Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Two German colonels hunt at the estate of Count Vonsovsky.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Colonel Rainer leaves the Abwehr, and Standartenfuhrer Debelius of the Gestapo remains to feast on.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Going out to the bathroom to refresh himself, drunk Debelius accidentally discovers a cache behind the mirror, finds dollars, a gun and microfilms there.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He immediately calls the Gestapo, Vonsovsky is arrested.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Having learned that the count is an agent of Polish intelligence and that he found microfilms with plans for the residence of the Reichsfuhrer, Kolitsky decides on a daring operation.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Agent J-23 convinces Wonsovsky to “split”, the count one by one “passes off” German officers as his accomplices, with whom Polish intelligence is eager to get even for their war crimes against the Poles.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Gestapo does not stand on ceremony with those accused of conspiring against the Reichsfuhrer, and the broken officers one by one admit their guilt.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Gestapo without trial shoot General Varenberg, the hero of the Balkan campaign, in the forest.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The count accuses Debelius and Rainer, they are removed from the investigation, guardsturmfuhrer Loze and “Kloss” are demolished directly with the headquarters of the Reichsfuhrer.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Rainer persuades four young officers, colleagues in Crete, to fire at a prison van in which Vonsovsky is transported, but Loze and Kloss, who were driving behind the van, exterminate the attackers.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Seriously wounded Vonsovsky “on his deathbed” “betrays” Debelius and Rainer, after which the count is taken to the morgue, and from there he is transported to the partisans.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Rainer takes a bullet in the head.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Loze and “Kloss” go to Berlin for an appointment, after which Loze takes the place of Debelius, and “Kloss” receives the Iron Cross.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

7. Double nelson


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “Double Nelson” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

General Abwehr's secretary Eva Fromm secretly takes pictures of the plans of the Atlantic Wall, but is arrested at the exit of the building.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

General Langer orders “Kloss” to go to the officers' holiday home in Lisko and help intelligence major Hannah Bezel.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

She must, under the guise of Eva Fromm, hand over to the arrived Allied agent, Colonel Cornel, a false plan for the Atlantic Wall.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, someone has already taken the real pictures of the plans of the shaft, which Fromm hid behind the picture in the corridor.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Langer realizes that among them there is a traitor and orders “Kloss” to destroy the mysterious liaison of the underground workers before he meets Cornel.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Kloss” meets with a liaison - waiter Plush, but barely avoids death from the turn of a mysterious killer.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Kloss is tracking down Hannah, and Counselor Gerbhardt is tracking him down.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Super-suspicious Hannah leads Kloss into a guerrilla trap.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Cornel orders the Kloss to be liquidated.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, he disarms the guerrillas and runs away, almost falling victim to Gerbhardt lurking in the bushes.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky comes to Hannah and takes her at gunpoint to Cornel.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He gives him the password and explains the situation, and he tells him that Hannah is an English agent, and it turns out that she worked with Eva Fromm.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky, in turn, admits that he took the pictures from Eva's cache.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He comes to Gerbhardt and exposes him.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Herbhardt hid Polish treasures in this forest.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The counselor fights his way to the car, and Officers Pain and “Kloss” chase him.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

After Bohl's turn mark, Gerbhardt's car falls off a cliff.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

8. The Big Failure


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “Failure” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Kloss steals Engineer Mayer's blueprints for the prototype of the new tank, replacing its folder with his own.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Through a dentist liaison, he conveys a request to bomb a military plant after the prototype tests are completed.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He returns the folder to Mayer, knowing that he will not talk about this “accident” and find out about the end time of the tests.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, it is impossible to convey information: the dentist is arrested by the Gestapo, but the liaison boy manages to go to the guerrillas.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Kloss” learns that the Gestapo has an informant in the ranks of the guerrillas, and is called to participate in a covert operation.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Under the guise of a volunteer, he appears to the guerrillas, but their commander is not in place.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Klossa” recognizes a liaison boy, guerrillas search him and find an order from the Gestapo to assist “Kloss”.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky manages to disarm the guerrilla guard, he announces to the girl radio operator that he is an agent J-23, and orders a request to bomb a military factory.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Then Brunner says that the agent of the Gestapo “Wolf” is the meat merchant Hare.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky talks to the traitor, but the insightful Hare begins to suspect “Kloss” and hurries to his curator.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, he is intercepted halfway by a half-drunk Brunner, the three of them have a drink.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Kloss” knocks out the Hare and sends the owner of the institution Irmina to the guerrillas, militants break into the room and shoot the Hare.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The escort car gets into a guerrilla ambush, the dentist escapes, Irmina becomes a cook in a partisan camp.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

9. Colonel Kraft's genius plan


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Petty speculator Vaclav Slavikovsky accidentally meets a partisan liaison on a train.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The railwayman recognizes her, the girl is arrested at the very first station, but she manages to hand over the note to Slavikovsky.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Underground workers establish surveillance of the turnout, where she was supposed to appear, suspecting the failure of the turnout, notice and photograph Slavikovsky.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Kloss” is assigned to the Abwehr school of Colonel Kraft, who asks him to help train agent Erich Götting, who is planned to be sent to the Middle East.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Goetting is like two drops of water like Slavikovsky.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Having learned about the suicide of the liaison, Kolitsky activates the turnout and meets Slavikovsky at it, thinking that he is facing the provocateur of the Abwehr, but the details of what is happening discourage him.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kraft reveals his plan to Kloss: Slavikovsky and Götting are twin brothers, one of them became Volksdeutsche and the other preferred to remain a “good Pole”.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kraft plans to send Götting under the guise of Slavikovsky, and then eliminate the “good Pole”.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, it turns out the opposite: the operation is carried out by Kloss, he reveals all the cards to Goetting, shocked Volksdeutsche runs out into the street and falls, hit by queues of Abwehr agents.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Slavikovsky goes to the Middle East, having received information from Kraft about passwords and turnouts, which will lead to the decryption of Hitler's agents in the Middle East.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

10. In the name of


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “In the Name of the Law” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky obtains information about the attack of an Allied convoy by a German submarine, but the Center does not receive this information, as the Gestapo covered an underground radio and forced the radio operator to cooperate with them — Tailor Marian Skavronek.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Guerrilla liaison Stasya Zarembskaya comes to the tailor, the Gestapo monitors her and reveals that she receives information through Adam Prukhnal, who, in turn, from the coordinator Joseph Podlasinski's underground network.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Sturmfuhrer Stedtke is in no hurry to arrest underground workers, in this case “one roach will be caught in the net, and the pike (agent J-23) will leave.”


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, its chief Standartenfuhrer Debelius demands decisive action, so Stedtke conveys, through the traitor Skavronek, the Center's order to come to meet in a cafe with a white carnation in his buttonhole.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky solves the provocation of the Germans and sends a completely stranger to the cafe, while he launches misinformation that agent J-23 could not come to the meeting because he was sent to cases in Stettin.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

After the arrests of employees who went to Stettin, Kolitsky orders all agents of the network to go to the guerrillas.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, Podlasinski accidentally gets caught in a German raid, his guard Romek notices “Kloss”, who was nearby.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Lieutenant Abwehr Neiman guesses that the partisan radio station communicates during the rise of the moon, the Abwehr people find out its location and break into Skavronek's apartment.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Taking advantage of the confusion, he runs away, but manages to remember “Kloss”.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Representatives of the Center arrive at the guerrilla base, concerned about the flow of disinformation coming from agent J-23.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

They interrogate Zarembskaya, Pruhnal, Romek and Skavronek, conclude that Kolitsky sold himself to the Germans, and sentence him.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Thanks to his quick reaction, Kolitsky avoids the first attempt.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Podlasinsky arrives at the partisans and talks about Skavronek's betrayal, the commanders cancel the operation, but the Kloss almost falls victim to the second attempt.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He is saved only by the intervention of Stedtke, who shot Romek.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

11. Password


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “Password” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kloss is assigned to France.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The center instructs him to contact, using a password, a local underground network and assist it in solving the problem of releasing Commander Boleslav Paul, who is in a German prison.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, his train is bombed, and the Kloss itself ends up in the hospital.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

For this reason, the contact of the underground workers Hubert handles the password to Lieutenant von Foreman, who arrived on the same day that the Kloss was supposed to arrive.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Foreman realizes Hubert's mistake.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Underground workers decide to transport weapons, Hubert drives in the car, he is wounded, and he falls into the hands of the Germans.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Major Ellert accesses him with a password and receives feedback from Hubert, who is in agony.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

After that, Ellert instructs Foreman to handle this password to every newly arrived German officer.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Foreman receives feedback from Kloss, but is in no hurry to hand it over, demanding 10 thousand dollars and information on who he works for.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Underground worker Jeanne Mol gets in touch with “Kloss”, together they compromise Foreman in Ellert's eyes.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

During a search conducted at Foreman's house, Kloss finds $5,000, which he gave him, and hides Foreman's letter to Ellert.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Guerrillas liberate Paul, Kolitsky pushes Foreman off the cliff, Ellert is convinced that the disappeared Foreman is agent J-23.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

12. Cheating


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “The Penultimate Session” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The liaison of Polish intelligence Christine Kid, having learned about the death of her fiancé Heine at the hands of the Poles, goes to the side of the Reich.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Together with Gestapo operatives, she meets liaison Robert at the station, but they do not get him alive.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Another liaison is going to meet Kolitsky, and Christine should also meet her.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky understands the danger of the situation and makes an appointment with Christine to eliminate it.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, Christine does not come to the meeting because she is captured by General von Boldt's men.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He planned to contact the Americans through Christine, who was supposed to go to Stockholm.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Upon learning of her connection to the Gestapo, von Boldt panicked and took action.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Gestapo starts looking for Christine.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky searches her apartment, finds a code message in her belt, interrogates and knocks out Lieutenant Stolp's adjutant von Boldt who approached.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He meets with the general, but he refuses to reveal his cards.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Von Boldt tells Christine that Heine as a traitor eliminated the Gestapo, after which Christine escapes.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The head of the Abwehr, Admiral Canaris, summons the Kloss and arranges a rampage for him, ordering him to forget about this whole story.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Then “Kloss” is summoned by Standartenfuhrer Muller from the Gestapo and then interrogated by officers von Boldt.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Clever Kolitsky manages to get away from all accusations.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He plants a time bomb in Christine's apartment and tells Mueller that she's in his apartment.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Muller, who arrived, demands that Christine immediately go to the station to meet the Polish liaison, but she refuses him, as well as the Kloss, who came out from behind the curtain, begging her to follow him.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The apartment takes off together with Christine and the Gestapo, Kolitsky meets the arrived liaison at the station.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

13. No instructions


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Hitler's favorite Professor Porchette reports to the meeting on the completion of tests of a new top-secret weapon.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

At the same time, Colonel Nichols in London reports to the chief about the discovery of a beam that tried to shoot down British aircraft.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The location of the secret laboratory could not be established, and agent Z-82, issued by Porschette's secretary Martha Laum, ended up in the Gestapo.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He is interrogated by Klose and “Kloss”, but Lieutenant Colonel Kleist who comes orders to stop the interrogation.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Closs” calls Martha Laum, he arrives, but finds the girl killed, an unknown person shot at him.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kleist orders “Kloss” to contact the criminal police.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

On duty, “Kloss” is preparing to be sent to England a group of saboteurs, he suspects that one of them - Lieutenant Schlosser cooperates with the Gestapo and finds in his locker a microfilm about the laboratory.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The group lands on the shore, Schlosser orders his comrades to wait for him at the windmill, and he goes straight to the headquarters of the local defense.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The British are arresting the group.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Schlosser tells Nichols that he removed Martha Laum, as he was recruited by agent Z-82 and gives Nichols a microfilm given to him by agent Z-82.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Insightful Nichols realizes that Schlosser did not tell him the whole truth, but transmits data on the location of the laboratory.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The British bomb, destroying a fake object.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kleist triumphs — he managed to misinform the enemy.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kloss meets girls working at the facility.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

At the party, they tell him that the British are bombing a fake object.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

One of them says that she writes to the groom working in the laboratory at field mail address 4854.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

According to the directory, Kolitsky calculates the location of the laboratory, secretly penetrates there, finds a self-destruct console and blows everything up.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He acts without instructions, as his liaison was the victim of a car accident.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

14. Edita


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “Cousin Edith” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

New Year's Eve 1945.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Poland.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Major Broch and Lieutenant “Kloss” inspect a railway bridge attacked by guerrillas who managed to get through a minefield, but the explosion only spoiled the plaster on one of the bulls.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky learns that Kloss's cousin Edita Laush has arrived in the city, and the Center manages to provide the agent with information about her.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Edita and her friend and officers celebrate the new year.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Broch congratulates “Kloss” on the promotion, and Edita does not mind continuing his old romance with the new captain.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Drunk Brunner shows up at the party, when he sees Edita, he drops his glass.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

At night, an unknown person queues Edita's bed, she survives due to the fact that she moved to her friend's bed.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Brunner starts an investigation.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Captain Schneider tells him that one evening robbers killed a party official and robbed an apartment, one of the bandits turned around and shot Edita who came but did not hit.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The “captured guerrilla” testifies that agent J-23 left, but was replaced by “some German woman who is very easy to work with.”


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky realizes that Brunner was behind the assassination attempt, who began to weave nets around Edita and offers her to flee, but she refuses and seduces Kloss.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Guerrillas attack the guard post, exterminating its defenders.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

But this is a distraction, another detachment mines the bridge, trying, on Kolitsky's advice, to guess the time of the explosion to the passage of a train with military cargo from Germany.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Brunner sends reinforcements to the defenders of the bridge, and he, taking advantage of the turmoil, comes to the station to arrest Edita, but finds there “Kloss”.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Brunner grabs a gun, Edita recognizes it as the bandit who shot her.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky blackmails Brunner, who agrees to forget about everything if Edita keeps silent and leaves.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Edita on the phone accepts the demand to delay the train, and instead skip the train filled with Polish workers.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky does not allow her to convey this demand, the guerrillas blow up the bridge and train.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Edita realizes that Kloss is Polish and takes him at gunpoint.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Brunner breaks into the room and, taking advantage of the moment, shoots Edita.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

15. Siege


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “The Siege” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

March 1945.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Allies encircle the city of Tolberg, where the V-2 plant is located.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Sturmbanfuhrer Brunner decides to exterminate foreign migrant workers working at the plant.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Greta Raschke, secretary of the plant manager Professor Fritz Glass, learns about this decision.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

She reports this to her beloved Pole worker Stasek and begs him to flee, but he refuses, hoping to seize the weapons that they are going to distribute to German workers.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Having received an order from the Center, Kolitsky blackmails Glass, demanding that he stay in the city.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The professor agrees because his son Kurt is held captive by the allies.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

On the same day, he disappears, and the Gestapo finds only the mutilated corpse of the professor.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky realizes that the matter is unclean, since the shirt on the deceased is worn inside out.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Brunner interrogates Glas's wife and learns that immediately after talking with “Kloss”, the professor decided not to evacuate and found out that his son is in captivity.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Glassow's maid Agnieszka is a liaison of Polish intelligence.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Stasek takes her to the factory and puts a stamp on the pass in the professor's reception.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Greta overhears their conversation and realizes that Stasek is only using it, and also learns that a Polish agent is operating at the plant under the guise of a German officer.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

She immediately notifies the Gestapo, SS soldiers disarm the workers, and Brunner brings the Kloss to clean water.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky rejects the accusation that he is a “rat fleeing from a sinking ship” and claims that he is a career Polish intelligence officer.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Left alone with the Closs, Brunner bargains with him, saying that he kidnapped and hid Glass to use it to negotiate with allies.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky disarms Brunner.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

A Polish detachment suddenly attacks the plant, workers attack the SS and disarm them.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Greta tries to use the self-destruct system, but she is mowed by an automatic fire.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Brunner runs away in turmoil.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Professor Glass crawls out of his prison into the attic and begs for help from Polish soldiers entering the city.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

16. Operation Oak Leaf


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel Operation Oak Leaf [1])


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The 19th Panzer Division holds the bridge to which the Allied forces are approaching.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

General Pfister ordered the pillars of the bridge to be mined in order to blow it up on his orders.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He orders to move the tank regiment and infantry battalion to the Waipert forest, fearing a sudden blow from the rear.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky contacts a local resident and learns from him that a Polish landing force should land near the forest, whose task is to secretly make their way through the forest and deliver a sudden blow to the headquarters of the division, located in the castle.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Knowing that the forest has recently been occupied by German forces, Kolitsky orders the resident to cancel the operation.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He sends his grandson and granddaughter to a liaison living 15 km away.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, the grandson is detained by field gendarmes and, as he is 16 years old, he is sent to the front.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The granddaughter, who is moving with a column of refugees, is recognized by her grandmother and child and has to flee.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Barely avoiding death, the girl gets to the liaison, but the turnout has already failed the Gestapo.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky is developing a bold plan.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The resident and two of his men seize a warehouse with German uniforms, change clothes and take several sets of uniforms with them.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Having met the Polish paratroopers and giving the password, they convince compatriots to openly go through the forest to the headquarters of the division under the guise of a column of prisoners and guards.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky himself goes to the liaison and barely takes his feet away, shooting the Gestapo.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Sturmbanfuhrer Knoch chases and learns from the guard gendarme the number of the Kloss motorcycle.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Gestapo arrive at the castle.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Casino barmaid Simona sees Kloss erasing the paint that covered his rooms and tries to blackmail him in order to secure the release of his lover Lieutenant Kallert.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

When Knoch enters, he recognizes “Kloss”, but falls down, beveled by his shot.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Pfister asks her to indicate the officer who shot the Gestapo, Simon points to Lieutenant Denet, who dragged her into bed, promising to release Kallert and deceived her.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(he also shot Kallert on Pfister's orders).


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

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Dene shoots Simone.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The “prisoners” and “guards” who entered the yard suddenly snatch out assault rifles and smash the headquarters of the division.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

With a “sudden” blow, “Kloss” “stuns” the resident guarding them and runs with General Pfister.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

They see Polish units moving along the captured bridge.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

17. Meetup


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “Meeting at the Castle” [1])


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Fisherman Miller sees how the Nazis with the help of prisoners drown a box in the lake, and then shoot prisoners.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Commander Colonel Ring notices Miller and shoots the fisherman, but the seriously wounded old man manages to get to the Rings house, and he asks Inga, Ring's niece, for shelter.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The old man calls Inga the name Ring because he remembers her uncle as a child.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Interrogating German prisoners, Major Kolitsky is convinced that Colonel Ring somewhere hid the cache of the group “Center-East”.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He again turns into “Captain Kloss” and sneaks into the house of the Rings, where Stormfuhrer Freulein Elken and Sturmbanfuhrer Schenk hide under the guise of civilians.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Inga is beside herself, accusing the officers of shooting unarmed Germans.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky guesses what Inga meant.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

At night, he finds Freulein Elken in the barn searching for a cache.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

She offers him documents, money and asylum in a neutral country in exchange for a cache.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky realizes that Elken is an American intelligence officer.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Someone gives him to the Polish occupation authorities, the next morning the Kloss is arrested and escorted to the rear headquarters.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Inga finds the body of an old man stabbed by an unknown person.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Schörner's tank group, going to the aid of the Berlin group, breaks through the Polish defense and breaks into the city.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Poles are retreating, the guards want to shoot the “Kloss”, the lieutenant Novak in charge of it at the last minute manages to stop them.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Germans give the Kloss uniforms and weapons.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He hurries to the Rings house and warns Inga to disappear immediately, because she knows too much and is in danger.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

However, a patriotic girl hurries to the headquarters, where she is escorted to... Shank, who immediately shoots her.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Colonel Ring, who arrived, enters into bargaining with the Kloss and Freulein Elken.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Schenk tries to arrest them all, shoots Ring, but falls, hit by Kolitsky's bullet.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Agent J-23 knows from Inga that Ring drowned a box in the waters of the lake, he takes Freulein Elken there and says that the archives are now the production of his country.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

18. Obergruppenfuhrer Wolf wanted


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

(based on the novel “Wanted Gruppenfuhrer Wolf” [1])


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Cast:


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Stanislav Mikulsky — Lieutenant/Captain Hans Kloss/Major Stanislav Kolitsky, Agent J-23


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Viktor Grotovich — General Wilman


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Ferdinand Matysik — Colonel Litzke


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Emil Karevich — SS Sturmbanfuhrer Hermann Brunner


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Janusz Zakzhensky — SS Sturmbanfuhrer Wernitz


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Zygmunt Kenstovich — SS Sturmbanfuhrer Oilers


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Josef Durias SS-Sturmbanfuhrer Lyubov


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Saturnin Zhuravsky — SS Standartenfuhrer Otto Fahrenwirst


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Wencyslaw Glinsky — General Harris


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Zbigniew Zapasevich — Captain Karpinski


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Tadeusz Plucinski — Captain Roberts


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Ryszard Petruski — Lieutenant Lewis


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Wlodzimierz Skocilas — Schnickel vel Vogel


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Zbignev Yuzefovich — Soviet general


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Edward Radulsky is Schroeder, an officer summoned for questioning.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

1945 year.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

German soldiers shoot a group of workers in the forest.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

After being shot, they are treacherously shot by four officers.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Kloss” and General Wilman come to the city and see the pasted orders of Obergruppenfuhrer Wolf: “Fight to the last soldier.”


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Indignant Wilman sends home a flock of schoolchildren armed with faustpatrons ready to shoot at American tanks.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The radio broadcasts Dönitz's message about the death of the Fuhrer.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Having mentioned the fate of five hundred Soviet and Polish prisoners of war who worked for Wolf, Kloss manages to promote Wilman and he decides to surrender the city to the Allies.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Before that, he orders the Army Men to surround the headquarters of the SD; four scoundrel officers are under siege.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

They fear for their fate, but they are sure that their boss Wolf will be difficult to find.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The Americans are occupying the city.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Two investigators come to the headquarters and begin to look for war criminals among the prisoners, especially they are interested in Wolf.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The captive “Kloss” offers Captain Karpinsky cooperation in the search for Wolf.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

He offers the four from the SD to flee, but the camp commandant, warned by his informant, arrests Kloss.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Indignant Karpinsky orders the immediate release of “Kloss”.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky comes to negotiations with the four from the SD, but Brunner is already waiting for him there.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Thanks to Brunner, the four are already aware of his true identity.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

“Kloss” guesses who Wolf is, and one of the four orders Brunner to put an end to the traitor.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky disarms Brunner, raises the alarm and runs away from the camp.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The next day, General Harris summons the investigators “on the carpet” and says that the Eastern Allies are demanding the extradition of Wolf, who is allegedly in the camp.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Soviet General and Major Kolitsky arrive and demand to bring four from the SD.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky writes their names on the board: “V ernitz, O ilers, L yubov, F arenvirst”, and then erases everything except the capital letters.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

It turns out Wolf.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Kolitsky demands the extradition of four criminals.


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The film crew


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Screenplay: Andrzej Zbych (collective pseudonym of Andrzej Szypulski and Zbigniew Safyan)


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Directors: Andrzej Konitz, Janusz Morgenstern


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Actors


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Stanislav Mikulsky — Stanislav Kolitsky/Hans Kloss


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Emil Karevich — Hermann Brunner, Sturmbannfuhrer


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Bronislav Pavlik — antique dealer


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

— General Weeringer


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

— radio operator


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Tadeusz Schmidt — Major Horst


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Jan Englert — Tadek


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Barbara Brylska — Inga


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Beata Tyshkevich — Kristin Keld


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Roman Sykala: Heinrich Müller


Question: When did Bet Bigger Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Leon Nemchik vs. Reoletto


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

— Wilhelm Canaris


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Michal Szewczyk — Franek, the Polish soldier who arrested Kloss


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Ryszard Filipsky — Sturmbanfuhrer Fritz Schabe


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

In the Russian voice-over version, the text was read by Irina Malikova, Alexander Belyavsky, Sergey Polyansky.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Continuation


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

In 2010, work on the film began.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Initially, the script was written by Andrzej Szypulski (died January 2011) and Zbigniew Safian (died December 2011).


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The final script was written by Vladislav Pasikovsky, the director —.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

The film premiered on March 10, 2012.


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

See also


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Four tankers and a dog


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Notes


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

References


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Category: Polish television series 1968


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Category:Black and White TV Shows


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Category:Polish historical television series


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Category:Spy movies


Question: When did Bet More Than Life premiere?

The bet is more than life

Category:TV series about World War II


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The physiology of dinosaurs has historically been a popular subject of discussion among many paleontologists and has caused a lot of scientific controversy, especially regarding thermoregulation and metabolic rate of dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Recently, many new evidence has been found regarding the high level of organization of dinosaurs, refuting traditional ideas about the physiology of these animals.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The new data include not only evidence of the metabolism and thermoregulation of dinosaurs, but also the reconstruction of their respiratory and cardiovascular systems.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In the early years of paleontology, dinosaurs were presented as sluggish, bulky, and clumsy cold-blooded reptiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, with the discovery of fuller dinosaur skeletons in the western United States since the 1870s, scientists have been able to offer better interpretations of anatomy and physiology dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Edward Drinker Cope suggested that at least some dinosaurs were active and mobile animals, as depicted in the painting of two fighting driptosaurs by Charles R. Knight [1].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In parallel with the development of Darwinian doctrine of evolution, the discovery of archaeopteryx and compsognate led Thomas Henry Huxley to the conclusion that dinosaurs were closely associated with birds [2].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Despite these considerations, the image of dinosaurs as large lizard-like creatures is already rooted in culture, and most aspects of their paleobiology have still been interpreted as typically “reptilian” until the end of the first half of the twentieth century [3].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Beginning in the 1960s, with the advent of Robert T. Becker's “Renaissance of Dinosaurs”, ideas about dinosaurs and their physiology have changed dramatically.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This was facilitated, among other things, by the discovery of feathered dinosaurs in the Early Cretaceous deposits of China, which maintains the connection of birds with small maniraptors.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Study history


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Early ideas about dinosaurs: 1820s — early 1900s


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The study of dinosaurs began in the 1820s in England.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Pioneers in this field, such as William Buckland, Gideon Mantell, and Richard Owen, described the first and very fragmented findings belonging to large four-legged animals.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Their early works are now on display at the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs, built in the 1850s, where dinosaurs known at the time are depicted as a kind of mixture of lizards and elephants [4].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Despite the fact that dinosaurs were classified as reptiles, Owen suggested that the hearts of dinosaurs and their respiratory systems were similar to those of mammals, and not in modern reptiles [5].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Changing views and the Renaissance of dinosaurs


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In the late 1960s, ideas arose that dinosaurs were not organized in the same way as modern reptiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It all started with John Ostrom's work on Deinonich and the evolution of birds [6].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

His student, Robert Becker, popularized the idea in a number of works, starting with Dinosaur Supremacy in 1968 [7].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In his publications, Becker argued the idea that dinosaurs and many others, even earlier archosaurs, were active warm-blooded animals capable of long periods of activity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker also pointed out that such ideas were widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but then (as well as assumptions about the connection of dinosaurs with birds) were abandoned - which gave he has reason to call the 20th century the era of “dinosaur depression”, and the scientific revolution that took place with his participation - the “Renaissance of dinosaurs”.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In April 1975, Scientific American published an article titled “The Renaissance of the Dinosaurs”.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In his works, Becker used many anatomical and statistical arguments to prove his point of view [8] [9].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This methodology was desperately criticized by scientists of the time [10], but has begun to be confirmed in modern research.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This debate sparked interest in new methods for determining the characteristics of the paleobiology of extinct animals, such as bone histology, which was studied to determine the growth rates of many extinct archosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Today, it is believed that many, or perhaps all, dinosaurs had a much higher metabolic rate than cold-blooded reptiles, but also that the picture may be more complex and diverse, than Becker originally suggested.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In particular, it was suggested that large dinosaurs maintained a relatively constant body temperature due to inertial endothermia [11] [12], or had an intermediate level of metabolism substances (so-called mesothermy) [13].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Food consumption and digestion


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

On the left|mini|skulls of large theropods were an ideal tool for killing and eating large prey.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The earliest dinosaurs were almost certainly predators and shared several anatomical features in common with immediate relatives such as Lagosuchus, including: relatively large, razor-shaped teeth located in large, wide-opening jaws that form a scissor-like bite; relatively small abdominal cavities, as carnivores do not need large digestive systems.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Later, predatory dinosaurs reached much larger sizes, but retained the same set of traits.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Instead of chewing food, these predators ripped off pieces and swallowed them whole, like modern crocodiles or birds of prey [14].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The eating habits of ornithomimosaurs and oviraptorosaurs are not obvious: although they developed from predatory theropods, their jaws are relatively small and they do not have the blade teeth of typical predatory dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

There is also no evidence of their diet in the form of petrified stomach contents [14].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The characteristics of other groups of dinosaurs clearly indicate that they were adapted to eat plant-based foods.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

These traits include:


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

jaws that had a small opening angle and teeth that were close to each other;


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

large abdominal cavities that can accommodate a large amount of plant material and store it for a long time necessary for digestion;


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

long intestines, which probably contained endosymbiotic microorganisms that released enzymes to digest cellulose: no vertebrate can digest this tough material its own enzymes [14].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Herbivorous sauropods did not grind food, as their teeth and jaws were only suitable for removing leaves from plants.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Bird dinosaurs, also herbivores, show many different adaptations for the consumption of plant foods.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Armored ankylosaurs and stegosaurs had small heads, weak jaws and teeth, and most likely fed like sauropods.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Pachycephalosaurids had small heads, weak jaws and teeth, but the absence of large abdominal cavities suggests a different diet, possibly consisting of fruits, seeds, or young shoots that were far more nutritious than leaves.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

On the other hand, some ornithopods, such as hypsilophodons, iguanodonts and various hadrosaurs, had horn beaks to tear off vegetation, jaws and teeth adapted for chewing food.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Horned ceratops had similar adaptations for feeding [14].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It has often been suggested that at least some dinosaurs swallowed stones known as touring to grind food in their stomachs, a feature they shared with birds.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In 2007, Oliver Wings reviewed descriptions of tours in scientific literature and found significant confusion, including even the lack of an agreed and objective definition of touring.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

He found that ingested hard stones or sand can help digestion in birds that feed mainly on grain, but may not be relevant to birds that eat insects in summer and seeds in winter, and usually get rid of rocks and sand in summer.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Touring was often described as important elements for sauropods, whose diet of vegetation would require very careful rubbing in the stomach.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

But Wings came to the conclusion that this idea was wrong: tours met only a small percentage of sauropod fossils; the number of tours found was small, and in many cases the stones were too soft to effectively grind food; most tours are heavily erased and relatively smooth, but touring used by modern animals to grind food is, on the contrary, like the rule is rough from wear and tear and destroyed by the acidic environment of the stomach.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Therefore, the tours of the sauropods were probably swallowed by them by accident.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

On the other hand, Wings concluded that tours found together with theropods fossils, such as Sinornithomimus and caudipteryx, resemble those found in birds, and that the use of touring for grinding food could appear at an early stage of development of dinosaurs, leading to birds [15] [16].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Reproductive biology


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

When laying eggs, females formed a special type of bone tissue in the limbs between the hard outer part of the bone and the bone marrow [17].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This so-called medullary bone that stores calcium, which is used to create eggshells.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This bone dissolves in modern birds after they have laid eggs [18].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Medullary bone was found in fossils of tyrannosaurus and allosaurus theropods, as well as in Tenontosaurus ornithopode [18] [19].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Since the dinosaur evolutionary line, which includes the allosaurus and tyrannosaurus, separated from the line leading to Tenontosaurus at the dawn of dinosaurus evolution, the presence of medullary bone in both groups indicates that all or most dinosaurs most likely produced medullary bone tissue.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

On the other hand, crocodiles, which are the second closest relatives of dinosaurs after birds, do not produce medullary bone tissue before laying eggs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This tissue may have first appeared in basal representatives of ornithodyres (a group of archosaurs that includes two evolutionary lines: dinosaurphs and pterosauromorphs) that precede dinosaurs [18].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Medullary bone was found in adolescents, which suggests that dinosaurs reached puberty before they fully grew up.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Sexual maturity until full size is found in modern reptiles, as well as in medium and large mammals, but birds and small mammals reach puberty only after they're fully grown.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Early puberty is usually associated with characteristics of the life cycle of animals: young individuals are born relatively well developed and independent, rather than helpless; and adult mortality can be quite high [18].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Respiratory system


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Air bags


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Since 1870, scientists have generally agreed that the postcranial skeletons of many dinosaurs have a large number of air-filled cavities that are particularly common in vertebrae.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Pneumatization of the skull (for example, paranasal sinuses) occurs in both synapsids and archosaurs, but postcranial pneumatization occurs only in birds, non-bird dinosaurs, and pterosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

For a long time, these structures were considered simple cavities for weight loss, but Becker suggested that they could be associated with air bags, resembling those present in modern birds [9].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Among modern vertebrates, birds have a unique respiratory system in complexity, characterized by a combination of small, weakly stretchable lungs, spacious pulmonary air bags that form cavities in the bones of the postcranial skeleton (that is, pneumatization), unidirectional ventilation of the lungs and effective cross gas exchange.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Crocodiles, other modern archosaurs, also have unidirectional ventilation of the lungs, but do not have air bags and pneumatization of the postcranial skeleton [20].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Similar unidirectional ventilation with cross gas exchange was later discovered in representatives of lepidosaurs, leading an active lifestyle and somewhat remote from the typical “reptile” level organizations — monitor lizards [21].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

John Ruben, one of the main critics of the Renaissance of the Dinosaurs and a supporter of traditional views, along with other authors (1997, 1999, 2003 and 2004) challenged the presence of air dinosaurs bags and suggested that dinosaurs had a respiratory system similar to that observed in modern crocodiles and is driven by a kind of hepatic piston - a muscle attached to mainly to the pubic bone and move the liver back, which causes the lungs to expand to breathe oxygen; and when these muscles relax, the lungs return to their former size and shape, and the animal exhales.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

They also provided their arguments as reason to doubt that birds come from dinosaurs [22] [23] [24] [25] [26].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Critics argue that rather modest modifications of the respiratory and circulatory systems would allow modern reptiles to achieve between 50% and 70% of the volume of oxygen flow passing through the lungs mammals of this size [27], and that the absence of air bags would not prevent an increase in metabolism in dinosaurs [28].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the main argument of John Ruben et al.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

in favor of dinosaurs having a hepatic-piston mechanism of lung ventilation, are Sinosauropteryx fossilized remains with soft tissue prints that have been severely deformed.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Further studies have shown that it was impossible to determine from them whether the liver retains its correct shape and whether it is able to act as part of the hepatic piston mechanism [29].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Some authors still mention the point of view of Ruben et al.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

, but do not give any comments. [30]


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Subsequently, various authors provided convincing evidence and arguments in favor of the presence of air sacs in sauropods, prosauropods [31], coelurosaurs [32], ceratosaurs [30] and theropods Aerosteon [33] and Coelophysis [34].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In advanced sauropods (“neosauropods”), the posterior dorsal vertebrae show clear signs of the presence of air sacs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In early sauropods, only cervical vertebrae have these features [35] [36].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The Coelophysis theropod comes from the Late Triassic and is one of the earliest dinosaurs whose fossils demonstrate the presence of channels for air sacs [34].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Aerosteon, a Late Cretaceous megaraptoride, had the most bird-like air sacs known to any non-bird dinosaurs [33].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Early sauropodomorphs, members of a group traditionally called “prosauropods”, could also have air bags.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Although possible pneumatic depressions were found in Plateosaurus and Thecodontosaurus, they were very small.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A 2007 study indicates that prosauropods probably had abdominal and cervical air sacs, based on evidence of their presence in nursing taxa (theropods and sauropods), although it is not known what structure their lungs had [31].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Another argument in favor of the presence of air bags and their participation in the ventilation of the lungs in prosauropods is related to the reconstruction of the air exchange volume (the volume of air moved with each act of breathing) Plateosaurus, which was supposed to have a ratio of inhaled air to body weight of about 29 ml/kg, which is similar to the values of geese and other birds, but much higher than in typical mammals [37].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Calculation of the volumes of various parts of the respiratory system of the Apatosaurus sauropod generally confirms the presence of bird air bags in sauropods:


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is assumed that Apatosaurus, like its closest modern relatives - crocodiles and birds, did not have a diaphragm, similar in structure to the diaphragm of mammals.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The dead space volume of a 30-ton sample would be about 184 liters.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This is the total volume of the mouth, trachea, and air tubes.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

If the animal exhales less than this, stagnant air cannot be released and will be sucked back into the lungs the next time it breathes in.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Estimates of tidal volume — the amount of air transported to or from the lungs in one act of breathing, depend on the type of respiratory system of the animal: 904 liters if it is like a bird; 225 liters if like a bird; 225 liters if like a bird mammal; 19 liters if like a cold-blooded reptile.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Based on this, the apatosaurus could not have a “reptilian” respiratory system, since in this case the tidal volume would be less than the volume of dead space.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Similarly, the mammalian respiratory system would provide the lungs with only about 41 liters of fresh, oxygenated air with each breath, which was very small.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Therefore, the apatosaurus must have a respiratory system unknown to modern animals, or like birds, with several air bags and unidirectional ventilation of the lungs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, with a bird respiratory system with air sacs, an apatosaurus would have enough lungs with a volume of about 600 liters, while in a respiratory system like mammals, an apatosaurus would need an apatosaurus The lung volume would be about 2,950 liters, which would exceed approximately 1,700 liters of space available in the chest of the apatosaurus [38].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

So far, no clear signs of the presence of air sacs in poultry dinosaurs have been found (data is limited to implicit evidence of the possible presence of non-invasive air sacs in Scelidosaurus and Mantellisaurus, and one hollow finding of an alleged pneumatic hole in the rib of the Iguanodont Delapparentia).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, it is assumed that they may have air bags that do not form cavities in the bones, or the circulation of large volumes of air in the lungs was achieved in a different way.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Air bags have been described for pterosaurs, which may indicate that some features of the respiratory system inherent in modern birds may have appeared in the common ancestor of pterosaurs and dinosaurs among basal ornithodiers [39] [40].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

If the sequence of development of air sacs in dinosaurs corresponds to the sequence of their development found in bird embryos, air bags appeared even before the formation of cavities in the skeleton, which appear in later forms of lizard dinosaurs, but may not have developed in poultry dinosaurs [34].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Interestingly, many Triassic taxa of archosaurs and even developed archosauromorphs (for example, Erythrosuchus) have a complex set of plates and depressions on the vertebrae, which are most likely homologous similar structures in ornithodires.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

They are not associated with cavities in the bones and, as shown in earlier works, cannot be considered a real pneumatization of the skeleton and the development of an air bag system in these animals is unequivocally proved.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

On the other hand, the system of small non-invasive pulmonary air sacs that could theoretically be present in these taxa may be a basal feature for archosaurs as a whole, and be secondary lost in crurotarzes or at least in crocodiles [41] [42] [43].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In general, three explanations were proposed for the development of air bags in dinosaurs [33]:


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Increased breathing capacity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This is probably the most common hypothesis and fits well with the idea that dinosaurs had a fairly high baseline metabolic rate.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Improved balance and maneuverability by reducing the center of gravity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, this does not explain the expansion of air bags in quadcopal taxa.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

As a cooling mechanism.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaur breathing systems with bird air bags may have been able to maintain a higher level of activity than is available for mammals of similar size.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition to a very efficient supply of oxygen to the blood, a rapidly circulating airflow would be an effective cooling mechanism that is necessary for animals that are active lives but are too large to get rid of excess heat through their skins [44].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Paleontologist Peter Ward believes that the evolution of the air bag system, which even the earliest dinosaurs had, may have originally been a response to the very low (11%) oxygen content in atmosphere in the Triassic period [45].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Hooked rib processes


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Birds have bone outgrowths emanating from the vertical segment of each rib in the caudal direction and giving the pectoral muscles more levers to improve the oxygen supply.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The size of the hook-shaped processes of the ribs is related to the way of life of birds and the amount of oxygen inhaled: they are shortest in walking birds and the longest in floating birds, which must replenish quickly oxygen when surfacing.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Hook-shaped rib processes were also found in non-bird theropods of maniraptors, proportionally reminiscent of those present in modern diving birds and indicating high oxygen requirements [46] [47].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Processes that may have functioned similarly were observed in the Thescelosaurus ornitishia and have been interpreted as evidence of high oxygen consumption and therefore high metabolic rates [48].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Nasal turbines


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Nasal (or respiratory) turbines are folded structures of thin bone in the nasal cavity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

They are present in most mammals and birds and are lined with mucous membranes that perform two functions: they improve the sense of smell by increasing the area for analyzing odors, and heat and moisturize the inhaled air, take heat and moisture from the exhaled air to prevent the lungs from drying out.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

John Ruben and other critics argued that dinosaurs and other archosaurs (such as terrestrial crocodilomorphs), which are assumed to be warm-blooded, did not show any signs of nasal turbines.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

All the dinosaurs they examined had nasal passages that were too narrow and short to accommodate nasal turbines, and therefore, from their point of view, dinosaurs could not withstand the speed respiration necessary to ensure the metabolic level of mammals or birds during rest, otherwise their lungs would be dried [22] [23] [49] [50].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, this argument has been seriously challenged.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Nasal turbinals are absent or very small in some birds (e.g. Palaeognathae, Procellariiformes, and Falconiformes) and mammals (e.g. cetaceans, anteaters, bats, elephants, and most primates), although these animals are certainly warm-blooded and in some cases very active [51] [52] [53] [54] [55].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The respiratory systems of some ectothermic animals, such as lizards (especially monitor lizards and tegu [21], which have very high aerobic abilities [56]), also allow large amounts of oxygen to pass through, but the absence of nasal turbinalia does not lead to drying of the lungs [55].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Other studies conclude that nasal turbines are fragile and rarely found as fossils.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In particular, they were not found in fossil birds [57].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In 2014, Jason Bourke and co-authors in Anatomical Record reported the detection of nasal turbinalia in pachycephalosaurs [58].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, these bones were described back in 1977 in the Saichania ankylosaurid [59].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Cardiovascular system


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is quite expected that dinosaurs will have four-chambered hearts capable of providing enough blood pressure to transport blood vertically more than one meter from hearts [55].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Apparently, the four-chambered heart is the basal sign of the circulatory system in all archosaurs, since it is present like crocodiles (in which it is nevertheless changed a second time for a decrease in the level of metabolism [55]), and in birds [60].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is currently believed that the four-chamber synapsids and archosaurs developed independently of the mixing of arterial and venous blood of the three-chambered heart of lepidosaurs, turtles and amphibians (which in turn also developed independently of each other), and all these structures originate from the hearts of racemose fish, most likely having four incompletely separated chambers (a similar structure is present in primitive neotenic amphibians from the siren family) [61] [62].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is curious that in monitor lizards, pythons and terrestrial turtles (some of which, in turn, have cases of optional endothermia or mesothermia), the heart is functionally close to four-chamber, almost completely excluding the mixing of arterial and venous blood [63] [64] [65].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, since their ancestors of these animals once developed a three-chambered heart, the separation of arterial and venous blood in them is not as effective as in animals with initially four-chamber hearts that completely lack it without additional modifications (as in the heart of crocodiles) [64].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In 2000, the skeleton of the Thescelosaurus dinosaurus was described, which has what has been identified as fossilized remains of a four-chambered heart and aorta.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The authors interpreted this heart structure as an indication of an increased metabolic rate and warm-blooded Tescelosaurus [66].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, their identification has been challenged; other researchers published an article claiming that the “heart” is actually a simple piece of mineral.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

They note that the anatomy of this object is incorrect, and a similar mineral formation is located behind the right leg [67].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the authors of the original description defended their position; they agreed that the formation contains some mineral inclusions, but this does not apply to the structure, which they say is partially preserved some parts of the heart and aorta [68].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Regardless of the identification of this object, this may have little to do with the metabolic rate, since the four-chambered heart only allows the animal to develop a high metabolic rate, but not necessarily means its presence [60].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Growth rates


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaur eggs are relatively small and even developed embryos of large dinosaurs have been found in relatively small eggs (for example, Maiasaura) [69].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaurs of all sizes grew relatively faster than modern cold-blooded reptiles; but the closest analogue to warm-blooded animals in terms of growth rate depends on specific size categories [70] [71 ]:


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

According to a 2004 study, Tyrannosaurus rex reached a mass of about 500 kg at the age of 10, after which it grew very quickly until the age of 20 (gaining more than 500 kg per year), where it reached weight, at the most conservative estimates, at least 5-6 tons, after which growth slowed down significantly [72] [73].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In 2008, a study of one skeleton of the Hadrosaurus Hypacrosaurus showed that this dinosaur grew even faster, reaching its full size at about 15 years of age.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The authors found that this is consistent with the life cycle theory that prey species should grow faster than their predators if they lose a lot of young animals to predation, and local the environment provides sufficient resources for rapid growth [74].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The main problem in assessing the growth rate of dinosaurs is that the so-called “tree rings” on the bone cut could actually be laid more than once a year, which is typical of modern endotherms, and thus neutralize all the results obtained in such studies [75].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, the large range of estimates of the body weight of dinosaurs, given in various studies, can significantly affect the annual increase in the weight of a growing animal when assessing the growth rate.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Metabolism