Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

ET


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Ilamatekutli (Nahuatl languages: Ilamatecuhtli) - “Old Lady”, in Aztec mythology, a goddess associated with the cult of land and maize, the first wife of Mishkoatl, one of the hypostases of the goddess of land and procreation Cihuacoatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Itzlacoliuhque (Nahuatl languages: Itzlacoliuhque) is the god of the obsidian knife, one of the incarnations of Tezcatlipoca


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Itzli is the god of the stone knife and sacrifices.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Itzpapalotl (Nahuatl languages: Itzpapalotl) - “Obsidian butterfly”, the goddess of fate associated with the cult of plants.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Originally, she was one of the chichimek hunting deities.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

It was depicted as a butterfly with wings dotted around the edges with obsidian blades, or as a woman with jaguar claws on her arms and legs.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

She was killed by Mishkoatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Ishkuina (Nahuatl languages: Ixcuina) - “Mud Eater”; goddess of lust, patroness of prostitutes and cheating spouses, one of the hypostases of Tlasolteotl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Ixtlilton (Nahuatl languages: Ixtlilton) - “Black Face”, the goddess of medicine, health and healing, as well as celebrations and games.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

She was sacrificed when the child began to speak; sick children were treated with water from jugs in front of the statue of Ixtlilton.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

UNTO


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Kamashtli (Nahuatl languages: Camaxtli) is the god of war, hunting and destiny.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

The fire maker.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

One of the four gods who created the world.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

He is also the tribal god of the Chichimeks.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Quetzalcoatl, (Tlahuitzcalpantecu (x) aphids, Eekatl, Xie Acatl Topiltsin Quetzalcoatl) (Nahuatl languages: Quetzalcóatl (Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, Ehecatl, Ce Ácatl Topiltzin Quetzalcóatl)) God is the patron of sciences, art, it was he who taught the tribes agriculture, games, songs and dances.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Quetzalcoatl — Feathered Serpent (decorated with green quetzal feathers).


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

He called for abandoning human sacrifices, leading a measured and righteous lifestyle.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

According to one legend, he was nailed by the sea to the shore, tied to boards or logs, was not similar in appearance to the local population: fair-skinned, with red hair (possibly blond, red).


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Quetzalcoatl's opponents abused him angrily - they gave him drink unconscious.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Not remembering what he was doing, he spent the night with his sister, and in the morning, seeing what he had done, he went overseas, but promised to return and arrange a trial, rewarding everyone on his deeds.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

He even gave me a date of return.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

His image is often associated with Jesus.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

And the conquistadors who came to Mexico were first mistaken for its harbingers.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Coatlicue (Nahuatl languages: Coatlicue) — “She Wears a Snake Dress”; also Coatlantonan, “Our Snake Mother”.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sometimes it is identified with Teteoinnan (“Mother of the Gods”), the goddesses Toshi and Sihuacoatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

In Aztec mythology, she is the goddess of earth and fire.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

It is the beginning and the end of life at the same time.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Coyolshauki (Nahuatl languages: Coyolxauhqui) - “Golden Bells”.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

The goddess of the moon, sister of Senzonuitznahua, is murdered by Huitzilopochtli.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Cochimetl (Nahuatl languages: Cochimetl) is the god of commerce, the patron saint of merchants and merchants.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

METRES


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Mayahual (Nahuatl languages: Mayáhuel (Mayahual, Mayóuel) was originally one of the goddesses of fertility who gave people the octley alcoholic drink.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Macuilxochitl is another name for the god Xochipilli.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Malinalxochi (Nahuatl languages: Malinalxochi) is the sister of Huitzilopochtli in Aztec mythology; a sorceress who has power over scorpions, snakes and other stinging and biting inhabitants of the deserts.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Metztli (Nahuatl languages: Metztli (Metztli, Tecuciztécatl, Tecciztecatl)) - “Moon”, the Aztec deity of the moon, night and farmers, the patron saint of the harvest, sometimes identified with Tezcatlipoca, as well as with the god Texistecatl and with the goddesses of the Moon Coyolshauki and Youalticitl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Meshtli (Nahuatl languages: Mextli) is an Aztec god of war and storms, often associated with Huitzilopochtli, or with the gods Mextly-Texistecatl and Miscoatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Mictlancihuatl (Nahuatl languages: Mictlancihuatl) is the wife of Mictlantekutli, who ruled with him in the ninth underworld of Mictlan.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Mictlantekutli (Mictlantekukhtli, Mictlancihuatl (Nahuatl languages: Mictecacíhuatl (Mictlancíhuatl)) - “Lord of Mictlan”.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

In Aztec mythology, the lord of the afterlife (underground) world Mictlan.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Mixcóatl - Cloud Serpent, or Istac Mishkoatl “White Cloud Serpent”, the deity of the Milky Way, stars, especially the North Star, of which he personified, and clouds.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

N


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nanauatzin (Nahuatl languages: Nanauatzin) is an Aztec god who, at the beginning of the Fifth Age of Peace, threw himself into the fire, becoming the Sun.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

See also Tonatiu.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

ABOUT


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Omakatl (Nahuatl languages: Omacatl) is “two reeds”, the god of holidays and fun.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Omesihuatl (Nahuatl languages: Omecihuatl) is the goddess of food, associated with Tonacacihuatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Ometekutli (Nahuatl languages: Ometecuhtli) is the god of food, associated with Tonacatecutli.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Ometheotl (Nahuatl languages: Ometéotl) is the Lord of duality.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sometimes he was depicted with two faces — young men and skulls (life and death, youth and old age).


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Opochtli (Nahuatl languages: Opochtli) is the patron god of hunting.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

N


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Pinal (Nahuatl languages: Paynal) was a messenger of Huitzilopochtli, who served his duties while Huitzilopochtli was in the afterlife.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Patecatl (Nahuatl languages: Patecatl) is the patron god of medicine.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

WITH


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Centeotl (Nahuatl languages: Centéotl, Cinteotl, Centeocihuatl) is the deity of corn.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Senzon Mimishkoa (Nahuatl languages: Centzon Mimixcoa) - 400 gods of northern stars.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Senzon Totochtin (Nahuatl languages: Centzon Totochtin) - 400 gods of debauchery and drunkenness.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Senzonuiznahua (Nahuatl languages: Centzon Huitznáhuac) - 400 gods of southern stars.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sipactli (Nahuatl languages: Cipactli) - sea monster, half-crocodile hemisphere, husband of Tlaltekutli.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sitlalatonac (Nahuatl languages: Citlalatonac) is a creator god, hypostasis of Tonacatekutli.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sitlalicue (Nahuatl languages: Citlalicue) is a creator goddess, embodiment of the Milky Way, wife of Sitlalatonak.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Cihuacoatl or Nahuatl languages: Ciucoatl is the goddess of procreation and war, identified with Coatlicue.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

T


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Texistecatl (Nahuatl languages: Tecciztecatl) is a male hypostasis of the deity of the moon.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tenochtitlan (Nahuatl languages: Tenochtitlan) is not a god, but a city, the capital of the Aztec Empire.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Its inhabitants are shackles.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

According to legend, the place of foundation of the city was indicated to the Aztecs after many years of wandering.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

An eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its paws — this is the sign that the shadows were looking for in order to settle down and establish a city.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

This sign is now on the coat of arms of Mexico.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

It is located within the boundaries of today's


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Teotihuacan is “The place of transformation into a god”; one of the oldest cities, existed even before the Toltecs.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Teoyaomqui (Nahuatl languages: Teoyaomqui) is the patron god of dead warriors.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tepeyollotl (Nahuatl languages: Tepeyollotl) is the god of mountains, caves and earthquakes.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tezcatlipoca (Nahuatl languages: Tezcatlipoca (Omácatl, Titlacauan)) - “Smoking Mirror”, one of the supreme gods, the antipode of Quetzalcoatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Teteoinnan (Nahuatl languages: Teteoinnan) is one of the hypostases of the mother goddess Tosi or Tlasolteotl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tlaltekutli (Nahuatl languages: Tlaltecuhtli) - “Lord of the Earth”, a monster that personifies the earth.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tlaloc (Nahuatl languages: Tláloc (Nuhualpilli)), Tlaloc Nahuac, in Aztec mythology, the god of rain.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

A.K.A. Tloke Nauake (see below)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tlazolteotl (Nahuatl languages: Tlazoltéotl (Tlaelquani, Tlazolteotli, Spanish: Devoradora de la Mugre) - “Mud Eater”, cleansing from unauthorized passions, patroness of prostitutes and cheating spouses.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tlahuiscalpantekutli (Tlahuitzcalpantecu (x) aphids) cm. Quetzalcoatl


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Tloquenahuaque is the god of rain.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

It was symbolized by rain jets (rains were rare and very desirable) and ropes.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tonacacihuatl (Nahuatl languages: Tonacacihuatl)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tonacatecuhtli (Nahuatl languages: Tonacatecuhtli) - “Lord of Our Existence”, the supreme creator god, husband of Tonacacihuatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tonantzin (Nahuatl languages: Tonantzin) - “Our mother”, hypostasis of Cihuacoatl.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Tonatiu (Nahuatl languages: Tonatiuh), the god of the sun and sky, the patron saint of warriors, rules the current 5th era.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Toshi (Nahuatl languages: Toci) - “Our grandmother”, mother goddess, goddess of earth and healing.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Y


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Huitzilopochtli (Nahuatl languages: Huitzilopochtli (Mextli, Mexitl, Uitzilopochtli)) - “Hummingbird of the South”, god of the Sun and War.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Huixtocihuatl is the goddess of salt and salt water.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Huehuetéotl (Ueueteotl, Xiuhtecuhtli, Xiutechuhtli)) - “A very old god”, the hypostasis of Shiutekutli, the god of fire.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Huehuecóyotl (Ueuecoyotl)) - “A very old coyote”, the god of fun, music, dance, the hypostasis of Xochipilli, the fiery god of the Otomi people.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

H


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Chalmecatl is one of the gods of Mictlan; the deity of the North.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nahuatl languages: Chalchiuhtlatonal) is the god of water.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chalchiutotolin (Nahuatl languages: Chalchiuhtotolin)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chalchiutlicue (Nahuatl languages: Chalchitlicue) — “She is dressed in jade”, goddess of fresh water, wife of Tlaloc, mother of Senzon Mimishkoa


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chantico (Nahuatl languages: Chantico) - the goddess of the home hearth, wife of Shiutekutli.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chicomecoatl (Chalchihuatl, Chicomecatl, Xilonen) (Nahuatl languages: Chicomecóatl) is a hypostasis of Shilonen.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chicomexochtli (Nahuatl languages: Chicomexochtli) is the patron god of artists.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chiconahui (Nahuatl languages: Chiconahui) is the goddess of the hearth, the guardian of families.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chiconahuiehecatl (Nahuatl languages: Chiconahuiehecatl) is one of the insignificant creator gods.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

SH


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Shilonen (Nahuatl languages: Xilonen) is the goddess of corn (double of Centeotl), the hearth.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Shipe-Totek (our mister ragged) (Spanish: Xipe Tótec Nuestro Señor Desollado) is a deity of the seasons.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Shiucoatl (Nahuatl languages: Xiuhcoatl)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Shiutekutli (Nahuatl languages: Xiuhtecuhtli) - “Lord of the Mountains”, god of fire, lord of volcanoes.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Chocotl (Nahuatl languages: Xócotl)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sholotl (Nahuatl languages: Xolotl)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Xochiquetzal (Nahuatl languages: Xochiquetzal) is the goddess of flowers.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Xochipilli (Nahuatl languages: Xochipilli) is the God of Flowers Xochipilli, “the patron deity of sacred hallucinogenic plants” and “flowery dreams”.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

“Xochi” or “xochitl” means “flower” in Nahuatl, while “pilli” means “prince” or “child”.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Shochipilli is the prince of flowers, love, games, beauty, songs and dances.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Shochipilli is the god of the altered state of consciousness caused by the flower, but he is also the god of the altered state of consciousness caused by the song.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Xochitl (flower) gives rise to a cuicatl (song), and vice versa.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

UH


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Eekatl (Nahuatl languages: Ehecatl) - the god of wind, was considered the hypostasis of Quetzalcoatl, ruled the Second Age.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

I


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Yakatecutli (Nahuatl languages: Yacatecuhtli) is the patron god of travelers.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Sages and cultural heroes


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

tlamatini, tlamatinime


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Nezahualcóyotl (Nahuatl languages: Nezahualcóyotl)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Notes


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

Literature


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

//Mythological Dictionary/Ch.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

ed.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

E.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

M. Meletinsky.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

— M. :Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

— 672 p.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

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Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

References


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology

in the encyclopedia “Myths of the Peoples of the World”, published by the publishing house “Soviet Encyclopedia” in 1987-1988.


Question: What was the name of the main Aztec god?

Aztec mythology


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Virus (Latin: virus — poison [1]) is a non-cellular infectious agent that can only be reproduced inside living cells [comment 1].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses affect all types of organisms, from plants and animals to bacteria and archaea [2] (bacterial viruses are commonly referred to as bacteriophages).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses have also been found that can replicate only in the presence of other viruses (satellite viruses).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Since the publication in 1892 of an article by Dmitry Ivanovsky describing the non-bacterial pathogen of tobacco plants [3] [4] and the discovery in 1898 by Martin Beyerink of the tobacco mosaic virus [5] have been detailed more than 6,000 types of viruses have been described [6], although it is estimated that there are more than one hundred million of them [7].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous biological form [8] [9].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The study of viruses is engaged in the science of virology, a branch of microbiology.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In animals, viral infections cause an immune response, which most often leads to the destruction of the pathogenic virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

An immune response can also be triggered by vaccines that give active acquired immunity against a specific viral infection.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, some viruses, including the human immunodeficiency virus and viral hepatitis pathogens, manage to escape the immune response, causing chronic illness.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Antibiotics do not work on viruses, but several antiviral drugs have been developed.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Name etymology


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The word “virus” is derived from Latin: virus means “poison” [1].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

It was first used to refer to an agent capable of causing an infectious disease in 1728 [10], even before the discovery of viruses made in 1892 by Dmitry Ivanovsky; he also introduced the term filtered virus as a designation of a non-bacterial pathogenic agent that can pass through bacterial filters - to be filtered.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The term “virion”, the creation of which dates back to 1959 [11], is used to refer to a single stable viral particle that has left the cell and can infect other cells of the same type [12].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Research history


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Mini|Martin Beyerink in his lab in 1921


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

As data on infectious diseases of various organisms accumulated, it became obvious that not all of them are caused by pathogens known at the time - bacteria, protists or microscopic fungi.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In particular, Louis Pasteur could not find the agent that causes rabies and assumed that the pathogen was too small to be seen through a microscope [13].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1884, French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter (now known as the Chamberland filter or the Chamberlan-Pasteur filter) that has pores smaller than bacteria.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

With this filter, bacteria can be completely removed from the solution [14].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1892, Russian biologist Dmitry Ivanovsky used it to study a species now known as the tobacco mosaic virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

His experiments have shown that the extract of ground leaves of infected tobacco plants retains infectious properties even after filtration.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Ivanovsky suggested that the infection could be caused by a toxin released by bacteria, but he did not develop this idea [15].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

At that time, it was believed that any infectious agent could be isolated on a filter and grown in a nutrient medium — this is one of the postulates of the microbial theory of diseases [5].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In addition, Ivanovsky, through an optical microscope, observed crystal-like bodies in infected plant cells, which in the modern sense were clusters of viruses, later they were called” Ivanovsky crystals” [16].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1898, Dutch microbiologist Martin Beyerink repeated Ivanovsky's experiments and came to the conclusion that the infectious material that passed through the filter is nothing more than a new form of infectious agents [17].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

He noted that the agent multiplied only in dividing cells, but his experiments did not reveal that it was particles.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Beyerink called it Contagium vivum fluidum (literally Latin: soluble living microbe) and reintroduced the word “virus” [15].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

He claimed that the virus was liquid by nature.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This theory was later refuted by Wendell Stanley, who proved that viruses are particles [15].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In the same year, Friedrich Löffler and Paul Frosch discovered the first animal virus, the causative agent of foot and mouth disease (aphtovirus), by passing it through a similar filter [18].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

At the beginning of the 20th century, the English bacteriologist Frederick Tworth discovered a group of viruses that infect bacteria (now known as bacteriophages [19] or simply phages), and the French-Canadian microbiologist Felix D'Hérelle described viruses that, when added to bacteria on agar, form a space around them with dead bacteria.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

D'Hérelle made accurate dilutions of the suspension of these viruses and established the largest dilution (the lowest concentration of viruses), in which not all bacteria die, but nevertheless separate areas with dead cells.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

After calculating the number of such areas and taking into account the dilution coefficient, he determined the number of viral particles in the initial suspension [20].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Phages were declared a potential remedy for diseases such as typhoid and cholera, but this was forgotten due to the discovery of the unique properties of penicillin.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The study of phages provided information on the phenomenon of “turning on” and “off” genes, and also made it possible to use them to introduce foreign genes into the bacterial genome.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

By the end of the 19th century, it was known that viruses have infectious properties, are able to pass through filters and need a living host to reproduce.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

At that time, viruses were cultivated for research purposes only in plants and animals.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1906, Ross Granville Harrison invented a method for growing tissue in lymph, and in 1913 Steinard, Israel, and Lambert used this method to grow the smallpox vaccine virus on tissue fragments guinea pig cornea [21].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1928, G. B.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Maitland and M. K. Maitland grew the smallpox vaccine virus on a suspension of crushed chicken kidneys.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This method was not widely used until the late 1950s, when poliovirus was grown on a large scale for vaccine production [22].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Another major achievement belongs to the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpastcher; in 1939, he grew the influenza virus and several other viruses in fertilized chicken eggs [23].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1949, John Franklin Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick Robbins grew poliovirus on a culture of human embryo cells.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

It was the first virus not grown on animal tissue or eggs.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This work enabled Jonas Salk to create an effective polio vaccine (polio vaccine) [24].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The first images of viruses were obtained after the invention of an electron microscope by German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll [25].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1935, American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley carefully studied the tobacco mosaic virus and found that it was mostly protein [26].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

After a short time, this virus was divided into protein and RNA components [27].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to crystallize among viruses, which allowed us to learn a lot about its structure.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The first radiograph of the crystallized virus was obtained by Bernal and Fenkuchen in the late 1930s.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Based on her images, Rosalind Franklin determined the complete structure of the virus in 1955 [28].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In the same year, Heinz Frenkel-Conrath and Robley Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and shell protein are capable of self-assembling into a functional virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This allowed them to assume that such a mechanism underlies the assembly of viruses within host cells [29].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The second half of the 20th century was the heyday of virology.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

At that time, more than 2,000 species of animal, plant and bacterial viruses were discovered [30].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1957, horse arterivirus and the causative agent of viral diarrhea of cows (pestivirus) were discovered.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1963, Baruch Blamberg discovered the hepatitis B virus [31], and in 1965 Howard Temin described the first retrovirus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1970, Temin and David Baltimore independently described reverse transcriptase, a key enzyme by which retroviruses synthesize DNA copies of their RNA [32].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 1983, a team of scientists led by Luc Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in France first isolated a retrovirus now known as HIV [33].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 2002, New York University created the first synthetic virus (polio virus) [34].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Origins


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The appearance of viruses on the evolutionary tree of life is unclear: some of them may have formed from plasmids, small DNA molecules that can be transmitted from one cell to another, while others may originate from bacteria.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which causes genetic diversity [35].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some consider viruses to be a special form of life, because they have genetic material, are able to create viruses like themselves, and evolve through natural selection.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, viruses lack important characteristics (such as cellular structure) without which they cannot be attributed to the living.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Because they have some, but not all, properties, viruses are described as “organisms on the edge of life.”


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are found wherever there is life, and viruses have probably existed since the first living cells appeared [36].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The origin of viruses is unclear, since they do not leave any fossil remains and their family ties can only be studied by molecular phylogenetics [37].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Hypotheses about the origin of viruses


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

There are three main hypotheses about the origin of viruses [38] [39]:


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

regressive hypothesis;


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

the hypothesis of cellular origin;


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

co-evolution hypothesis.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Regressive hypothesis


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

According to this hypothesis, viruses were once small cells parasitizing larger cells.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Over time, these cells supposedly lost genes that were “superfluous” in the parasitic lifestyle.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This hypothesis is based on the observation that some bacteria, namely rickettsia and chlamydia, are cellular organisms that, however, like viruses, can only multiply inside another cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This hypothesis is also called the degeneration hypothesis [40] [41] or the reduction hypothesis [42].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Cellular origin hypothesis


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some viruses may have appeared from fragments of DNA or RNA that were “released” from the genome of a larger organism.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Such fragments can come from plasmids (DNA molecules that can be transmitted from cell to cell) or from transposons (DNA molecules that replicate and move from place to place within the genome) [43].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Transposons, formerly called “jumping genes”, are examples of mobile genetic elements, and may have originated some viruses from them.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Transposons were discovered by Barbara McClintock in 1950 in corn [44].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This hypothesis is also called the nomadic hypothesis [5] [45] or the escape hypothesis [42].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Co-evolution hypothesis


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This hypothesis suggests that viruses originated from complex complexes of proteins and nucleic acids at the same time as the first living cells on Earth, and have been dependent on cellular life for billions of years.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In addition to viruses, there are other non-cellular life forms.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

For example, viroids are RNA molecules that are not considered viruses because they do not have a protein envelope.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, a number of characteristics bring them closer to some viruses, and therefore they are classified as subviral particles [46].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viroids are important plant pathogens [47].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

They do not encode their own proteins, but interact with the host cell and use it to replicate their RNA [48].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The hepatitis D virus has an RNA genome similar to the viroid genome, but it is not able to synthesize the envelope protein itself.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

It uses the hepatitis B virus capsid protein to form viral particles and can only multiply in cells infected with the virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Thus, the hepatitis D virus is a defective virus [49].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Sputnik virophage similarly depends on the mimivirus that affects the protozoan Acanthamoeba castellanii [50].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

These viruses depend on the presence of another virus in the host cell and are called satellite viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Such viruses demonstrate what an intermediate link between viruses and viroids may look like [51] [52].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Each of these hypotheses has its weaknesses: the regressive hypothesis does not explain why even the smallest cellular parasites do not resemble viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The escape hypothesis does not explain the appearance of capsid and other components of the viral particle.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The co-evolution hypothesis contradicts the definition of viruses as non-cellular particles dependent on host cells [42].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Nevertheless, many experts now recognize viruses as ancient organisms that appeared, presumably, even before the division of cell life into three domains [53].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This is confirmed by the fact that some viral proteins do not show homology with proteins of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, which indicates a relatively long isolation of this group.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

For the rest, it is not possible to reliably explain the origin of viruses on the basis of three entrenched classical hypotheses, which makes it necessary to revise and refine these hypotheses [53].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

RNA world


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The RNA world hypothesis [54] and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences provide a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different groups of viruses and can help determine ancestors of modern viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

So far, such studies have not yet clarified which of the three main hypotheses is correct [54].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, it seems unlikely that all modern viruses have a common ancestor, and it is possible that viruses have independently occurred several times in the past through one or more mechanisms, since between different groups of viruses have significant differences in the organization of genetic material [55].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Prions


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Prions are infectious protein molecules that do not contain DNA or RNA [56].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

They cause diseases such as sheep pruritus [57], bovine spongiform encephalopathy, and chronic weakness (English: chronic wasting disease) in deer.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Human prion diseases include chicken, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and Gerstman-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome [58].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Prions can stimulate the formation of their own copies.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Prion protein can exist in two isoforms: normal (PrPC) and prion (PrPSc).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The prion form, interacting with normal protein, contributes to its transformation into a prion form.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Although prions are fundamentally different from viruses and viroids, their discovery gives more reason to believe that viruses may have originated from self-replicating molecules [59].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Biology


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses as a form of life


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

As long as the virus is in the extracellular environment or in the process of infecting a cell, it exists as an independent particle.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viral particles (virions) consist of two or three components: genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA (some, for example, mimiviruses, have both types of molecules); a protein membrane (capsid) that protects these molecules, and, in some cases, additional lipid membranes.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The presence of a capsid distinguishes viruses from virus-like infectious nucleic acids - viroids.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Depending on what type of nucleic acid the genetic material is represented, DNA-containing viruses and RNA-containing viruses are isolated; this principle is based on the classification of viruses according to Baltimore.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Previously, prions were also mistakenly classified as viruses, but later it turned out that these pathogens are special infectious proteins and do not contain nucleic acids.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The form of viruses varies from simple spiral and icosahedral to more complex structures.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The average virus is about one hundredth the size of the average bacterium.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Most viruses are too small to be clearly visible under a light microscope.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are obligate parasites, as they are not able to multiply outside the cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Outside the cell, viral particles do not show signs of living and behave like particles of biopolymers.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses differ from living parasitic organisms by the complete absence of basic and energy metabolism and the absence of the most complex element of living systems - the translation apparatus (protein synthesis), the degree the complexity of which exceeds that of the viruses themselves.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

According to one definition, viruses are a form of life, according to another, viruses are complexes of organic molecules that interact with living organisms.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are described as “organisms on the border of the living” [18].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are similar to living organisms in that they have their own set of genes and evolve through natural selection [60], as well as in that they are able to multiply, creating their own copies by self-assembly .


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses have genetic material, but lack cellular structure, and this trait is usually considered as a fundamental property of living matter.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses do not have their own metabolism, and they need a host cell to synthesize their own molecules.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

For this reason, they are not able to multiply outside the cell [61].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

At the same time, bacteria such as rickettsia and chlamydia, despite the fact that they cannot multiply outside the host cells, are considered living organisms [62] [63].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Generally accepted forms of life multiply by cell division, while viral particles spontaneously collect in an infected cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Virus multiplication differs from crystal growth in that viruses inherit mutations and are under pressure from natural selection.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The self-assembly of viral particles in the cell provides additional confirmation of the hypothesis that life could have originated in the form of self-assembling organic molecules [2].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Data published in 2013 that some bacteriophages have their own immune system capable of adapting [64] are an additional argument in favor of defining the virus as a form life.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Structure


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses show a huge variety of shapes and sizes.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

As a rule, viruses are much smaller than bacteria.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Most of the viruses studied have a diameter in the range from 20 to 300 nm.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some filoviruses are up to 1400 nm in length, but their diameter is only 80 nm [65].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 2013, Pandoravirus with a size of 1 × 0.5 microns was considered the largest known virus, but in 2014, Pithovirus was described from permafrost from Siberia, reaching 1.5 microns in length and 0.5 microns in diameter.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

It is currently considered the largest known virus [66].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Most virions cannot be seen through a light microscope, so electronic ones are used — both scanning and translucent [67].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In order for viruses to stand out sharply against the surrounding background, electron-dense “dyes” are used.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

They are solutions of salts of heavy metals, such as tungsten, that scatter electrons on the surface they cover.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, treatment with such substances impairs the visibility of small parts.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In the case of negative contrast, only the background is “colored” [68].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

A mature viral particle, known as virion, consists of a nucleic acid coated with a protective protein membrane, a capsid.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The capsid consists of the same protein subunits called capsomers [69].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses may also have a lipid membrane on top of the capsid (supercapsid) formed from the host cell membrane.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The capsid consists of proteins encoded by the viral genome, and its form underlies the classification of viruses according to morphological features [70] [71].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Complex viruses, in addition, encode special proteins that help in capsid assembly.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Protein and nucleic acid complexes are known as nucleoproteins, and the complex of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called nucleocapsid.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The shape of the capsid and virion as a whole can be mechanically (physically) examined using a scanning atomic force microscope [72] [73].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Capsid


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Four morphological types of virus capsids are classified: spiral, icosahedral, oblong and complex.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Spiral


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

These capsids consist of one type of capsomers, laid in a spiral around a central axis.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In the center of this structure, there may be a central cavity or channel.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This organization of capsomers leads to the formation of rod-shaped and threadlike virions: they can be short and very dense or long and very flexible.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The genetic material is usually represented by single-stranded RNA (in some cases single-stranded DNA) and is retained in the protein spiral by ionic interactions between negative charges on nucleic acids and positive charges on proteins.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In general, the length of the spiral capsid depends on the length of the nucleic acid surrounded by it, and the diameter is determined by the size and location of the capsomers.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

An example of a spiral virus is the tobacco mosaic virus [74].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

icosahedral


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Most animal viruses are icosahedral or almost spherical in shape with icosahedral symmetry.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The correct icosahedron is the optimal form for a closed capsid composed of identical subunits.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The minimum required number of identical capsomers is 12, each capsomer consists of five identical subunits.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than twelve capsomers and look round, but retain icosahedral symmetry.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Capsomers located at the top are surrounded by five other capsomers and are called pentons.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Capsomers of triangular faces have 6 capsomer neighbors and are called hexons [75].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The hexons are essentially flat, and the pentones that form 12 vertices are curved.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The same protein can act as a subunit of both pentomers and hexamers, or they may consist of different proteins.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Oblong


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Icosahedral capsids elongated along the axis of symmetry of the fifth order are called oblong.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This shape is typical for bacteriophage heads [76].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Comprehensive


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The shape of these capsids is neither purely spiral nor purely icosahedral.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

They can carry additional external structures, such as protein tails or complex outer walls.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some bacteriophages, such as the T4 phage, have a complex capsid consisting of an icosahedral head connected to a spiral tail that may have a hexagonal base extending from it tail protein threads.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This tail acts like a molecular syringe, attaching itself to a host cell and then injecting genetic material from the virus into it [77].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Sheath


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some viruses surround themselves with an additional membrane made of a modified cell membrane (plasma or internal, such as a nuclear membrane or an endoplasmic reticulum membrane).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This additional bilipid layer is called a supercapsid.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The lipid membrane of the virus is dotted with proteins encoded by the viral genome and host genome; the membrane itself, as well as any of its carbohydrate components, come entirely from the host cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Thus, the influenza virus and HIV form their envelope.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The infectivity of most enveloped viruses depends on this membrane [78].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Poxviruses are large, complex viruses with unusual morphology.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The genetic material of the virus is bound to proteins in the central disc-like structure known as the nucleoid.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The virus has an outer shell with a large number of proteins on its surface.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The entire virion is slightly pleiomorphen (that is, it is able to change shape and size depending on conditions) and can take an oval to block shape [79].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Mimivirus is one of the largest viruses described and has an icosahedral capsid with a diameter of 400—500 nm.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Protein filaments extending from the surface of the virion reach 100 nm in length [80] [81].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In 2011, researchers discovered an even larger virus on the ocean floor off the coast of Chile.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The virus, which was given the temporary name Megavirus chilensis, can be seen even with a conventional optical microscope [82].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

genome


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses show a huge number of options for organizing the genome; in this sense, they are more diverse than plants, animals, archaea, and bacteria.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

There are millions of different types of viruses [7], but only about 5,000 of them have been described in detail [6].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The genetic material of the virus can be represented by either DNA or RNA, respectively, viruses are divided into DNA-containing and RNA-containing viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The vast majority of viruses are RNA-containing.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Plant viruses most often contain single-stranded RNA, and bacteriophages, as a rule, have double-stranded DNA [83].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The viral genome can be annular, like poliomaviruses, or linear, like adenoviruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The shape of the genome does not depend on the type of nucleic acid.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In many RNA-containing viruses and some DNA-containing viruses, the genome is often represented by several molecules (parts), which is why it is called segmented.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In RNA viruses, each segment often encodes only one protein, and these segments are usually packed into a single capsid.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, the presence of all segments is not always necessary for the infectivity of the virus, as some other plant viruses demonstrate [65].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viral genomes, regardless of the type of nucleic acid, are almost always either single-stranded or double-stranded.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

A double-stranded genome includes a pair of complementary nucleic acid chains, and a single-stranded genome includes only one chain.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The genome of viruses of some families (for example, Hepadnaviridae) is partially single-stranded and partially double-stranded [83].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

For most RNA-containing viruses and some viruses with single-stranded DNA, the polarity of the nucleic acid is determined depending on whether it is complementary to viral mRNA.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

A positive polarity RNA molecule (plus-chain) has the same nucleotide sequence as mRNA, so at least some part of it can immediately begin to be transmitted by the cell -by the host.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Negative polarity RNA (negative chain) is complementary to mRNA, so before translation begins, positive RNA must be synthesized on it using the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase enzyme.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The names of DNA chains for viruses containing single-stranded DNA are similar to those for RNA: the coding chain is complementary to mRNA (-), and the non-coding chain is a copy of it (+) [83].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, the genomes of several types of DNA and RNA-containing viruses are represented by molecules that have different polarities, that is, any chain can undergo transcription.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

These are, for example, geminiviruses — plant viruses containing single-stranded DNA — and arenaviruses, animal viruses with single-stranded RNA [84].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Genome size varies widely among species.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Circovirus from the Circoviridae family has the smallest single-stranded DNA genome: its genome encodes only two proteins and contains only 2,000 nucleotides.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

One of the largest genomes was found in mimivirus: it contains more than 1.2 million base pairs and encodes more than a thousand proteins [85].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

As a rule, RNA-containing viruses have a smaller genome than DNA-containing viruses — their genome size is limited due to the greater likelihood of errors during replication [37].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

With a larger genome size, errors that occurred during its replication would make the virus unviable or uncompetitive.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

To overcome this limitation, RNA viruses often have a segmented genome, which reduces the likelihood that an error in one segment will be fatal for the entire genome.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

By contrast, DNA-containing viruses tend to have larger genomes due to the greater accuracy of their replicative enzymes [86].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, viruses containing single-stranded DNA are an exception to this rule — the rate of accumulation of mutations in their genomes is close to that of viruses containing single-stranded RNA [87].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Genetic changes occur in viruses according to different mechanisms.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

These include random substitutions of individual bases in RNA or DNA.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In most cases, these point mutations are “silent” — they do not change the structure of proteins encoded by mutant genes, but sometimes as a result of such changes, the virus can acquire evolutionary benefits, such as resistance to antiviral drugs [88].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Antigen drift occurs when large-scale changes occur in the genome of the virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This may be the result of recombination or reassortment.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

When this happens with the flu virus, the result can be a pandemic [89].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

RNA viruses often exist as quasispecies or a mixture of viruses of the same species, but with slightly different nucleotide sequences of the genome.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Such quasi-species are the main target for natural selection [90].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

A segmented genome offers evolutionary advantages: different strains of the virus with a segmented genome can exchange genes and produce offspring with unique characteristics.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This phenomenon is called reassortment [91].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Genetic recombination is the process of breaking into a nucleic acid molecule and then “cross-linking” it with other nucleic acid molecules.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Recombination can occur between the genomes of two viruses when they infect a cell at the same time.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Studies of the evolution of viruses have shown that recombination is widespread in the studied species [92].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Recombination is typical for both RNA and DNA-containing viruses [93] [94].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Lifecycle


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses do not multiply by cell division because they do not have a cellular structure.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Instead, they use the resources of the host cell to form multiple copies of themselves, and they are assembled inside the cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Conventionally, the life cycle of the virus can be divided into several overlapping stages (usually there are 6 stages [95]):


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Attachment is the formation of a specific bond between viral capsid proteins and receptors on the surface of the host cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This specific binding determines the host circle of the virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

For example, HIV only affects a certain type of human white blood cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This is due to the fact that the gp120 enveloped glycoprotein specifically binds to the CD4 molecule, a chemokine receptor that is usually found on the surface of CD4+ T-lymphocytes.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This mechanism ensures that the virus infects only those cells that are able to replicate it.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Binding to the receptor can cause conformational changes in the envelope protein (or capsid protein in the case of a shellless virus), which in turn serves as a signal for the fusion of the viral and cell membranes and the virus's entry into the cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Cage penetration.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In the next step, the virus needs to deliver its genetic material into the cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some viruses also carry their own proteins into the cell, which are necessary for its implementation (this is especially true for viruses containing negative RNA).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Different viruses use different strategies to enter the cell: for example, picornaviruses inject their RNA through the plasma membrane, and orthomyxovirus virions are captured by the cell during endocytosis and enter the acidic medium of lysosomes, where the viral particle is deproteinized, after which RNA in combination with viral proteins overcomes the lysosomal membrane and enters the cytoplasm.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are also distinguished by where they replicate: some viruses (for example, picornaviruses) multiply in the cytoplasm of the cell, and some (for example, orthomyxoviruses) in its nucleus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The process of infection of fungal and plant cells with viruses is different from infection of animal cells.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Plants have a strong cell wall made up of cellulose, and fungi have chitin, so most viruses can enter them only after damage to the cell wall [96].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, almost all plant viruses (including tobacco mosaic virus) can move from cell to cell in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes through plasmodesms [97].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Bacteria, like plants, have a strong cell wall that the virus has to damage to get inside.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

But due to the fact that the cell wall of bacteria is much thinner than that of plants, some viruses have developed a mechanism for injecting the genome into a bacterial cell through the thickness of the cell wall, in which the capsid remains outside [98].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Deprivation of shells is a process of capsid loss.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This is achieved with the help of viral enzymes or enzymes of the host cell, or may be the result of simple dissociation.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Ultimately, the viral genomic nucleic acid is released.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Virus replication implies, first of all, replication of the genome.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Virus replication includes the synthesis of mRNA of early virus genes (with exceptions for viruses containing positive RNA), the synthesis of viral proteins, possibly the assembly of complex proteins and the replication of the viral genome, which is triggered after early or regulatory genes are activated.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This may be followed (in complex viruses with large genomes) by one or more circles of additional mRNA synthesis: “late” gene expression leads to the synthesis of structural or virion proteins.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This is followed by the assembly of viral particles, and later some protein modifications occur.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In viruses, such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus leaves the host cell [99].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Getting out of the cage.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses can leave the cell after lysis, a process in which a cell dies due to rupture of the membrane and cell wall, if any.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Many bacterial and some animal viruses have this feature.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle, where the viral genome is included by genetic recombination in a special place on the chromosome of the host cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Then the viral genome is called provirus, or, in the case of a bacteriophage, a prophage [100].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

When a cell divides, the viral genome also doubles.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Within the cell, the virus mostly does not manifest itself; however, at some point, a provirus or prophage can cause activation of the virus, which can cause the lysis of host cells [101].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

An actively multiplying virus does not always kill the host cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Enveloped viruses, including HIV, are usually separated from the cell by budding.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

During this process, the virus acquires its membrane, which is a modified fragment of the host cell membrane or other internal membrane [102].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Thus, the cell can continue to live and produce the virus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Features of the life cycle of various groups


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The genetic material inside viral particles and the way it is replicated is significantly different for different viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

DNA-containing viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Genome replication in most DNA-containing viruses occurs in the cell nucleus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

If a cell has a corresponding receptor on its surface, these viruses enter the cell either by direct fusion with the cell membrane (e.g. herpesviruses) or, more often, by receptor-dependent endocytosis.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Most DNA-containing viruses rely entirely on the synthetic apparatus of the host cell for the production of their DNA and RNA, as well as the subsequent processing of RNA.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, viruses with large genomes (for example, poxviruses) can encode most of the proteins required for this themselves.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The genome of the eukaryote virus must overcome the nuclear membrane in order to gain access to enzymes that synthesize DNA and RNA, but in the case of bacteriphages, it simply needs to enter the cell [103] [ 104].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

RNA-containing viruses.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The replication of such viruses usually occurs in the cytoplasm.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

RNA-containing viruses can be divided into 4 groups depending on the method of their replication.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The replication mechanism is determined by whether the genome of the virus is single-stranded or double-stranded, the second important factor in the case of a single-stranded genome is its polarity (whether it can directly serve as a matrix for protein synthesis by ribosomes).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

All RNA viruses use their own RNA replication to copy their genomes [105].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses that use reverse transcription.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

These viruses contain single-stranded RNA (Retroviridae, Metaviridae, Pseudoviridae) or double-stranded DNA (Caulimoviridae and Hepadnaviridae).


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

RNA-containing viruses capable of reverse transcription (retroviruses, for example, HIV) use a DNA copy of the genome as an intermediate molecule during replication, and those containing DNA (pararetroviruses, for example, hepatitis B virus) — RNA [106].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In both cases, reverse transcriptase, or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, is used.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Retroviruses embed DNA formed during reverse transcription into the host genome, a state of the virus called provirus.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Pararetroviruses do not do this, although embedded copies of their genome can give rise to infectious viruses, especially in plants [107].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses that use reverse transcription are susceptible to antiviral drugs that inhibit reverse transcriptase, including zidovudine and lamivudine.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Effects on cells


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The range of structural and biochemical effects that the virus has on an infected cell is very wide [108].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

These are called cytopathic effects [109].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Most viral infections lead to the death of host cells.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The causes of death can be cell lysis, changes in the cell membrane and apoptosis [110].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Often, the cause of cell death is the suppression of its normal activity by virus proteins, not all of which are part of the viral particle [111].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some viruses do not cause any visible changes in the affected cell.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive have few signs of infection and function normally [112].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This is the cause of chronic infections, and the virus may not manifest itself in them for many months or years.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

This is often the case, for example, with the herpes virus [113] [114].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some viruses, such as the Epstein-Barr virus, can cause rapid cell multiplication without malignancy [115], while others, such as papillomaviruses, can cause cancer [116].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Host range


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses are undoubtedly the most numerous biological objects on Earth, and in this indicator they surpass all organisms combined [117].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

They affect all forms of cellular organisms, including animals, plants, bacteria and fungi [6].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

However, different types of viruses can affect only a limited number of hosts, and many viruses are species-specific.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some, such as the smallpox virus, can only infect one species — humans [118], in such cases it is said that the virus has a narrow host range.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

On the contrary, the rabies virus can infect various species of mammals, that is, it has a wide range of hosts [119].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Plant viruses are harmless to animals, and most animal viruses are safe for humans [120].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Some bacteriophages are limited to a single bacterial strain and can be used to identify strains that cause outbreaks of infectious diseases by phage typing [ 121].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Distribution


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Viruses spread in many ways: plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant juices, such as aphids; animal viruses can spread blood-sucking insects, such organisms are known as vectors.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The influenza virus is spread by airborne droplets when coughing and sneezing.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Norovirus and rotavirus, which usually cause viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contact with contaminated food or water.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

HIV is one of several sexually transmitted viruses and transfusions of contaminated blood.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Each virus has a specific host specificity, determined by the types of cells it can infect.


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

The host range may be narrow or, if the virus affects many species, wide [122].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Evolution


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

Grading


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

In wildlife taxonomy, viruses are isolated into a separate taxon, which forms the Biota root taxon in the Systema Naturae 2000 classification together with the Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota domains [123].


Question: What does the word virus mean from Latin?

Viruses

During the 20th century, taxonomy put forward proposals to create a dedicated taxon for non-cellular forms of life (


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Burrito (Spanish: burrito, “donkey”, diminutive of Spanish: burro - donkey) is a Mexican dish consisting of a soft wheat cake (tortilla), in which a variety of fillings are wrapped, for example, minced meat, overcooked beans, rice, tomatoes, avocados or cheese.


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

If desired, salad, sour cream and salsa based on chili pepper are also added to the dish.


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Unlike fajita, the burrito is served ready-made, filled inside, while for fajita, the filling is served separately from the tortilla, and everyone chooses what to wrap in the tortilla.


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

The deep-fried burrito is called chimichanga.


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

A variation of chimichanga with corn tortilla, with chili sauce, is called enchilada.


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

See also


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Brtuch


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Gyros


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Taco


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Shawarma


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

References and sources


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Media related to Burrito at Wikimedia Commons


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Category:Mexican cuisine


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Category:Latin American civilization


Question: What is a burrito?

Burrito

Category:Fast food


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Algeria (Arabic: El Jazair), full official form - People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (ANDR) [1] (Arabic: Georgia El Jumuria) Huriya el - Jazairiya al-Dimukratiyya al-Sha'biya, Berb. ) is a state in North Africa in the western part of the Mediterranean basin, the largest African state in terms of territory [2].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The area is 2,381,740 km², which is slightly larger than that of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the 2nd largest in area on the continent).


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Algeria is bordered by Morocco to the west, Mauritania and Mali to the southwest, Niger to the southeast, and Libya and Tunisia to the east.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Most of the country's territory lies in the Sahara Desert.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The capital is Algiers.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

History


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Algeria in ancient times


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Stone tools belonging to the Lower and Middle Paleolithic (400—300 thousand years ago) were found.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In ancient times, ancient Libyan tribes lived on the territory of modern Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the 12th century BC


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

the first Phoenician colonies emerged [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the 3rd century BC


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

tribal alliances and.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The leader of the Massinissa massifs united both unions into a single state of Numidia.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

King Numidia Yugurt (116—105 BC) was defeated in the Yugurta War with Rome and in 46 BC.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Numidia has been turned into a Roman province [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 438 A.D.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

the coastal part of North Africa (including present-day Algeria) was conquered by vandals.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 439 BC


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

a kingdom of vandals and alans has been created.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 534 A.D.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

part of the territory of present-day Algeria was conquered by Byzantium [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

7th—19th centuries


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the 7th century, the territory of modern Algeria was conquered by the Arabs and annexed to the Arab Caliphate.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The Byzantines were expelled.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Islam is rapidly spreading among the country's population [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 761-909, Algeria had a Kharijite imamate Tahert, ruled by the Rustamids.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

After his fall under the blows of the Fatimids, the fugitives created the medieval state of Mzab in the Sahara.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The Zirids became the successors of the Fatimids.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 1014—1152, a large part of Algeria was ruled by the Hammadids [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the 11th century, two Arab tribes invaded Algeria, and this accelerated the process of Arabization.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The western part of Algeria was captured by the Almoravids, who were replaced by the Almohad.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Tlemcen was the capital of the Zayanid (Abdalvadid) state [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

At the beginning of the 16th century, the Spaniards captured the coastal cities of Algeria: Mers el-Kebir (1505), Oran (1509), Bejaia (1510), Algeria (1510), etc.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Algerian feudal lords appealed to the corsairs of the Barbarossa brothers with a request for help.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Hayreddine Barbarossa ruled Algeria in 1519-46 and recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan, from whom he received the title of Beylerbey.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the second half of the 16th century, Algeria became a pashalyk (province) of the Ottoman Empire, divided into three beiliks: Constantine, (Medea) and Mascara (Oran).


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Piracy is rampant on the Barbarian coast.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 1711, dei expelled the last Turkish pasha and stopped paying tribute to the Sultan.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

European states have recognized the de facto independence of Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

At the end of the XVIII century, the state of dei fell into decline, and revenues from corsairs fell sharply [3].


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

At the beginning of the 19th century, French colonization began.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

1830 was the beginning of the French colonization invasion.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Armed struggle (for example, the uprising of Abd al-Qadir) lasts almost until the end of the 19th century.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

1848 — Algeria is declared the territory of France (French Algeria), divided into departments led by prefects and headed by a French Governor-General.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

20th century


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

April 1940 — During World War II, after the surrender of France to Hitler's Germany, Algeria becomes a source of raw materials and food for Germany and Italy.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

November 1942 - Anglo-American troops landed in Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

French troops, largely staffed by Algerians, Moroccans and residents of other French colonies in Africa, are also taking part in the offensive against Tunisia on the side of the Allies.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

1954 — The National Liberation Front (NRF) is formed in Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 1957, France began work on the construction of a nuclear test site in Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

On November 3, 1959, General Charles de Gaulle gave a speech at the Center for Higher Military Studies.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

He said that the main goal of France's nuclear program was to create a national strike force based on nuclear weapons that could be used anywhere in the world.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The developer of French nuclear weapons was, who worked with Marie Curie and participated in the Manhattan project.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

On February 13, 1960, France conducted the first atmospheric nuclear test at a test site near the city of Reggan in the province of Adrar, in southwestern Algeria (approximately 70 kilotons of TNT equivalent for comparison, a nuclear charge from 13 to 18 kilotons was detonated in Hiroshima, and about 21 kilotons in Nagasaki).


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In total, according to official data, France carried out 17 atomic explosions in Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

— French testing ground for 13 nuclear tests between 1961 and 1966.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

According to Algerian data, in some areas near Reggan, radiation levels are even now much higher than permissible levels.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Later, after the liberation of Algeria, France had to look for another training ground.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Mururoa and Fangataufa Atolls in French Polynesia were chosen for this purpose in 1963.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Ammar Mansouri, a specialist at the Algerian Center for Atomic Research, believes that after Algeria declared independence on March 18, 1962, France continued secret tests, in exchange to the Evian Accords, under which General de Gaulle recognized Algeria's independence, and before 40 nuclear explosions were carried out before 1966, in addition to the main tests, but these information has not yet been removed.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In September 1959, the French government recognized the right of Algerians to self-determination, but this move was met with hostility by French colonists and the “right”, twice organized large government rebellions in order to prevent the transfer of political power to the local population.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The NRF is launching a war of independence, which has led to large casualties, the number of which, according to various estimates, ranges from 300 thousand to 1 million.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

A large proportion of this number are civilians.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The negotiation process ended with the signing on March 18, 1962 of agreements on a ceasefire and self-determination of Algeria by referendum (the Evian Accords).


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

During the referendum in Algeria, the turnout was 91%, 99.7% of those who appeared voted for Algerian self-determination, and in France opinions were divided approximately equally, totaling 64% in favor.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In accordance with earlier agreements, France withdrew its troops in 1964, evacuated military bases in the Sahara by July 1, 1967, and evacuated the naval base to Mers el Kebir.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The economic assets of large French companies in Algeria, according to the letter of the Evian Accords, remained in their hands, although the property of the colonists was nationalized.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Algeria withdrew from NATO.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Attempts, created in 1961, by the fascist military organization SLA (French: Organization armee secret), which went underground, to disrupt the implementation of agreements through mass terror in cities were unsuccessful.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

During a referendum on July 1, 1962, the overwhelming majority of Algerians voted for independence, which was immediately recognized by the French government.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

More than a million Europeans and their local supporters hurriedly left the country.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

As a result of the bloody war against French colonial troops in 1962, Algeria became an independent socialist state.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In December 1965, the first French satellite was launched at the Hammagir cosmodrome, and in 1967 the cosmodrome was closed.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The first government of independent Algeria is headed by the leader (NRF) Ahmed Ben Bella.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 1965, a military coup took place, and Houari Boumediene, Minister of Defense and former ally of Ben Bella, came to power, who proclaimed a course to build a socialist in essence, but pragmatic the spirit of the economic and political system, taking into account Algerian specifics and without focusing on any samples.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

A one-party system is being established in the country.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

During this period, ties between the USSR and Algeria strengthened and expanded, which originated during the war for the independence of Algeria, which was now considered one of the allies of the USSR, following a “non-capitalist ways of development”.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The next 25 years will become a period of comparative stability for Algeria.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

After Boumediene's death, a short struggle broke out between the pro-Western and left-wing factions in the ruling party, and as a result, the country (and in 1979 the party) was led by a compromise candidate, Chadli Bengedid.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

During his reign, all the economic shortcomings of the previous president affected, and by the end of the 1980s, the country was on the verge of economic collapse.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In 1986 and 1988, there were riots caused by a deterioration in the quality of life, which had to be curbed by the army.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the 1980s, there was an ideological turn in the religious field, and the Algerian leadership, in search of sources of economic assistance, took a course to cooperate with conservative Muslim countries, investing heavily in the development of Islamic infrastructure.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

At the same time, local clergy are ideologically and financially reorienting themselves to the religious centers of the Persian Gulf countries.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

As a result, there is a sharp increase in fundamentalist sentiment among the clergy and religious activists.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Fundamentalists demand the reorganization of society under Sharia law, and consistently oppose the secular authorities, accusing them of departing from Islam.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In the context of the growing economic and political crisis, the Islamists claimed power in order to build a theocratic state entirely on the basis of Sharia law and the precepts of the Koran.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

By the end of the 1980s, the contradictions between supporters of secular power and Islamists had escalated into a civil war, which ended in the defeat of fundamentalists.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

In December 1991, after it became clear that the Islamic Salvation Front was beginning to win in the first round of the first multi-party elections in the country, the Algerian military canceled second round, forced President Chadli Benjedid to resign, established a military regime and banned the Islamic Salvation Front.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The Islamists reacted to this by going underground and terror.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The tactics of extremists were based both on strikes on military and police forces and representatives of the elite, and on intimidation of the population.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

It culminated in the assassination of President Mohammed Boudiaf in June 1992.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

A large-scale civil war lasted almost a decade, and isolated incidents are still observed.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Over the years, the war has claimed the lives of more than 100,000 people, mostly victims of demonstrative massacres and terrorist acts by Islamist groups.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The state has suffered huge economic damage.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Only the tough line of the Algerian military leadership in 1992-1999 made it possible to bring down the wave of terror and forced extremists to negotiate national reconciliation.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

The local population in the form of self-defense units was widely involved in the fight against extremists.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

This hampered the actions of extremists in many territories, ensured their political isolation from society and freed up significant forces of the army and special forces for active actions.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

Great importance was attached to establishing control over the Islamic infrastructure, the consistent removal of radical imams from mosques, as well as the suppression of channels of external financing as the armed wing of extremists and their political structures.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

On April 27, 1999, Abdel Aziz Bouteflika, a long-time Minister of Foreign Affairs of the country, a well-known politician, was elected President of the country.


Question: What continent is Algiers on?

Algiers

XXI century