond talks was decisively influenced by the balance of forces in the region: Turkey, which has just signed a peace treaty with Russia on the most favorable terms and has actually returned to the borders 1914, demanded that the Transcaucasian delegation recognize the conditions of the Brest Peace.


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The Transcaucasian delegation, claiming independence and rejecting the Brest Treaty, expected to conclude a separate peace with Turkey on more favorable terms — the restoration of state borders in 1914 years and self-determination for Eastern Anatolia within the framework of Turkish statehood.


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Based on military superiority, the Turkish side refused to even discuss these requirements.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Already at this stage, serious disagreements were revealed between the national parties of Transcaucasia on the question of which territories Transcaucasia could cede to Turkey.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

When did the head of the Transcaucasian delegation A. AND. Taking into account the ongoing offensive of the Turkish troops, Chkhenkeli expressed readiness to compromise both on the territorial issue and the fate of Turkish Armenians, the Turkish delegation presented one after another, two ultimatums demanding recognition of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty and the proclamation of the independence of Transcaucasia.


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First Republic of Armenia

The consent finally received did not satisfy the Turks, who, inspired by military victories, intended to cross the Russian-Turkish border of 1877—1878 and move hostilities deep Transcaucasia.


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The Seimas interrupted negotiations and recalled the delegation from Trabzon, officially entering the war with Turkey.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

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At the same time, representatives of the Azerbaijani faction in the Seimas openly stated that they would not participate in the creation of a common union of the Transcaucasian peoples against Turkey, given their “special religious ties with Turkey”.


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First Republic of Armenia

Meanwhile, the Turks occupied Batum without a fight, capturing part of the Georgian troops defending it.


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It became known that Muslims of Adjara and Akhaltsikhe joined the attackers.


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First Republic of Armenia

Georgian units were forced to retreat under the onslaught of the regular Turkish army, even when the Turks occupied Georgian territories — Guria and Ozurgeti — and reached the approaches to Kars.


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Transcaucasian Federation


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First Republic of Armenia

It should be clear to you that under the current conditions, the declaration of independence of Transcaucasia is nothing more than becoming a slave to Turkey.


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First Republic of Armenia

Independent Transcaucasia will not only fail to bring peace with Turkey, not only will it not improve our situation, but will also put chains of slavery on us.


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First Republic of Armenia

The Georgian delegation, however, considered the break with Soviet Russia and the declaration of independence as an opportunity to reach a peace agreement with Turkey.


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At the same meeting, the resignation of the government of Y.


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P. Gegechkori.


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First Republic of Armenia

The new government was instructed to form A. AND. Chkhenkeli.


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First Republic of Armenia

The new government sent an order to the Transcaucasian (Armenian) troops occupying positions in the Kars area to conclude a truce.


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The commander of the Armenian corps, General Nazarbekov, ordered the commander of the 2nd Division, General Silikov, and the head of the Kars fortress, General Deev, to stop hostilities and begin negotiations with the Turks on establishing a demarcation line.


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First Republic of Armenia

The commander of the Turkish troops, at the request of the Armenian side for a ceasefire, demanded to withdraw Armenian troops to a considerable distance from the fortress before the start of negotiations and allow Turkish troops enter the city without hindrance.


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From Tiflis, Armenian troops received an order to immediately stop hostilities and accept the conditions of the Turkish side.


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Armenian troops left Kars together with the city's 20,000 population.


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At 9 pm, the 11th Turkish Division entered Kars.


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Despite the fact that the Transcaucasian government fulfilled all the requirements of the Turkish side, the Turks continued the offensive, and the Armenian division, under their onslaught, retreated to Alexandropol (modern name — Gyumri).


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First Republic of Armenia

Despite the sharp protests of the Armenian National Council and the resignation of Armenian representatives in the Chkhenkeli government in connection with the surrender of Kars, Chkhenkeli remained in his post and began to prepare for new negotiations with Turkey.


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The peace conference opened in Batumi on 11 May.


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The talks, which lasted from May 11 to 26, revealed sharp foreign policy differences between the Armenian, Georgian and Muslim national councils, which eventually led to the creation of separate nation-states.


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First Republic of Armenia

At the negotiations, Turkey presented even more difficult conditions than provided for by the Brest-Litovsk Treaty — Transcaucasia was to cede the Batumi District, two-thirds of the territory of the Erivan province to Turkey, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki districts of Tiflis province, as well as control over the Transcaucasian railway (Kars-Alexandropol and Alexandropol-Julfa railways).


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Even Turkey's German allies have protested against its extensive expansionist plans.


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As German official representative in Tiflis, General von Lossow, reported to Berlin on May 12:


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Turkey has lost its sense of proportion and has crossed all reasonable borders.


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It demands purely Armenian provinces of Akhalkalak, Alexandropol and parts of Yerevan province, which blatantly violates the Brest-Litovsk Treaty.


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First Republic of Armenia

They intend to completely destroy the Armenians of Transcaucasia.


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Tonight they presented an ultimatum to Transcaucasia to allow Turkish troops to pass through Alexandropol to Julfa, and they did not tell me anything about this.


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I protested about this.


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On the night of May 14-15, Turkey presented an ultimatum on the surrender of Alexandropol and the withdrawal of Armenian troops from the city at a distance of 25 km.


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At 6 pm on May 15, the Turks launched artillery shelling of the city and at the same time went on the offensive.


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Armenian troops left Alexandropol and retreated in two directions: the 2nd Division - south to Sardarapat, and the detachment under the command of General Andranik Ozanyan - to Jalalogly.


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First Republic of Armenia

Meanwhile, panic reigned in Tiflis.


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Hundreds of thousands of refugees from Western Armenia, fearing for their lives if Turkish troops occupy Tiflis, continued to flee north, towards Vladikavkaz.


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On May 24, the Terek-Dagestan government closed the border to them as a result of a massive influx of refugees.


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First Republic of Armenia

In this situation, the Georgian National Council appealed for help and patronage to Germany.


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First Republic of Armenia

The German command willingly responded to this appeal, since Germany signed a secret agreement with Turkey on the division of spheres of influence in Transcaucasia back in April 1918, according to which Tiflis and Kutaisi provinces were already in the sphere of influence of Germany.


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German representatives advised the Georgian National Council to immediately declare independence and officially ask Germany for patronage in order to avoid a Turkish invasion and deaths.


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First Republic of Armenia

On May 19, General von Lossow offered his mediation services to the Transcaucasian delegation at the Batumi talks.


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First Republic of Armenia

On May 20, representatives of the Armenian National Council A. Ohanjanyan and A. Zohrabyan, who appealed to von Lossov on May 22 with a request for the patronage of the German government over Armenia.


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First Republic of Armenia

With the fall of Kars and Alexandropol, Armenia was completely cut off from the outside world.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The routes to escape from the advancing Turkish troops were blocked.


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First Republic of Armenia

In this situation, it was possible to choose only between death and incredible tension of all forces of society to win.


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First Republic of Armenia

On May 21, the Turks from the west reached the approaches to Sardarapat, and on May 22, they seized the Amamlu station in the north-west, from where they opened the road to Yerevan.


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In the period from May 21 to May 28, Armenian regular troops and militias managed to stop the Turks near Karaklis and Bash-Abaran, and in the Battle of Sardarapat, Turkish troops were completely defeated and forced retreat to Alexandropol.


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First Republic of Armenia

Meanwhile, on May 24, von Lossow told the Transcaucasian delegation that Turkey had refused to mediate him, and on May 25 said that he had learned from reliable sources about the collapse of the Transcaucasian Republic , which made his presence in Batumi meaningless and then left Batum.


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As it turned out, on May 24-25, at a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Georgian National Council, the German proposal for patronage was adopted.


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First Republic of Armenia

On May 25, German troops landed in Georgia.


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On May 26, the Transcaucasian Seimas announced its dissolution.


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The decision of the Seimas stated:


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In view of the fact that fundamental differences between the peoples who created the Transcaucasian Independent Republic were revealed on the issue of war and peace, and therefore it became impossible for one authoritative authority to act, speaking on behalf of Transcaucasia, the Seimas states the fact of the disintegration of Transcaucasia and resigns its powers.


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On the same day, Khalil Bey, the head of the Turkish delegation at the Batumi talks, presented his latest ultimatum to the Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani delegations, each separately.


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Declaration of independence


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Georgia (Democratic Republic of Georgia) declared its independence on May 26, and Azerbaijan (Azerbaijan Democratic Republic) on May 28.


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First Republic of Armenia

On the same day, the Armenian National Council in Tiflis declared itself “the supreme and sole authority of the Armenian counties” and sent a delegation to Batumi to sign a peace treaty with Turkey.


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On May 29, at a joint meeting of the Western and Eastern Bureaus of the Dashnak Party, Hovhannes Kachaznuni was appointed Prime Minister of Armenia (headed the government until August 1919), and the capital of the state Erivan was chosen.


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By that time, military and civil administration was already operating here under the leadership of Aram Manukyan, representative of the Armenian National Council.


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First Republic of Armenia

The victories won by the Armenian army near Sardarapat, Bash-Abaran and Karaklis made it possible to suspend the advance of the Turks for a certain time, but in conditions when Turkish troops were in in the immediate vicinity of Yerevan and occupied a significant part of the Armenian territory, Armenia was forced to sign a peace agreement with the Turks.


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First Republic of Armenia

On May 30, negotiations between the Armenian and Turkish delegations began in Batumi, which ended on June 4 with the conclusion of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship between the Ottoman Imperial Government and the Republic of Armenia.


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Turkey recognized the independence of Armenia within the territory controlled by the Government of the Republic of Armenia by that time — it was limited to Erivan and Etchmiadzin counties, which was 12,000 km² with a population of approx.


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1 million people (including refugees).


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

In addition to Kars and Ardahan, Surmalinsky, Sharur, Nakhichevan districts, most of the Etchmiadzin and Alexandropol districts also ceded to Turkey.


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First Republic of Armenia

In July, the Government of the Republic of Armenia was formed.


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First Republic of Armenia

Most of the ministerial posts were occupied by representatives of the Dashnaktsutyun party.


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First Republic of Armenia

On August 1, the parliament, formed mainly from members of the Tiflis and Erivan National Councils, began its work.


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First Republic of Armenia

The first parliament consisted of 45 deputies (Dashnaktsutyun — 18, Social Revolutionaries — 6, Social Democrats — 6, Armenian People's Party — 6, independent — 9).


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First Republic of Armenia

From June to October 1918, the Republic of Armenia was essentially under Turkish control.


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First Republic of Armenia

On October 30, Great Britain and Turkey signed the so-called Mudros Armistice, which marked the defeat of Turkey in the First World War.


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First Republic of Armenia

It, in particular, provided for the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Transcaucasia.


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First Republic of Armenia

In November, Turkey notified Armenia that its troops were leaving territories located outside the borders designated by the Brest Peace Treaty.


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In November, Armenian troops entered Karaklis, and in early December — in Alexandropol.


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First Republic of Armenia

The Turks offered to occupy the Akhalkalaki and Borchalinsky districts of the former Tiflis province with a mixed Armenian-Georgian population to the Armenian government, which they liberate, and the Germans to the Georgian government.


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First Republic of Armenia

The withdrawal of German and Turkish troops led to an aggravation of relations between Armenia and Georgia and Azerbaijan due to disputed territories with a mixed Armenian-Georgian and Armenian-Azerbaijani population.


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First Republic of Armenia

Georgia claimed the entire territory of Borchaly County, Azerbaijan — Karabakh and Zangezur.


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On December 9-31, an armed conflict took place with Georgia.


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It was settled in January 1919 with the mediation of Great Britain - under an agreement signed in Tiflis, before the decision of the Supreme Council of the Entente on the issue of the borders between Georgia and Armenia, the northern part of Borchalinsky district was transferred to Georgia, the southern part to Armenia, and the middle part (in which the Alaverdi copper mines were located) was declared a “neutral zone” and administratively subordinate to the British general -to the governor.


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First Republic of Armenia

See also the article History of Nagorno Karabakh.


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First Republic of Armenia

1919 year


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Hoping for a solution to the problem of Western Armenia with the help of the Entente, the Armenian government sent a delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in February 1919.


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First Republic of Armenia

It consists of A. Aharonyan, M. Papajanyan and A. Ohanjanyan.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On May 14, 1919, the Paris Conference decided to transfer the mandate for Armenia to the United States of America.


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First Republic of Armenia

The Armenian government prepared the necessary materials and handed them over to the representative of the US President, General J.


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First Republic of Armenia

Harboard, but the US Senate, after a long discussion, rejected US President Woodrow Wilson's proposal to accept a mandate for Armenia.


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First Republic of Armenia

Having overcome the opposition of the command of British troops in Transcaucasia, the Armenian government in April-May 1919 established control over Kars, Olta, Kagyzman.


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First Republic of Armenia

In May, Sharur and Nakhichevan were annexed to Armenia.


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First Republic of Armenia

Thus, the Russian-Turkish border of 1914 was almost completely restored.


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First Republic of Armenia

On May 28, the Government of the Republic of Armenia declared Armenia a “united and independent republic”, stating that “in order to restore the integrity of Armenia and ensure the full freedom and well-being of the people The Armenian government, in accordance with the common will and desire of the entire Armenian people, declares that from now on, the disparate parts are forever united into an independent state union.”


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First Republic of Armenia

Twelve deputies representing Western Armenians have been added to the Parliament of the Republic of Armenia.


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First Republic of Armenia

In May, Armenian troops began hostilities against the Arak Republic, proclaimed by Azerbaijanis in Nakhichevan.


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First Republic of Armenia

This is how the Armenian-Azerbaijani war began.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

In June 1919, on the basis of direct and universal suffrage, a new parliament of 80 deputies was elected (Dashnaktsutyun — 72, Social Revolutionaries — 4, independent — 1, Muslims — 3).


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First Republic of Armenia

From August 1919 to May 1920, the government was headed by A. Khatisov, in May-November 1920 — A. Ohanjanyan, November 28 — December 2, 1920 — S. Vratsyan.


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First Republic of Armenia

1920 year


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First Republic of Armenia

Contacts with the Entente


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First Republic of Armenia

The Government of the Republic of Armenia sought a solution to the problem of Turkish Armenia through the intensification of international contacts, trying, first of all, to enlist the patronage of the Entente.


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First Republic of Armenia

On January 19, 1920, the Supreme Council of Allies recognized the Government of the Republic of Armenia de facto, which allowed Armenia to send plenipotentiary representatives to a number of foreign countries (Germany, France, USA, Italy, Iran, Georgia, Azerbaijan, etc.).


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First Republic of Armenia

In April 1920, a conference of the allied countries was convened in Sanremo (Italy), which, with the participation of the Armenian delegation, was to develop the terms of a peace treaty with Turkey.


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First Republic of Armenia

Contacts with the RSFSR


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First Republic of Armenia

Since the spring of 1920, the leadership of Soviet Russia has taken an active part in the search for ways to normalize Armenian-Turkish relations.


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First Republic of Armenia

In May-July, representatives of the NKID of the RSFSR held talks in Moscow with an Armenian delegation headed by poet Leon Shant.


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First Republic of Armenia

These negotiations, however, came to an impasse due to the fact that the territorial claims of the Dashnak government (Erzurum, Lazestan, Trabzon and several Turkish vilayets) were recognized as excessive, especially at the same time, representatives of the Kemalists, who considered Soviet Russia as an ally in the fight against the imperialist Entente, entered into contacts with the Soviet government - these contacts were were established through Azerbaijan, where, as it later became known, “a group of their adherents facilitated the coup and the invitation of Russian troops by the revolutionary Azerbaijani government”.


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First Republic of Armenia

During negotiations with both Armenian (Leon Shant) and Turkish (General Khalil Pasha, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Kemalist government Bekir Sami Bey, etc.) representatives of the Soviet government put forward the “principle of ethnographic border” based on national relations that existed before the First World War and proposed “to carry out mutual resettlement in order to create both sides have a homogeneous ethnographic territory.”


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First Republic of Armenia

These proposals, however, did not succeed.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Establishment of Soviet power in Azerbaijan


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First Republic of Armenia

Soviet power was established in Baku at the end of April 1920.


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First Republic of Armenia

At the end of April and the first half of May, the forces of the 11th Army of the Red Army and with the assistance of the Turkish Kemalists established Soviet power almost throughout Azerbaijan, including in Karabakh, from where regular Armenian troops have been withdrawn.


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First Republic of Armenia

Establishment of Soviet power in Nakhichevan


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First Republic of Armenia

Units of the 11th Army of the Red Army, which entered Azerbaijan, in cooperation with Azerbaijani troops, repeatedly tried to establish control over Zangezur, but the Armenian militia led by Nzhdeh repulsed all these attempts.


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First Republic of Armenia

Nevertheless, in early July, units of the 11 Army were able to break through the corridor in the direction of Nakhichevan.


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First Republic of Armenia

At the same time, a group of Armenian troops under the command of General Baghdasarov was moving to Nakhichevan from Erivan.


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First Republic of Armenia

However, on July 2, the Armenian army came across the 9,000 corps of the Turkish army under the command of Javid Bey, which marched to the districts of Nakhichevan, Julfa and Ordubad.


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First Republic of Armenia

The advanced units of the corps, numbering 3 thousand bayonets, reached Shakhtakhtov and Nakhichevan.


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First Republic of Armenia

Having established interaction with Turkish troops, Soviet troops took control of the areas of Ordubad, Julfa and Nakhichevan.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The offensive of the Armenian troops on Nakhichevan was blocked, on the one hand, by the offensive operations of the Red Army, on the other hand, by a massive attack by Turkish troops.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On July 28, the Nakhichevan Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in Nakhichevan.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On August 10, a ceasefire agreement was signed between Armenia and the RSFSR, which consolidated the stay of Soviet troops on a temporary basis in the disputed territories — Zangezur, Karabakh and Nakhichevan (under control Shahtakhty and the whole of Sharur remained).


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The leadership of the Nakhichevan Revolutionary Committee stated that the population of the region recognizes Nakhichevan as “an integral part of the Azerbaijan SSR”.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The Russian delegation of Soviet Russia headed by Boris Legran, Plenipotentiary Envoy of the RSFSR to the Republic of Armenia, arrived in Erivan to continue negotiations.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Treaty of Sevres


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On August 10, 1920, in the city of Sèvres (France), as a result of negotiations between the Entente countries and the states that joined them (including the Republic of Armenia), on the one hand, and the Sultan Turkey, on the other hand, signed the Sevres Peace Treaty, according to which, in particular, Turkey recognized Armenia as a “free and independent state”.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Turkey and Armenia agreed to obey US President Woodrow Wilson on arbitration of borders within the vilayets of Van, Bitlis, Erzurum and Trabzon and accept his terms regarding Armenia's access to Black sea (via Batumi) [7].


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

(According to the decision of the American President sent to the European powers in November 1920 on the basis of the results of the work of a special commission, Armenia was to receive two-thirds of the territory Van and Bitlis Vilayets, almost the entire Erzurum vilayet and most of the Trabzon vilayet, including the port - in total, about 100 thousand km²).


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The Turkish Grand National Assembly, however, refused to ratify the treaty signed by the Sultan's representatives.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The Kemalists were not going to recognize the terms of the agreement under which they would have to give Armenia part of the ancestral Turkish territory established by the National Turkish Pact — moreover, in their understanding originally Turkish lands included not only Western Armenia, but also at least half of the territory controlled by the Republic of Armenia in August 1920 (the entire territory west of the Russian - Turkish border established after the war of 1877—1878).


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Armenia could achieve the fulfillment of the terms of the Sevres Peace Treaty only by winning another war, but the forces of the parties were clearly unequal.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

During this period, Armenia had an army, the number of which did not reach even 30,000 people.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

It was opposed by the Turkish army numbering 50 thousand people under the command of Kazim Pasha Karabekir.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

In addition to regular troops, Karabekir could count on numerous irregular armed formations that were also ready to fight against Armenians.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

As for the Armenian army, which was considered the most trained and disciplined in Transcaucasia, it was mentally and physically exhausted as a result of participating in almost non-stop since 1915 wars.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

As subsequent events showed, Armenia could not count on serious foreign policy support, while the Kemalists benefited from diplomatic and military assistance from Soviet Russia and Azerbaijan SSR [8].


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

A new Turkish-Armenian war could have been avoided if Armenia managed to conclude a military alliance with Georgia aimed at jointly protecting the independence and territorial integrity of the Transcaucasian republics from Turkish and Soviet expansion.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

In mid-August, the Armenian government, under the influence of the new British High Commissioner to Transcaucasia, Claude Bayfield Stokes, took some steps in this direction, but the authorities of Armenia and Georgia could not overcome the existing differences between them, which was also hampered by the activity of Turkish diplomacy in Tiflis [8].


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Armenian-Turkish war


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On September 20, Armenian troops numbering about.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

30,000 people entered Turkish Armenia and occupied the city of Olta.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On September 24, large-scale hostilities began - Turkish troops under the command of Kazim Karabekir Pasha, repelling the attack of the Armenian troops, on September 28, moved the main forces (up to 50 thousand people) to counteroffensive along the entire front and defeated weakly armed Armenian troops.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On September 29, the Turkish army occupied Sarykamish and Kagyzman, and on September 30 - Merdenek.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On October 8, the Armenian government appealed to “the entire civilized world” with a request to take measures to stop the Turkish offensive.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

However, the army of Karabekir Pasha, developing the offensive, captured Kars on October 30, Alexandropol on November 7, developing an offensive on Erivan.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Having lost two-thirds of the pre-war territory of Armenia in two months, the Dashnak government was forced to conclude a truce on November 18, and on December 2, Armenia and Turkey signed the Alexandropol Treaty, according to which the territory of Armenia was reduced to Erivan and Gokchi (Lake Sevan) districts, the number of the Armenian army was limited to 1.5 thousand people, and its armament was limited to 20 machine guns and 8 guns [9].


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The Alexandropol Peace Treaty was signed by the Dashnak government, which actually no longer had power.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On December 2, an agreement was signed in Erivan between the RSFSR and the Republic of Armenia, according to which Armenia was proclaimed a Soviet republic.


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

The government of the Armenian SSR refused to recognize the Alexandropol Peace


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

On October 13, 1921, with the participation of the RSFSR, the Kars Treaty was signed, which finally established the Soviet-Turkish border [10].


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Notes


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

References


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Category:States in the history of Armenia


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Category:1918 in Armenia


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Category:1919 in Armenia


Question: Who was the first ruler of the “First Republic of Armenia”?

First Republic of Armenia

Category:1920 in Armenia


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

The languages of Spain are languages spoken in the Kingdom of Spain, with or without official status.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Spain is a multi-ethnic country.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

In addition to the Castilians, Catalans, Galicians, Basques, Occitans, Asturians, Aragonese live in Spain, who speak their own languages (Catalan, Galician, Basque, Occitan, respectively, Asturian and Aragonese).


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

The Catalan dialect is spoken by Valencians (officially considered Valencian language).


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Catalan is also spoken by residents of the Balearic Islands.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

During the Franco regime, ethnic minorities were subjected to forced assimilation, but despite this, the languages of these peoples have not disappeared and have experienced a real revival in recent decades.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

The Aragonese language, which has survived only in a few rural settlements, has almost disappeared.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

The Basques in the province of Navarra experienced strong assimilation, but the Basque language has a strong position in the Basque Country.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

The Asturian language is also being revived (variants of names depending on the locality: Asturleon, Asturian, Leon, Extremadura), which is found in the autonomous communities of Asturias, Castile and Leon, Extremadura, Cantabria.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

See also


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Spanish language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Galician language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Catalan language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Basque language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Asturian language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Valencian language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Aragonese language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Aran language


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Notes


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Literature


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

Shishmarev V. F. Essays on the history of Spanish languages.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

— M.-L.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

, 1941.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

— 2nd ed.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

— M.: Editorial URSS, 2002.


Question: How many official languages does Spain have?

Languages in Spain

— 344 p. — (History of languages of the peoples of Europe).


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Elephant (English: Elephant) is the tenth feature film by independent American director and screenwriter Gus Van Sant in 2003.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Elephant is the second film in Van Sant's Death Trilogy (the first is Jerry (2002), the third is The Last Days (2005)).


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In general terms, following the events at Columbine School, the director took students from schools in his native Portland as actors.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Continuing Jerry not only thematically, but also artistically, Elephant is made in a minimalist style: long plans are used, there is almost no musical accompaniment, and very few dialogues.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

This relatively low-budget film was first shown at the 56th Cannes Film Festival and won the author the Palme d'Or, and subsequently several more prizes.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

At the end of the decade, the French magazine Caye du Cinema recognized Elephant as the best film after Mulholland Drive [1].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The plot


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The narrative in the film is non-linear.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The plot is described in the order in which the events are shown in the film.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The action takes place in the suburbs of Portland, Oregon, USA [note 1] [2].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Mr. McFarland (Timothy Bottoms) takes his son John (John Robinson) to school by car.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

John notices that his father is drunk, and demands that he move to the passenger seat and allow John to lead.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Arriving at school, John receives a reprimand from the principal Mr. Lewis (Matt Malloy) for being late.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Elias (Elias McConnell), an amateur photographer, takes pictures of a couple of punks on his way to school.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Nathan (Nathan Tyson) trains on the sports ground, then goes to school.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

There he meets his girlfriend Carrie (Carrie Finkley).


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

They walk arm by hand around school together, pass Brittany (Brittany Mountain), Jordan (Jordan Taylor) and Nicole (Nicole George), and then meet John, who left the principal.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

John then walks down the hall and walks into a secluded place and cries.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Acadia (Alicia Miles) appears.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

She asks John what's going on, kisses him on the cheek, and then goes to a meeting of the Gay and Heterosexual Alliance.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Nathan and Carrie, having done what they needed, go back into the hallway and talk about their plans along the way.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

John, meeting Elias on the way and letting him take a picture of himself, leaves school, and Alex (Alex Frost) dressed in black and Eric (Eric Doylen) in khaki colors, both with big bags.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

This is followed by an excerpt of classmates (one presumably Nathan) throwing chewed paper at Alex, who draws instead of listening, and he has to wash in the toilet stains from his jacket.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In the dining room, Alex sketches out the plan of the room in a notebook.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

This episode shows the events at school a couple of days before the shooting.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Elias enters the school and goes to the photo lab.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Michelle (Kristen Hinks) is reprimanded by her gym teacher for practicing in long sweatpants rather than shorts.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

After class, she hears her classmates discussing it behind her back.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Elias develops and prints the images, leaving them to dry, he leaves the laboratory.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

On the way out of it, he meets John and takes a picture of him [note 2], and then comes to the library where Michelle is currently staying.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Brittany, Jordan, and Nicole see Nathan and Carrie walking down the hallway [note 2].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

They go to the dining room and gossip and talk about their own along the way.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The girls have a snack in the dining room (at which time John is visible in the window as he leaves school [note 2]), then go to the toilet and cause them to vomit.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Alex is playing Beethoven's To Elise piano in his basement room.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Eric comes to him, and while Alex continues to play music, plays a “shooter” with a “Jerry kill counter” on his laptop, killing two people in the desert (a direct reference to the first film of the trilogy).


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Alex, having finished playing, takes Eric's laptop and opens an online weapon store.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The next morning, while Alex and Eric watch a documentary about Nazism on TV, they are brought in the rifle they ordered.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Michelle leaves the locker room and hurries to the library.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

On the way there, she runs past Elias, who takes pictures of John.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

[note 3] The librarian instructs her to place books on the shelf.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

When Michelle is carrying books to the bookshelf on the cart, Elias walks in.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

[note 2] When she goes to the closet and starts working, she hears the sound of a twitching shutter and turns around.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

When Alex is washing, Eric comes to the shower and walks inside.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

He says he's never kissed before.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

They're kissing.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Then it shows how both dress - Alex in black, Eric in khaki, Alex unfolds a plan to attack the school in front of Eric.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

They're going to plant explosives in the dining room and gym to create panic, and then shoot.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

After that, they go to school.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Before entering, Alex and Eric meet John [note 3].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The explosives planted in two places do not work, and Alex and Eric go to the library.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

When they appear on the doorstep, Elias takes pictures of them.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Immediately after that, Alex kills Michelle, standing near the rack, and Elias with one shot, and then starts shooting at other visitors to the library.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Brittany, Jordan and Nicole dress up in front of the bathroom mirrors when Alex walks into it with a rifle.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Members of the alliance of gays and heterosexuals, which was meeting at this moment, begin to evacuate through the window.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

One of the participants was shot — and possibly to death — while trying to leave the auditorium.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Benny (Benny Dixon) also appears there, who helps to escape Acadia, who has fallen into a stupor.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

However, he does not evacuate himself, but goes back to school.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In one of the corridors, he sees Eric pointing a submachine gun at Director Mr. Lewis.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Eric turns around and kills Benny and then the director.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In the dining area, Nathan and Carrie escape from Alex, who appears in the hallway in the distance.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Alex goes to the dining room, where several bodies lie, and Eric appears there at that moment.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Alex asks him about his success and, without listening to the answer to the end, kills him.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Hearing the noise from the kitchens, Alex goes there and finds Nathan and Carrie in the freezer.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Alex begins to read the rhyme, moving the barrel of the rifle from one to the other.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The film ends with a shot of a cloudy blue sky.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Name


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The title of the film directly refers to Alan Clark, whose short film of the same name became a role model for Van Sant.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Since Alan Clark had already died by 2003, Van Sant asked Danny Boyle, who produced Clark's film, whether there would be any objections to the use of the title; Boyle agreed [3].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

When Van Sant was working on the film, he misinterpreted the title.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

He understood it as a reference to the parable of the blind and the elephant who tried to feel the elephant to understand what was in front of them, and everyone was mistaken, because he could only feel one part of the animal [4] [note 4] .


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In fact, Clark's title hinted at the English-language idiom “elephant in the room” (English: elephant in the room), which denotes an obvious problem that no one wants to pay attention to.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In the scene in Alex's house, you can see a drawing hanging on his wall depicting an elephant.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

It is only visible on the screen for a few moments.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Cast


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The film crew


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Director: Gus Van Sant


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Written by Gus Van Sant


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Producer: Dani Wolfe, Jay Hernandez, GT Leroy (co-producers)


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Executive Producers: Diane Keaton, Bill Robinson


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Cameraman — Harris Savides


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Editor: Gus Van Sant


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Production designer: Benjamin Hayden


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Costume designer — Maricris Mass (uncredited) [5]


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Sound Designer: Leslie Schatz


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The history of creation


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The story of Elephant began with the idea of Gus Van Sant to make a documentary in the wake of the events in Columbine for television [6].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The director came up with this idea immediately after the tragedy, but he was not destined to come true.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

At first, in the early stages of the project, Van Sant could not find funds for the production of the future film.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Actress Diane Keaton, who worked for HBO at the time, became interested in the project and helped it get money from Colin Callender, who headed HBO Films [3].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Harmony Corin, who wrote the script for Van Sant's film Kids, proposed to create something in the spirit of Alan Clark's short film Elephant about violence in Northern Ireland and even I was going to write the script myself, but I didn't do it [4].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

GT Leroy (pseudonym of writer Laura Albert) proposed his script, but Van Sant found it too traditional.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

[4] As a result, the director decided to refer to the experience of his previous film, Jerry (2002), when the script was burned by Van Sant himself and actors Matt Deimon and Casey on the eve of the first day of filming Affleck and all the dialogues were eventually improvised.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

For Elephant, Van Sant prepared a plan instead of a full script, and also wrote a sketch of a conversation between three girlfriends [7].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The text was about twenty pages (for comparison, the script for Van Sant's first feature film, Bad Night, took 110 pages, the standard length was from 90 to 120) [8].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Non-professional actors, high school students in Portland schools were invited to play the main roles [2].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In the film, their characters bear the same names as the performers.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Van Sant was inspired by the experience of Italian neo-realists, in whose films non-professional actors play themselves [9].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

In Elephant, only three adult actors were experienced actors (Timothy Bottoms, Matt Malloy, and Ellis Williams).


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Some of the teenagers who played in Elephant (Alex Frost, John Robinson, Elias McConnell) became actors and are currently acting in films and television.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

As in Jerry, all the dialogues were improvised directly on the set.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

According to Van Sant, he just asked the performers a topic that they could talk about in reality.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Since the teenagers played almost themselves, it was easy for them to portray a conversation in front of the camera plausibly [7].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

The director cites the example of a scene with a conversation between the characters Nathan Tyson and Carrie Finkley, in which he needed teenagers to talk about something about them, but incomprehensible to the audience:


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

I just said, “Talk about what you want.”


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

This is probably the most difficult task for any actor, but since these kids weren't actors, they didn't know it was difficult, and it was great.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

“Elephant” was shot in just seventeen days [8].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Filming took place at Whitaker High School (formerly John Adams School) in Portland, which was already closed at the time of filming; in 2007, the building itself was demolished [10].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

No lighting was used, and the entire film was shot in natural light [9].


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Beethoven's works Bagatelle A Minor (To Elise) and Piano Sonata No. 14 (Moonlight) were used as musical accompaniment.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Van Sant originally wanted to invite the composer to create the soundtrack, but decided to include Beethoven's compositions in the film after hearing Alex Frost lead actor Alex Frost in one of the filming for days played the piano “Moonlight Sonata” [6].


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Critics' reaction


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Van Sant's film received an ambiguous, but generally rather positive reception from professional critics.


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Rotten Tomatoes gives a numerical expression of the reaction of critics.


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The Elephant rating on this site is 71% [11], and among the most authoritative critics it is 76% [12].


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This means that more than two-thirds of the critics whose reviews are summarized on the site gave the film a positive rating.


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The range of definitions given to Elephant by reviewers is wide — from “masterpiece” [13] and “main film of the year” [14] to “failure” [15].


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Authoritative critic Jonathan Rosenbaum ranked the film second in his top ten films of 2003 [16], and in 2004 included it among his thousand favorite films [17].


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In his mini-review in Chicago Reader, he called the film “eye-catching and impressive” [18].


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Roger Ebert (“Chicago Sun-Times”) also gives a positive review, giving Elephant a maximum rating of four stars.


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He writes that the creation of this film, which violates the canons of Hollywood filmmaking, shot without stars and a high budget, is a bold and radical act [19].


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Manola Dargis of the Los Angeles Times, the largest newspaper on the west coast of the United States, notes that it is rare that form and content combine as harmoniously as in Elephant.


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[20] Peter Travers (“Rolling Stone”) writes in his moderately positive review that the film, for its simplicity, is scarier than anything in the classic horror film The Texas Chainsaw Massacre [21].


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Negative reviews of Elephant criticize mainly the ideological side of the film.


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Thus, the main reason for criticism is the lack of obvious answers in the film to the question why the tragedy in Columbine was possible and what was its cause.


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This was called a flaw in the generally positive review by Ruth Stein (“San Francisco Chronicle”) [22], and this was the reason for the devastating recall of Tod McCarthy in Variety.


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He pointed out that there was no character development in the film, and therefore Alex's phrase before the shooting (“The main thing is to have fun” [note 5]) did not impress him.


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Recognizing that the technical side of the film deserves praise, the critic calls “Elephant” an unsuccessful attempt to find a new dramatic method for a painful topic [23].


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Making a film about something similar to the events in Columbine and not offering guesses and explanations looks pointless at best, irresponsible at worst.


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Roger Ebert objected to this phrase from McCarthy's review [19], and it was challenged in an interview with the Guardian by director Gus Van Sant himself [4].


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At the same time, Kirk Honeycutt (“The Hollywood Reporter”) agreed with McCarthy's claims, calling the Elephant a “technique exercise” [24].


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Another devastating review was given by Charles Taylor (Salon.com).


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He draws parallels between, in his opinion, overly formalistic “Elephant” and exploitative cinema, because the cornerstone of the whole film is allegedly its theme (“art project about the events in” Columbine “”).


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According to Taylor, Elephant was created to restore Van Sant's reputation as an independent director, lost after several films made in Hollywood.


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Critics also thought that the school in Elephant was shown, although not in Hollywood, but still superficially and unnatural [25].


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Rolling fate


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The world premiere of Elephant took place at the 56th Cannes Film Festival on May 18, 2003.


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In addition to Cannes, the film was shown at a large number of film festivals, including the Karlovy Vary Festival, New York, Rotterdam, Moscow and others [26].


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On October 17, 2003, Switzerland became the first country to release Elephant (only in the Italian-speaking part).


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On October 22, screenings began in France and French-speaking Switzerland.


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On October 24, limited distribution in the US began [26].


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Prior to it, Van Sant screened the film in Portland for Outside, Inc., an organization that helps young homeless people [27].


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Over the following year, Elephant was shown in cinemas in many more countries around the world [26].


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Fine Line was the distributor of Elephant in the United States.


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The film received an “R” rating at the box office.


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With a budget of about $3 million [28], the film grossed only a million and a quarter at the North American box office.


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Added to this is the more impressive $8,745,067 in the rest of the world.


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Thus, the Elephant's global fees are $10,012,022 [29].


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Awards and nominations


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The success of Elephant at the 56th Cannes Film Festival was a surprise.


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This was Gus Van Sant's first participation in the competition of this prestigious film festival, and, nevertheless, in the dispute for the main prize, the Palme d'Or, “Elephant” beat Lars von Trier's Dogville, recognized as a favorite among critics [30] [31], and Clint Eastwood's Mysterious River and Denis Arcana's Invasion of the Barbarians, which were successful with ordinary viewers [32].


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The jury led by Patrice Chéreau decided to give the film two awards at once, and also awarded Van Sant the Best Director Award.


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In the United States, film awards, for the most part, passed Elephant.


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After receiving only two Independent Spirit nominations, the film won only one American award: the New York Society of Film Critics Award for Best Cinematography.


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Honors


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The list is provided according to IMDb data [33].


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Nominations


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Artistic value


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Elephant, which began as a documentary project, has a special style, which Jay Hoberman of Village Voice called “a combination of aesthetics and documentarity” [34], and Carlo Cavagna compared with cinéma vérité style [7].


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The film is small in volume (81 minutes), it has few dialogues, and almost no voice-over music.


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Elephant actively uses long shots shot without editing glues, in which the camera follows a character or several characters for a long time.


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The longest shot in the film lasts 5 minutes 19 seconds (a scene with three girls) [10].


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These extra-long plans resemble the manner of Andrei Tarkovsky and Bela Tarr [35], while echoing camera flights through the corridors of the Overlook Hotel in Stanley Kubrick's The Shining [34] (like Kubrick, the camera's long following one object increases the tension [9]).


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In the same regard, Andrei Plakhov recalls Alexander Sokurov's Russian Ark, a film lasting more than an hour and a half, shot in one shot [30].


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Van Sant at a press conference in Cannes confirmed that the works of Tarr, Tarkovsky and Sokurov, as well as Miklos Jancho, influenced the visual solution of Elephant [6].


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The shooting style in “Elephant” has earned high praise from critics.


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The camera's detachment from what was happening allowed them to remember both documentaries [24] and horror films [36], and the seeming randomness of its movements reminded them of a schoolboy wandering around corridors [36].


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Elephant (movie)

Long plans were called “eye-catching” [18] and even “hypnotic” [22].


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The work of cameraman Harris Savides was praised [21] [24] [37].


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According to New York Times columnist Elvis Mitchell, she is not virtuoso, but it is the work of a master, which should not be spectacular [36].


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The visual solution of the film is also characterized by the abandonment of the use of lighting fixtures in favor of natural light - here an example for the director was Stanley Kubrick, who did the same when “A Clockwork Orange” [9].


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The aspect ratio of the screen of 1. 33:1, which is also unusual for modern cinema, can again reflect the influence of Kubrick's style.


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According to Van Sant, it mattered to him and Harris Savides that 1. 33:1 is the standard format for television and 16mm films that are shown in American schools [6].


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Some commentators have highlighted the contribution of sound engineer Leslie Schatz [24], whose work increases the sense of realism.


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[36] With the combination of silence, increased external noise and rare musical fragments, it sometimes manages to achieve a fascinating effect [23] and cause the viewer a tedious feeling of fear [36].


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Wesley Morris (“Boston Globe”) was also delighted with the choice of music: Beethoven was used to strengthen the audience's anxiety [37] [note 7]


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The structure of the story “Elephant” is unusual.


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The camera alternately follows the different students, showing their actions for about twenty minutes before the shooting began.


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[note 8] The paths of the characters intersect periodically, and some moments are repeated in the film from different points of view.


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Van Sant pointed out Bela Tarr's film Satanic Tango as the source of influence in this case [3].


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In addition, in an interview, the director mentioned Akira Kurosawa's Rashomon [38] [note 9], where the characters consistently present their version of how the same event happened.


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At first, Elephant was supposed to show the whole story [note 10] from different perspectives, but at the editing stage, Van Sant decided to bring the structure of the film to the way it exists [3].


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Peter Travers believes that Van Sant, who builds the film on observing his characters, encourages “not just to watch, but to look closely” by constantly returning to the same episodes.


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[21] At the same time, Peter Rainer (“New York Magazine”) considers the use of this technique unjustified, arguing that it is an example of a “cheap arthouse trick” [39].


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Despite the lack of professionals among the main performers, some critics praised the level of acting in Elephant [22] [23] [40].


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Remembering Van Sant's previous films, Ruth Stein notes the director's ability to work with young actors.


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The critics were especially impressed by Alex Frost and Eric Doylen, who played the roles of the murderers.


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According to Eric Harrison (“Houston Chronicle”), Van Sant has succeeded in what most directors who invite non-professionals to act fail: to achieve credibility with this step [40].


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Viewers of the film see teenagers on the screen, similar to those they know in life.


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Due to the fact that the actors acted under their own names, the audience has a growing feeling that teenagers are playing themselves [22].


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Topics


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Elephant is not the first film shot in the wake of the tragic events at Columbine School.


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A year earlier, Michael Moore's documentary Bowling for Columbina was presented at the same Cannes Film Festival.


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The Columbine massacre was the reason for the creation of this film, which focuses on the problem of free possession of weapons in the United States.


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Gus Van Sant said in an interview that he watched Moore's film and that he was a fan of the documentary filmmaker [6], but, nevertheless, he presents a completely different approach to the event.


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If Michael Moore investigates the causes of this act of violence (and others like him) and eventually offers his interpretation, Van Sant does the opposite: he does not try to answer the question of motives of the killers.


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His film, unlike Bowling for Columbina, is not about weapons, social or political problems [19] [38], it is a “poetic disaster film” [34] or, as the director himself put it, “a poem about difficult age” [38].


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Elephant (movie)

There is no author's interpretation of the reasons for what happened in the film, although the viewer is offered a set of possible reasons that are often associated with such incidents: the killers Alex and Eric play some cruel a video game, watching a documentary about Adolf Hitler on TV, and you can see a poster with Marilyn Manson on the wall of Alex's house.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

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All these factors were mentioned in connection with the Columbine tragedy: it happened on April 20 (Hitler's birthday); the murderers Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold were fans of “Doom” and “Wolfenstein 3D” and fans Rammstein and Manson.


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Van Sant claimed that he had assumptions about what could have caused the tragedy in Columbine [note 11], but it was not his task to share them with the audience.


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It allows the viewer to make observations and answer this question on their own.


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Modern cinema takes the form of a sermon.


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You don't think, you only get information.


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This movie is not a sermon.


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The meaning of this film is not dictated to you by the director.


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It is to be hoped that there are as many interpretations as there are viewers.


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Diane Keaton, executive producer, agrees with the director.


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She herself drew attention to the disunity of adolescents and their parents, but admits that each viewer can have their own interpretation [7].


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Different observers, indeed, interpret the film in different ways.


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Some of them start from the title [note 12], and according to it interpret the task of the film as a call to pay attention to the problem.


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[25] [40] Close to this is the opinion of Jonathan Rosenbaum, according to which Van Sant wonders why no one noticed the approach of the tragedy [18].


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It is believed that the film contains a strong Hindu implication [41].


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The director wanted to show, first of all, real people.


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Manola Dargis believes that, as in Jerry, the continuous movement of the camera following the backs of the characters is a metaphor for life [20].


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The camera admires the beauty of young people [42] who move around the school and live their lives without knowing that it will end on this day.


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Autumn school day is shown quite ordinary and ordinary [22], and the characters themselves are stereotypes — an athlete with his girlfriend, an amateur photographer, a shy girl, and so on [37] [43].


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Elephant (movie)

Thus, one of the themes of the picture (in the wording of Jay Hoberman) is being and future nothingness [34], the approach of which cannot be predicted [22].


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Some attention was drawn to the kiss in the shower episode.


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Despite the fact that many of the works of openly gay Van Sant touch on the topic of homosexuality [note 13], Manola Dargis urges not to interpret this episode as an indication of non-traditional orientation characters.


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Rather, this kiss indicates the isolation and restlessness of adolescents [20].


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Place in Gus Van Sant


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Van Sant's so-called Death Trilogy, of which Elephant is a part, was started with Jerry (2002) and continued with The Last Days (2005) [note 14].


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The trilogy is united by a common artistic manner.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

All three films have long plans in which the camera follows one or more characters and uses minimalist music.


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Elephant (movie)

In “The Last Days”, as in “Elephant”, the narrative is built in a non-linear way, and the lines of different characters intersect.


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Elephant (movie)

These three films are united not only by the artistic techniques used.


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Elephant (movie)

All of them are devoted to the topic of death (in Elephant, death as a result of unmotivated violence), and all are based on real events that have been widely covered, but the causes of which are unknown [8] (in the case of” Elephant” - at the Colombine School massacre; the suicide of two of its perpetrators made it almost impossible to establish the exact motives).


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Elephant (movie)

Since Elephant came out immediately after Jerry, the two films did not escape comparison with each other.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

“Elephant”, which has more characters and dialogue, was called “a less puristic version of Jerry” [4].


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It was noteworthy that after several films made in Hollywood (Good Will Hunting (1997); Psycho (1998), a time-lapse remake of the famous Hitchcock film; Find Forrester (2000)) Van Sant back to independent cinema.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Despite the fact that this happened in Jerry, “Elephant” became a much more prominent film event, and it was this film that gave Charles Taylor the reason to accuse the director of using a new film is trying to regain his reputation as an independent director [25].


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Elephant (movie)

Van Sant himself says about Elephant and Jerry that he prefers independent production to work in large studios [38].


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Elephant (movie)

See also


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Elephant (1989) is a short film by Alan Clark that gave its name to Van Sant's Elephant.


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Other films about or based on the events at Columbine School:


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Bowling for Columbina (2002) is a documentary by Michael Moore that investigates the causes of the tragedy;


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Heart of America (2002) is a Canadian-German film directed by German director Uwe Ball;


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Elephant (movie)

Day Zero (2003) is a film by independent American director Ben Kocho;


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“All Life Before Your Eyes” (2007) — a film by Vadim Perelman based on the novel by Laura Kasishke;


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Class (2007) — a film by Estonian Ilmar Raag;


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April Rains (2009) — Andrew Robinson's film about the events in Columbine;


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Elephant (movie)

Something Wrong with Kevin (2011) is a Lynn Ramsey film that tells a similar story from the point of view of the murderer's mother.


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Elephant (movie)

American Horror Story (2011) - In the series by Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuck, the character of Tate Langdon staged a massacre at his school; a shooting scene in a library is reproduced.


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Elephant (movie)

comments


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Notes


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References


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

(in English)


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Elephant (movie)

on IMDb


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Elephant (movie)

at AllMovie


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Elephant (movie)

(in English) on Rotten Tomatoes


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Elephant (movie)

Category:American drama films


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Category:HBO Films


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Category:Columbine High School Massacre


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Category:Films about violence in schools


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Category:Movies in English


Question: Where does the movie “Elephant” take place?

Elephant (movie)

Category: 2003 American films


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Evald Vasilyevich Ilyenkov (February 18, 1924 — March 21, 1979) was a Soviet researcher of Marxist-Leninist dialectics.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

His works are devoted to various issues of Marxist theory of knowledge, the nature of the ideal, personality, creative activity, as well as pedagogy, ethics and aesthetics.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

In the field of history of philosophy, he was a researcher of B.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Spinoza and Hegel, paid much attention to criticism of positivism.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Ilyenkov's ideas had a great impact not only on philosophical research itself, but also on such scientific disciplines as psychology, in which the outstanding Soviet and Russian scientist V. IN. Davydov created an original concept of types of generalization in training, combining the ideas of E.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

IN. Ilyenkov with the tradition of L. S. Vygotsky.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Ilyenkov's ideas aroused interest among a number of modern philosophers from the United States, Canada, Finland and other countries.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

His works have been published in Germany, Italy, Great Britain, Greece, Japan and other countries.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Biography


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Childhood and adolescence


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Evald Ilyenkov was born into the family of writer, Stalin Prize winner V. P. Ilyenkova and teacher Elizaveta Ilyinichna (Ilyenkova).


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

In 1928, the family moved to Moscow and since 1933 the Ilyenkovs settled in the house of the First Writers' Cooperative [1]


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

In June 1941, Ilyenkov graduated from Moscow secondary school No. 170, and in September he entered the Faculty of Philosophy of MIFLI.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

N. G. Chernyshevsky.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Together with the institute, in October-November 1941, he evacuated to Ashgabat, where he continued his studies.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

In December 1941, all faculties of MIFLI became part of Moscow State University, which was also evacuated to Ashgabat; in July 1942, Moscow State University moved to Sverdlovsk.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

In August 1942, Ilyenkov was drafted into the Red Army and sent to the Odessa Artillery School.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

M. IN. Frunze in Sukhoi Log, Sverdlovsk Region.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

After graduating from school in October 1943, he was sent to the Western Front with the rank of junior lieutenant, then to the 2nd and 1st Belarusian Fronts.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

He commanded an artillery platoon, took part in hostilities on the Sandomierz bridgehead, and fought to Berlin, where he celebrated Victory Day.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

For military valor, he was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War II degree and medals.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

After the war, he served in the contingent of Soviet troops in Germany until August 1945 [1].


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

In August 1945, Ilyenkov received a business trip to the artillery department of the Krasnaya Zvezda newspaper in Moscow, where he worked as a literary worker until February 1946, when, after being demobilized, he graduated served in the Soviet army.


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

After that, he continued his studies at the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University, and in April 1950 he was admitted to the CPSU [2].


Question: When did Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov graduate from high school?

Evald Ilyenkov

Professor Boris Stepanovich Chernyshev, Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University, greatly influenced the choice of the direction of Ilyenkov's scientific work.