Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the beginning of the war, Vladivostok cruisers were supposed to operate on enemy communications.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In total, from January to July 1904, the detachment made five campaigns to the shores of Japan and Korea, but significant success was achieved only in the fourth, when the Russians managed to sink two military vehicles with very important cargoes, including siege artillery [149].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

During the fifth campaign, Russian cruisers met Admiral Kamimura's squadron, but the latter could not catch up with them [150].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In June-July 1904, Vladivostok cruisers went on ocean cruising for the only time in the entire war, that is, they did what they were designed for.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The campaign itself, which lasted 16 days, did not bring much results, but had a negative impact on Japan's foreign trade [151].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On June 29, 1904, the commander of the detachment Rear Admiral Jessen received an order to go to sea towards the 1st Pacific Squadron breaking through to Vladivostok.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Communication problems led to the fact that by the time the order was received, the attempt to break through had already failed, but Jessen did not know about it [152].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On June 30, three Russian armored cruisers went to sea.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On August 1, 1904, Russian cruisers met in the Korean Strait with a Japanese squadron, which included four armored and two armored cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the same time, the enemy was north of the Russian detachment and now had to break through with battle.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Already at the very beginning of the battle, a noticeable fire superiority of Japanese armored cruisers was revealed - 16 guns of 203 mm caliber in a side salvo against 6-203 mm among the Russians [153].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The end Rurik was subjected to concentrated fire from two Japanese cruisers, was seriously damaged and lost the ability to steer.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Later, the battle was reduced to maneuvering “Russia” and “Gromoboy” around the damaged “Rurik” in the hope that its crew would be able to correct the damage [154].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Then Jessen decided to go to Vladivostok and carry enemy armored cruisers with him, believing that the Rurik would be able to fight off enemy armored cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Although the first part of the plan was a success, the situation of the uncontrollable Rurik was hopeless and the crew was forced to sink their ship [155].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The results of the battle fully confirmed the earlier opinion about the low suitability of Russian ocean cruisers for serious combat due to weak armor and irrational deployment of artillery.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In addition, the Russians were unlucky with the weather — the sea was calm.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

With strong excitement, Russian cruisers, due to better seaworthiness, could somewhat equalize the chances with the low-breasted “Japanese” [156].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

There was also an opinion about incompetent leadership on the part of Jessen:


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Turning to Jessen's actions in battle, it is necessary to point out his maneuvers that do not correspond to the situation in the first moments of the battle.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It required a categorical decision: either fight or leave.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Jessen, on the other hand, chose the middle, not approaching the short distances that are appropriate in this case, and did not dare to turn abruptly to break through to Vladivostok.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In the future, his situation was hampered by the lagging and in distress “Rurik”.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

But here it should also be said that he should either resolutely attack the enemy, trying to inflict losses on him and distract him from “Rurik”, or leave the latter to its fate (in this situation maybe this was the right thing to do).


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Maneuvering around the Rurik, turns aimed at covering it, actually led to the fact that they disrupted the success of their own shooting, and facilitated his task for the enemy.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Later, after correcting the damage received in the battle on August 1, the remaining two cruisers made only one trip to the shores of Japan with negligible results, and after the explosion of the cruiser on a mine.” Thunder”, all activity of the Vladivostok detachment stopped [157].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Second Pacific Squadron included three outdated ships from among armored cruisers - Admiral Nakhimov, Dmitry Donskoy, Vladimir Monomakh, as well as the battleship Oslyabya.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

During the Battle of Tsushima on May 14-15, 1905, it was the Oslyabya that became the first sunk Russian ship - it was affected by weak and incomplete armor.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Caught under fire from a good half of the Japanese fleet at the beginning of the battle, the Oslyabya quickly suffered fatal damage and sank [158].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Other armored cruisers of the Russian squadron, with the exception of the Nakhimov, were not seriously injured during the day battle on May 14, but were attacked by Japanese light forces at night.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Japanese torpedoes sunk the Admiral Nakhimov [159] and Vladimir Monomakh [160], and on the morning of May 15, superior enemy forces overtook the Dmitry Donskoy and, after receiving serious damage, the crew sank his ship [161].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Japanese armored cruisers generally performed well during the war.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

They took part in almost all operations of the fleet and avoided serious damage.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It should be noted that they were never used as a high-speed wing of the fleet - this was not necessary due to the general advantage of the Japanese in speed.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The protection of the cruisers was quite effective, but the artillery was recognized as too weak.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In fact, Japanese armor-class cruisers turned out to be weak battleships rather than cruisers [162].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

After evaluating the combat experience, the Japanese began to build armored cruisers armed with 305-mm main-caliber artillery [163].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Assessment of second-generation armored cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

When developing projects for new generation armored cruisers, designers most often sought to create a kind of universal ship capable of performing a wide variety of functions.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

These included actions as part of the squadron, including the participation of the main forces in battle, reconnaissance, the fight against similar enemy cruisers and, finally, actions on communications [164].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, it was not possible to harmoniously combine all these qualities in one ship.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The result was either excessively armed and protected ocean raiders, or “squadron” cruisers, the armament and protection of which did not give them serious chances in the fight against the main force of that time fleets — battleships [127].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the same time, armored cruisers also turned out to be very expensive ships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, attempts were made to create highly specialized ships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

These include Russian armored raiders, who had a decent cruising range and good seaworthiness, but were of little use for serious combat [165], which was confirmed in battles with the Japanese.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The latter, in turn, ordered armored cruisers, which were rather weak battleships, and therefore it was believed that real battleships would be much more useful [166].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Despite this, the uncritically perceived lessons of the Russo-Japanese War led to the creation of the latest generation of armored cruisers, designed primarily for line combat as the vanguard of the main forces.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Last members of the class


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Category: British armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The last armored cruisers of Britain were created within the framework of the concept of a high-speed avant-garde squadron of battleships capable of both providing reconnaissance and coping with enemy patrols [167].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The firepower of the Minotaur class cruisers (English: Minotaur) has further increased compared to the already well-armed Warriors.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Minotaurs carried only large-caliber artillery — four 234-mm in two-gun turrets at the ends and ten 190-mm in single-turret mounts — five on board [168].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

During the exercises, these cruisers fired up to 50 heavy shells per minute [167].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, there was no adequate strengthening of protection, it even deteriorated somewhat, which raised doubts about the combat stability of cruisers under fire from 305-mm guns [169].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The speed capabilities of the cruisers were also not impressive - with great difficulty it was possible to reach 23 knots (one of the cruisers could not do this either) [168].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

By the standards of 1908-1909, when the ships entered service, this was clearly not enough.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The result was impressive: ships were born that were clearly excessively armed, but protected purely symbolically.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It was better to spend the displacement reserve on creating a more balanced design.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

French armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The French also offered their version of the perfect armored cruiser.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On the basis of the cruiser Ernest Renan, they developed the Waldeck-Rousseau type, built in duplicate [170].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On these cruisers, local shipbuilders finally came up with the idea of a single caliber.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Fourteen 194-mm guns were installed on the ships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, they were not placed very well: in two single-gun turrets, as well as in casemates, which seriously hampered the control of fire, and the caliber itself was not solid; against the background of foreign classmates such characteristics were not impressive [171].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Although the booking was more thoughtful than its predecessors, it still remained modest.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The speed was also not impressive — it was not possible to reach 24 knots [172].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

But the main drawback of the cruisers was the time of their entry into service - 1911.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Against the background of British and German battlecruisers, the French “novelties” looked a clear anachronism [169].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Russian armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

After ordering armored cruisers of the Admiral Makarov class, the leaders of the Russian Imperial Navy realized that these cruisers were too weak to solve serious problems.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It was decided to build large cruisers designed taking into account the experience of the Russo-Japanese War and designed to interact with the fleet's line forces.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The order for the lead ship was won by the British company Vickers-Armstrong, which really wanted to become a supplier of the Russian fleet.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The cruiser “Rurik” entered service in 1909 [173].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, the Russian fleet received a very large and well-armed ship — four 254-mm guns and eight 203-mm guns as the main caliber, supplemented by twenty 120-mm mine action guns artillery.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Armor protection, designed on the basis of Tsushima experience and sufficient to withstand the fire of classmates, was also at a decent level.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Among the advantages of the cruiser was also an advanced system for ensuring unsinkability [174].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Foreign experts appreciated the Rurik very highly calling it “the best large ship laid down for the Russian fleet before 1905” and “one of the best armored cruisers ever built” [175].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

A good overall project was spoiled by low speed - only 21 knots, as a result of which the Rurik was not suitable for interaction with new dreadnought battleships, as well as the complexity of controlling mixed fire artillery of various calibers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The plans of the naval department provided for the construction of two more ships of this type at Russian factories, and equipped with turbines, but by the time the Rurik entered service, it was already recognized as obsolete [ 176].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

German armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The cruiser Blucher (German: Blücher) was considered an unhappy ship of the German fleet.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The reason for its appearance was the mistake of German experts, who believed that the new type of British cruisers in addition to the Dreadnought would be armored ships with a single 234-mm caliber [177].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

German admirals, who adhered to the principle of adequacy of firepower and security, found it difficult to imagine the appearance of such an unbalanced ship as the Invincible.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, a good armored cruiser of the Germans turned out to be clearly weak compared to British competitors.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, it was even better protected and was not inferior in speed, despite the steam engines, but carried weapons from twelve 210 mm guns, which looked very weak against the background of the 305-mm Invincible caliber.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Not knowing what to do with this intermediate ship, German admirals called it a “heavy” cruiser [178] and argued about its best use until the death of the Blucher in 1915.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Italian armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Italian fleet, which has long been fond of creating a special type of “Mediterranean” warships, did not stay away from participating in the last stage of the race for the title of the best armored cruiser.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The new project was developed on the basis of squadron battleships of the Regina Elena class and was called “Amalfi” (Italian: Amalfi) [179].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

A total of two ships were built, which entered service in 1909.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Traditionally, the Italians again, to a certain extent, neglected cruising range and seaworthiness, albeit on a smaller scale than on the Giuseppe Garibaldi.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The reservation was, by cruising standards, quite solid, and the artillery was excellent - four 254-mm guns combined with eight 190-mm guns.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The speed exceeded 23 knots with a normal displacement of less than 10,000 tons, which was quite “at the level” [179].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In addition to this pair, the third ship of the series, the Italian: Genova, was laid down, but in 1909, on the slipway, it was bought by the heirs of the Greek millionaire Georgy Averov for the fleet of their country, where was named after him.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Georgios Averof differed from the Italian-built ships of the same type by main caliber artillery [180].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Nevertheless, even in the Mediterranean Sea, cruisers were too flooded with water due to the low hull.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Therefore, the second pair of cruisers was built according to a slightly modified project - the San Giorgio (Italian: San Giorgio).


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Almost the same in combat characteristics, they received a polubak that improved seaworthiness and 4 chimneys instead of 3.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The displacement was close to 11,000 tons [181].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The second ship of the San Marco series received turbines for the first time in the Italian fleet, but the gain was insignificant - 24 knots did not reach [182].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Royal Italian Navy received these ships in 1910-1911.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Category: US armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Six armored cruisers of the Pennsylvania class, which entered service in 1905-1907, were sharply criticized for their too weak weapons for such large ships [183].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Therefore, even before they are ready, American shipbuilders developed a new project.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The four armored cruisers of the Tennessee class (English: Tennessee) generally repeated their predecessors in terms of size, armor and speed characteristics.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The main changes concerned weapons - now the main caliber consisted of four powerful 254-mm guns.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The average caliber has hardly changed — all the same 152-mm guns, only a couple of pieces more [184].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

These cruisers were intended to act as the vanguard of the main forces of the fleet, but they could only play this role for the Dodreadnought squadron.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, in those years, the US Navy lacked any cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In 1916-1920, they were renamed, as well as the Pennsylvania type, and now bore the names of cities in the United States.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The names of the states were required by numerous battleships of the rapidly growing US fleet [185].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Japanese armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Japan began to create the first domestically built armored cruisers during the Russo-Japanese War.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

After the death of the battleships Hatuse and Yashima on Russian mines, only four ships with 305-mm artillery remained in the Japanese fleet, the importance of which Japanese sailors managed to appreciate.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Having no experience in developing such large combat units, the designers simply increased the Asama's hull to a size that made it possible to place two two-gun turrets of 305-mm artillery [163].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Other weapons were represented by twelve 152-mm and the same number of 120-mm guns.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Reservation of cruisers of the type “Tsukuba” (Japanese:) - two units, repeated the imported prototype, the speed was low - just over 21 knots.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the same time, the ships had a number of serious design defects [186].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Of course, the cruisers did not have time for the war with Russia, having entered service in 1907-1908.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Even when the Tsukuba and the second ship of the same type were on the stocks, the Japanese laid down the next pair of cruisers - the Ibuki type (Japanese:).


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

These ships have changed the silhouette and composition of weapons.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

While retaining four 305-mm guns, they received eight 203-mm guns instead of a dozen 152-mm guns in twin turrets placed on the sides.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The number of 120 mm barrels increased to fourteen [186].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

For the rest, the Ibuki type repeated the Tsukuba, including its very low speed.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the same time, the lead ship of the series received turbines, for the first time in the Japanese fleet, but its speed was even lower than that of its counterpart with steam engines [187].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

... we can say that no matter how the Japanese tried to build a real armored cruiser, they still got the same second-class battleship.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Relatively fast and relatively powerful, but still second-class and still an armadillo.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Thanks to these ships, the Japanese claimed the laurels of the inventors of the battlecruiser, but in fact, the Tsukuba and Ibuki were very powerful dodreadnought cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The projects were spoiled by numerous and unuseful medium-caliber artillery, as well as too low speed.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Assessment of the latest armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The last generation of armored cruisers were very large ships, the displacement of which ranged from 10,000 to 16,000 tons, and the main artillery had a caliber from 210 mm to 254 mm and even 305 mm.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In fact, these units have ceased to be cruisers in the full sense of the word [188].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Nobody was going to use such expensive cruisers on communications, and their strengths would not be in demand there.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Now their main task was considered to be at the forefront of the main forces, and they had to not only ensure the deployment of the fleet, but also take an active part in battle [188].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the same time, the fact that the cruisers' artillery did not ensure reliable destruction of battleships was completely ignored, their own reservation did not provide full protection against heavy shells, and the speed superiority was not so significant that cruisers could quickly get out of the fire of battleships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The last armored cruisers were created on the principle of “ship against ship”.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The escalation of the individual power of the armored cruiser has captured all nations.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It is quite natural that in such cases, violent rivalry led to the emergence of very perfect models.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

But as is often the case in the history of military equipment, it carried the sprouts of the end of this line of development.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The final of this was very close.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The final came in April 1907, when the world's first battlecruiser, the Invincible, descended from the slipways [189].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The last armored cruisers were still under construction, but the new class sharply devalued their value, because the battlecruiser could easily catch up and destroy even the most advanced armored cruiser.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, the further development of armored cruisers lost its meaning, and was stopped.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

World War I armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

By the beginning of the First World War, the fleets of the warring powers included: Great Britain — 34 armored cruisers [190], France — 19 [191], Russia — 6 [192], Japan — 13 [193], Italy — 10 [194], USA — 12 [195], Germany — 9 [196], Austria-Hungary — 3 [197].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Entente armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The British Navy, which had a large number of armored cruisers, kept a significant part of them in the North Sea, although they brought little benefit there, while exposing themselves to great danger.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, at the very beginning of the war, the British fleet received a powerful blow from under the water.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On September 22, 1914, the German U-9 submarine sank three British armored cruisers Abukir, Hog and Cressy within an hour, patrolling the English Channel [198].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

But the threat to British armored cruisers came not only from submarines.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In the event of a collision with enemy battlecruisers, their position became almost hopeless.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It is characteristic that in August 1914, the British, having four armored cruisers against one German battlecruiser Goeben, did not dare to engage in battle with him.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It is possible that 4 armored cruisers could damage the Goeben, but it is even more likely that it would have immediately left them, taking advantage of its great advantage in speed, or would easily let them bottom the whole company.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the beginning of the war, the British had to endure another major setback.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On November 1, 1914, the British armored cruisers Good Hope and Monmouth at Cape Coronel engaged in battle with German classmates Scharnhorst and Gneisenau.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

During the ensuing battle, the Germans demonstrated a clear advantage in firepower and combat training and destroyed their enemy in a very short time, with almost no losses on their part [199].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, British armored cruisers continued to operate as first-line ships until the Battle of Jutland on May 31, 1916.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result of the inertia of thinking, the British commander put his armored cruisers at the forefront of the main forces, although due to their slow speed, they could not quickly get out of fire, and as a result weak defenses could not resist the fire of heavy guns.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

This mistake led the British to another catastrophe.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

During the battle, which took place in conditions of poor visibility, a detachment of British armored cruisers was suddenly fired at by German battleships and the battlecruiser Lutzov with a relatively small distances.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, the Defense immediately exploded and sank, and the Black Prince and Warrior were disabled and died later [200].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The first, which completely lost control, was sunk by the Germans that night [201], the second sank while towing the next day [202].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

This terrible lesson ended the career of British cruisers in the first line of the naval forces.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

For French cruisers, the beginning of the First World War, it would seem, was successful.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Mediterranean Sea was in the zone of responsibility of France, and the most serious enemy, the Goeben, quickly retired to the Black Sea, and now the French were opposed only by the Austro-Hungarians with their modest cruising forces.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, an unpleasant feature of the fight against even such a weak enemy soon emerged.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

He did not want to engage in battle, and the French slow-movers were unable to catch up with the high-speed cruisers of the Austro-Hungarian fleet.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Meanwhile, it was they who had to blockade the Strait of Otrant — the French did not have more modern combat units [203].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

During such missions, cruisers were regularly attacked by submarines, although for some time without heavy losses.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On April 26, 1915, the armored cruiser Leon Gambetta was launched to the bottom with almost the entire crew.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

After that, the blockade had to be lifted, and the rest of the war was spent by French battleships at bases [203].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In the event of war, the “armored turtles” under the tricolor flag could only look powerlessly at high-speed opponents and put the sides under the torpedoes of submarines, as happened with the Leon Gambetta”... This is how the whole war went, during which the French cruisers proved to be completely helpless targets.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Italian armored cruisers, which experienced the same problems as their French classmates, performed no better.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

They did not have a chance to face off the surface enemy, all their participation in the war for them was reduced to unsuccessful attempts to catch up with the enemy and shelling the coast.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the same time, they were seriously damaged by enemy submarines that drowned the Giuseppe Garibaldi and Amalfi [204].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

By the beginning of the war, the Russian Baltic Fleet consisted of six armored cruisers - the very outdated “Russia” and “Gromoboy”, three also outdated cruisers of the Admiral Makarov and Rurik types, which was considered the only relatively powerful ship of this class in the Russian Imperial Navy.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Despite the fears of the Russian command, the German fleet was rarely active in the Baltic theater of operations and usually kept very limited forces here, so that Russian cruisers made a number of voyages at sea for reconnaissance and laying mines. During one of these missions, a German submarine sank the armored cruiser Pallada [205].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The command of the Baltic Fleet acted extremely cautiously, especially with regard to armored cruisers of the Admiral Makarov class, whose commanders considered their ships too poorly armed and were afraid to engage in battle [206].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The only collision of Russian armored cruisers with a comparable surface enemy in the entire war ended with an uncertain result.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

On July 2, 1915, five Russian cruisers, including three armored cruisers, took part in a chaotic naval battle off Gotland Island.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Both sides dispersed almost without losses, except for the German Albatross minelayer, which rushed to the Swedish coast [207].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The US entered the war too late to take part in decisive naval battles.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Nevertheless, the US Navy lost one large combat unit: it was the armored cruiser San Diego, which was blown up by a mine on July 19, 1918 [208].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The participation of Japanese armored cruisers in World War I was purely symbolic.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Central Power armoured cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The main problem of armored cruisers in Germany was, apparently, the inability of the fleet command to properly dispose of already outdated, but quite powerful ships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

With eight armored cruisers in service (the Furst Bismarck has already been withdrawn from the first line), it could not find worthy use for them [209].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Despite this, the beginning of the war was marked by a resounding victory for armored cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the Battle of Coronel on November 1, 1914, Scharnhorst and Gneisenau effectively dealt with a couple of British classmates.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, in terms of real firepower, the enemy was noticeably inferior to the Germans, had crews from reservists, and the British admiral made many tactical mistakes [199]


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Royal Navy's revenge took place at the Battle of the Falkland Islands on December 8, 1914.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

This time, German armored cruisers had to take a hopeless battle with British battlecruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In this situation, the German ships could neither escape from the enemy nor fight off him and were sunk after a stubborn battle.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

This battle clearly showed the huge difference between armored and battlecruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Contemporaries called it a battle between “dwarfs” and “giants” [210].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The epic of the Spee squadron shows how much noise the rest of the German cruisers could make with a more successful disposition (or with a bolder use).


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Of course, they could have been suicide bombers, as the Entente could always deploy more ships, but you can imagine how much stress this would cost the allies.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

After all, even the “standard” armored German ships surpassed in combat power the basis of the British overseas cruising forces - “hunters” of the County type.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Germany had its own ocean chance, but could not take advantage of it.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Blucher became a victim of its speed qualities.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

At the first stage of the war, the high seas fleet experienced a shortage of battlecruisers and the relatively high-speed Blucher was included in the reconnaissance detachment of Admiral Hipper [169].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Subsequent events showed that the speed of the armored cruiser is still insufficient.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In the battle of Dogger Bank on January 24, 1915, the Blucher, which was ending, lagged behind its battlecruisers and was really shot by British battlecruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Blucher demonstrated traditional survivability for German ships, sank only after 70-100 hits by heavy shells and 7 torpedoes [211], but its death was completely useless.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It is believed that this ship would be much more useful in the Baltic, where it could create serious problems for the Russian fleet [212].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

By the time the Blucher died, the Kaiser fleet had lost two more armored cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Friedrich Karl [213] and York [214] sank from mine explosions.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The remaining two armored cruisers (Prince Henry was made training) operated in the Baltic, but very cautiously.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, caution did not save the Prince Adalbert - it was sunk in 1915 by a British submarine operating in the Baltic [215].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

A year later, the last German armored cruiser Roon was withdrawn from the fleet and turned into a floating barracks [216].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Austria-Hungary, in fact, used two armored cruisers in combat operations, which served as cover for light forces, but they never came to a decisive battle [217].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Armored cruisers after World War I


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Immediately after the war, the leading maritime powers began a massive decommissioning of clearly obsolete combat units, and armored cruisers were among the first candidates for dismantling.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Great Britain excluded the surviving armored cruisers from the fleet by 1921 [218], some French ships of this class stayed in the first line until 1927, then some of them were turned in training artillery [219].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

American armored cruisers served until 1927, but at the same time they were considered as auxiliary vessels and were seriously converted [220].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Soviet Russia scrapped its armored cruisers by 1922 [221].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Italian fleet, having got rid of very old cruisers, kept the latest of them as training [222].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Thus, the San Giorgio was turned into a coastal defense ship with a sharp increase in anti-aircraft artillery, and in this capacity it took an active part in the struggle for Tobruk, where it was first seriously damaged British aircraft, and then flooded by its own team in January 1941 [223].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Japanese also showed thrift in relation to armored cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Although relatively new ships of the Tsukuba and Ibuki types were scrapped by the decision of the Washington Conference of 1922 [224], most of the veterans of the Russo-Japanese War survived until the end of the Second World War II as minelayers, training vessels and even cruisers, although they did not participate in combat in their latter capacity.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Almost all of them were sunk by American aircraft in 1945 [225].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

A completely different fate awaited the armored cruisers of secondary maritime powers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

There they were protected and considered a significant military force.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Swedes even went on a full-scale modernization of their only armored cruiser in 1940-1941 [226].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Argentine armored cruisers mostly survived until World War II, however, as coastal defense ships, and the Pueyrredon set the world class record, decommissioned only in 1954, after 55 years of service [227].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

From a historical point of view, the Greek Averof was the luckiest.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In 1941, it happily escaped the Luftwaffe dive bombers, then accompanied convoys in the Indian Ocean [228], and in 1946 it was decommissioned, but not scrapped, but turned into a museum ship.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Thus, the Averof is the only armored cruiser that has survived to this day [229].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Overall class rating of armored cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The first armored cruisers were originally considered imperfect ships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The low quality of armor and the low power of the vehicles did not allow harmoniously combining high speed, powerful weapons and adequate armor protection in one body.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In the future, progress in the field of metallurgy and mechanical engineering made it possible to create relatively high-speed ships, which were at the same time well armed and protected.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

While armored cruisers were entrusted with purely cruising tasks - fighting on communications and conducting reconnaissance, they generally met the requirements of their time [230].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, this was followed by continuous improvement in armor, increased speed and especially increased weapons, which led to an increase in displacement and, consequently, cost.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a result, such expensive ships began to be assigned tasks that were more suitable for battleships [231].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Armored cruisers were suitable for escort service, but as a high-speed wing of the line fleet, they were at great risk.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In this field, they were replaced by battlecruisers, and the courageous attack of the armored cruisers of Arbetnot on May 31, 1916, which turned out to be fatal, clearly proved the absolute weakness of armored cruisers for battle in the battle line.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The result was the appearance of ships that were too weak to fight as part of a squadron and excessively strong to fight light forces


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Attracting them to the escort service also looked like a waste, because the enemy in most cases did not send anything comparable to communications.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

When battlecruisers began to join the leading fleets, the role of armored cruisers in the naval weapons system was completely unclear.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Theoretically, any type of weapon can be used with the proper approach, but the naval commanders of the First World War could not properly use the cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

By inertia, classifying armored cruisers among the main forces, they kept them in European waters, where they died unusefully [232].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

See also


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Armoured cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Light cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Heavy cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Battlecruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

comments


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Notes


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Literature


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

in english


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

in german


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

References


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

General


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

By ship type


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist German Workers' Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP); abbreviated


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

NSDAP, Abbr.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

translated as NSNRP or NSRPG [1]) was a political party in Germany that existed from 1920 to 1945, ruling from January 1933, and the only legitimate party in Germany from July 1933 to May 1945 [2].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

After the defeat of Germany in World War II in 1945, the occupation Control Council created by the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition was dissolved.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

At the Nuremberg trials, the leadership of the party was declared criminal, and the ideology of the NSDAP was recognized as one of the main causes of the war.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The origins


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In January 1919, Anton Drexler, a locksmith at the Munich railway depot, founded the German Workers' Party.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The party was preceded by the German Committee of Free Workers for a Decent Peace (German: Freien Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden), created earlier by Drexler.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The first members of the party were mainly Drexler's colleagues, working depots.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The party was formed under the influence of Drexler's mentor, Dr. Paul Tafel, director of MAN and, at the same time, the leader of the Pan-German Union.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Tafel's main idea was to create a nationalist party that relied on workers, unlike similar middle-class parties.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

At the time of its formation, the party consisted of about forty members [3].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

At the end of September 1919, Adolf Hitler joined the DAP.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

On February 24, 1920, at a meeting at the Hofbräuhaus pub, Hitler announced the program “25 Points” and at the same time it was decided to change the name of the party - “National Socialist” was added to it.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The name was borrowed from another party of the time, the Austrian National Socialist Party.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Initially, Hitler wanted to name the organization “Party of Socialist Revolutionaries”, but Rudolf Jung convinced him to accept the name “NSDAP” [4].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In political journalism, the party began to be called Nazi, by analogy with the Socialists, Sotsi.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Since April 1, “25 Points” became the official program of the NSDAP, and in 1926 its provisions were declared “unshakable”.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

On January 27, 1923, the first congress of the NSDAP was held in Munich.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In total, ten party congresses took place, the last of which was in 1938.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In 1929, Coburg became the first city in Germany to receive an absolute majority of votes in municipal elections [6].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Ideology


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The ideology of the NSDAP was National Socialism, a totalitarian ideology [7] [8] that combines various elements of nationalism, racism, fascism, anti-Semitism and anti-communism [9].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialism declared its goal to create and establish on a fairly vast territory a racially pure Aryan state that has everything necessary for a prosperous existence on for an indefinitely long time (the “millennial Reich”) [8].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The organizational structure of the NSDAP


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The National Socialist Workers' Party was built on a territorial principle and had a pronounced hierarchical structure.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

At the top of the pyramid of party power was the chairman of the party, who had absolute power and unlimited powers.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The post of party chairman was held by:


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Carl Harrer, from January 5, 1919 to February 24, 1920;


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Anton Drexler, from February 24, 1920 to July 29, 1921, then Honorary Chairman;


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Adolf Hitler, from July 29, 1921 to April 30, 1945.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In his will, Hitler did not appoint a successor to the post of chairman of the party, but established the previously defunct post of Minister for Party Affairs, who de facto replaced the post of chairman and became the main player in the party.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

It was occupied by only one person:


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Martin Borman, April 30, 1945 to May 2, 1945.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The direct leadership of the party was carried out by the deputy Fuhrer for the party.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

From April 21, 1933 to May 10, 1941, it was Rudolf Hess (from September 22, 1933 - simply “Deputy Fuhrer”).


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Under him, the Headquarters of the Deputy Fuhrer, headed by Martin Bormann, was created to lead the current party life in June-July 1933.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

On May 12-13, 1941, the Headquarters of the Deputy Fuhrer was transformed into the Party Chancellery headed by Martin Borman.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

After Rudolf Hess flew to Great Britain on May 10, 1941, a new deputy was not appointed, but in fact he was Martin Borman, appointed on April 12, 1942 by special order of Hitler” Secretary of the Fuhrer.”


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

To ensure Hitler's activities as party leader, in 1934, under the leadership of Reichsleiter Philipp Bowler, the personal Office of the Party Leader (Kanzlei des Führers der NSDAP) was created.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The current leadership of party work in various areas was carried out by the so-called. The Reichsleitung was the imperial leadership of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Reichsleitung der NSDAP), consisting of the main departments of the NSDAP and party services.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Such a department, as a rule, was headed by the Reichsleiter of the NSDAP (German: Reichsleiter - imperial leader).


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In their field, the Reichsleiters had no less power than ministers.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Many Reichsleiters were also Reichsministers at the same time.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

By 1944, the NSDAP included 9 affiliated alliances (Angeschlossene Verbände), 7 party divisions (Gliederungen der Partei) and 4 organizations:


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Affiliated unions (independent organizations that have the rights of legal entities and their own property)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Lawyers Union (NS-Juristenbund)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Imperial Union of German Employees (Reichsbund der Deutschen Beamten)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Teachers' Union (NS-Lehrerbund)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist War Victim Relief Alliance (NS-Kriegsopferversorgung)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Physicians Union (NSD-Ärztebund)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Union of German Technicians (NS-Bund Deutscher Technik)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Public Welfare (NS-Volkswohlfahrt)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

German Labor Front (die Deutsche Arbeitsfront (DAF))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Imperial Air Defense Alliance (Reichsluftschutzbund)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Party units


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend (HJ))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

German Girls' Union (Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Union of German Associate Professors (NS-Deutscher Dozentenbund (NSDD))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist German Students Union (NS-Deutscher Studentenbund (NSDSTb))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Women's Organization (NS-Frauenschaft (NSF))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Mechanized Corps (Nationalsozialistisches Kraftfahrerkorps (NSKK))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

guard units, SS (Schutzstaffel (SS))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

assault units (Sturmabteilung (SA))


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Organizations


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialist Cultural Society (NS-Kulturgemeinde)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

German Imperial Family Protection Union (Reichsbund der Kinderreichen Deutschlands zum Schütze der Familie)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

German Communities Society (Deutscher Gemeindetag)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

“German Women's Labor” (Das Deutsche Frauenwerk)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In addition, many public organizations created before the founding of the NSDAP and not related to it were renamed during the gleichshaltung, subordinated to party influence, and were subordinate to the relevant the Reichsleiter or the relevant party organization.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The entire territory of Germany was initially divided into 33 party regions (Gaue), which coincided with the constituencies in the Reichstag.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Subsequently, the number of GAU was increased, and in 1941 there were 43 GAU, as well as the Foreign Organization of the NSDAP (NSDAP) (NSDAP), equated in rights and obligations to GAU.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In turn, the gau was divided into districts (Kreise), then local branches (German: Ortsgruppen - literally “local group”), cells (Zellen), and so-called blocks (Blocks).


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The bloc united from 40 to 60 households.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In accordance with the principle of leadership, each organizational unit was headed by a leader — Gauleiter, Chrysleiter, etc. (Gauleiter, Kreisleiter).


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Appropriate party apparatuses were created to carry out work on the ground.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Party officials had their own uniforms, titles and insignia.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Titles and insignia in the NSDAP since 1939


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The main signs of distinction on the party uniform were buttonholes.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The lowest party rank for all levels was the title of candidate (German: Unanwärter), the highest rank depended on the place of service of the party functionary, and the color of the buttonholes and edging depended on this:


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Local organizations (Ortsgruppenleitung), light brown buttonholes with blue piping, possible Oberabschnittsleiter title (18)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

County offices (Kreisleitung), dark brown buttonholes with black (after 1938 white) edging, possible highest title Dienstleiter (23)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Regional offices (Gauleitung), scarlet buttonholes with dark red edging, possible highest rank Gauleiter (29)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Imperial administration (Reichsleitung), red buttonholes with gold edging, possible highest Reichsleiter title (30)


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

International cooperation


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

The NSDAP maintained relations with various parties and movements, both among Germany's allies in World War II and in the occupied territories.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Last months


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In April 1945, the Third Reich lived out its last months.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Adolf Hitler, before his suicide, appointed his secretary Martin Bormann as Minister of Party Affairs on April 30, although such a position did not previously exist in the German government.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

This position effectively replaced the position of Chairman of the Party and allowed Borman to concentrate control of the party in his hands.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

However, the complete defeat of the Third Reich in the war by that time was already obvious and the fate of the party was a foregone conclusion.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

On May 2, Martin Borman went missing, and the post of Minister for Party Affairs ceased to exist.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In fact, the NSDAP existed until the arrest of the Flensburg government on May 23, 1945.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

NSDAP after Germany's defeat in World War II


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

After Germany's defeat in the war and its unconditional surrender in 1945, the NSDAP was banned and dissolved, its property was confiscated, its leaders were convicted, and some were executed.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

However, some members of the NSDAP managed to flee through Italy to South America [19].


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

By decision of the leaders of the leading countries of the anti-Nazi coalition, denazification was carried out in Germany, during which most of the active members of the NSDAP were subjected to a special check.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Many have been dismissed from senior positions or from socially significant organizations, such as, for example, educational institutions.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

In 1964, the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) (German: Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (NPD)) was created in Germany, which positioned itself as the political successor of the NSDAP.


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

It was the first neo-Nazi party whose candidates were close to entering the Bundestag, gaining 4.3% in the 1969 elections (before that, there were other neo-Nazi parties, Remer's Socialist Imperial Party, but they failed to achieve a noticeable result at the federal level).


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

See also


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

National Socialists come to power in Germany


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Austrian National Socialism


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

NSDAP administrative building


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Brown house


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Notes


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

References


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

on YouTube


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

on YouTube


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Literature


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Category:National Socialist Workers' Party


Question: When was the Nazi Party founded?

Category:History of socialism


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria Skłodowska-Curie (French: Marie Curie, Polish: Maria Skłodowska-Curie; nee Maria Salome Sklodowska, Polish: Maria Salomea Skłodowska [1]; November 7, 1867, Warsaw, Russian Empire — Born July 4, 1934) is a French and Polish experimental scientist (), a public figure.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The first female teacher at the Sorbonne.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She was awarded the Nobel Prizes in Physics (1903) and Chemistry (1911) [2], is the first woman Nobel laureate in history [3] [4] and the first twice Nobel laureate in history [5] [6] [2] [7].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The first woman was a member of the Paris Medical Academy [8].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She participated in the creation of the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Together with her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel, he is the discoverer of radioactivity and the author of the term “radioactivity” [9] [10].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Together with her husband, she discovered elements of radium (from Latin: radius - “ray”) and polonium (from Latin: Polōnia - Poland, in honor of the homeland of Maria Sklodowska).


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre and Marie Curie, along with Henri Becquerel, are also the first French Nobel laureates in physics [11] [12].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Biography


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Warsaw


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Mini|220px|left|M. Curie is at her home.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

16, Freta Street, Warsaw


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw in the family of teacher Vladislav Sklodowski, director of the gymnasium for boys.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The father played a huge role in the life of his youngest daughter.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

He graduated from St. Petersburg University [13] [14] and was aware of the latest achievements in physics, chemistry and mathematics, knew Russian, Latin and Greek, spoke French, German and English, wrote verses and translated [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Vladislav taught mathematics and physics in schools in Warsaw [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Her mother, Bronislava Boguska, led the prestigious Warsaw School for Girls [6] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the birth of Maria in 1868, Vladislav was appointed a teacher at another school on Novolipskaya Street, so Bronislava was forced to leave her post due to the move [14] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In addition to Maria, three more daughters and a son grew up in the family: Zofia (1862), Jozef (1863), Bronislava (1865) and (1866) [1].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The family lived hard.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Vladislav unsuccessfully invested his savings in the business of his brother-in-law, who quickly went bankrupt.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The mother died for a long time and painfully from tuberculosis, and the father struggled to treat his sick wife and feed five children.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1873, Vladislav was dismissed for anti-state sentiments and was forced to occupy lower paid positions [14] [18].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1876, after several moves from apartment to apartment, the family settled in a house at the intersection of Novolipskaya and Karmelitskaya Streets.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In order to support his family, Vladislav was forced to accept guests, who were provided with housing, full board and training.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

One of these guests brought bedbugs into the house, which caused two children to become infected with typhus and the eldest daughter, Zofia, died [19] [20] [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On May 9, 1878, when Maria was 10 years old, her mother passed away.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The death of her mother affected Mary's health and contributed to the weakening of religious faith [21] [14] [18].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Also in 1878, Maria entered school.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

As a schoolgirl, she was distinguished by her diligence and hard work [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Both sisters graduated from high school with gold medals [19].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Brother Jozef (also a gold medalist) went to Warsaw, enrolling in the medical faculty [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Helena also won a medal, but her claim was more modest.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She decided to stay with her father and run the household [14].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The territory of Poland at that time was divided between the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary and Prussia [22], teaching in gymnasiums was conducted in Russian.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria sought to continue her education, but in Poland, women's opportunities to receive higher scientific education were limited: women were not admitted to the University of Warsaw [23].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Therefore, Maria was forced to study at clandestine women's courses, which were informally called “Flying University” [24] [4] [25] [19].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The Sklodowski sisters Maria and Bronislava agreed to work for several years in turn as governesses in order to take turns getting an education [4] [6] [19] [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1885, Maria was given a place in the family of a wealthy lawyer.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The conditions were terrible, the earnings were not enough to cover their expenses and save for Brony.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She agreed to another, well-paid job in the Zoravsky (Zhuravsky) family, but far from home, in the countryside, in Shchuki (Sharki), one of the Czartoryski estates [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

A year later, Maria was convinced of the naivety of their plan.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Not only did she need to support Armor for several years, giving her half of her salary, but also help her aging father.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Nevertheless, she was stubbornly engaged in self-education, got up at six in the morning and read books on physics and mathematics.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

It was also not easy for the girl to live in the estate: under her supervision and upbringing there were five children of a wealthy landowner.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She taught the younger ones.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The eldest son of the landowners, Casimir (Kazimierz) Zoravski, often came to the holidays, who after a while drew attention to the governess [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria, which was very unusual for the girl of that time, was very independent, she skated, controlled oars, ruled the carriage and rode, and also loved to compose poetry.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the same time, she found time to help peasant children, gave reading and writing lessons in Polish to children of all ages.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

For about four years, she combined work as a governess, hard study at night, and “illegal” teaching peasant children [26] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Casimir's parents were against their son's relationship with a poor governess and after a while picked up a more worthy couple for him, in their opinion [15] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria stayed in this house for another year and continued to study hard.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After a while, her father found an unpleasant but profitable job as director of a juvenile delinquency shelter and fully covered the costs of Broni's studies.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria has the opportunity to save money.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1889, Maria received an offer to work as a home teacher in a wealthy family in Warsaw and left the Zoravskys.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the same time, in Paris, Bronya married a Polish emigrant, a medical student, and invited her sister to come and live in an apartment that she and her husband rented together.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria refused and decided to live with her father in Warsaw for one year [19] [15] [27] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In September 1891, Maria met Casimir while on vacation in Zakopane.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The couple finally broke up after an explanation [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After that, Maria decided to accept her sister's offer to move to Paris to continue her studies [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Study in Paris


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In November 1891, Maria came to Paris, buying the cheapest ticket: third class in Poland and France, and fourth (almost a freight car) in Germany [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Her sister and husband, Kazimir Dlusski, who had already worked as a doctor, met her and received her at their home [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Six months later, Maria decided to move and rented a room on her own in the cold attic of the Latin Quarter, where libraries, laboratories and her university were located very close by.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the same time, she refused to stay with a girl for less payment for the room, so that no one would prevent her from studying late and in silence [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She was forced to cook on an alcohol burner, and her modest diet consisted at best of bread, eggs or fruit and chocolate [28] [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In parallel with her studies, she underwent a scientific internship in a laboratory led by her cousin Jozef Bogusky, future assistant to Dmitry Mendeleev [29].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria changed her name to French: Marie upon admission [28] and chose the Faculty of Natural Sciences at the Sorbonne, where she studied mathematics, chemistry and physics.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

This was considered strange for the girls of the time, as most of them studied medicine.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1891, when Maria entered university, she was one of 23 female students out of 1,825 students in the Faculty of Natural Sciences [5].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the same time, out of 9,000 students studying at the Sorbonne at that time, only 210 were women.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After entering university, Maria quickly felt gaps in her knowledge of French, as well as in mathematics and physics [30].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1893, when Maria graduated, there were only two graduates at the entire university, including herself [6] [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Sklodowska studied intensively during the day, and taught for a small fee in the evening.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Thus, in 1892, its budget was 40 rubles, or 100 francs per month.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

This money was barely enough for food and housing, not to mention heating and warm clothes.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria saved on entertainment, food, lighting and heating the room and transport, moving to the Sorbonne on foot [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After a while, this lifestyle affected her health, and she fainted right in class.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

A classmate who was nearby ran to ask the Dlussky for help, and they took Marie back to their place so that she could pay less rent and eat normally [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

For her excellent academic success, Maria was awarded a grant from the Alexandrovich Foundation in the amount of 600 rubles, which was formed for outstanding Polish students who studied abroad [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

By the end of her studies, Maria became one of the best students at the university, graduated first [15] among her classmates in 1893 and received two diplomas — a bachelor's degree in physics, and a year later mathematics [31] [9] [32].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In July 1894, she had the second result among graduates of the course [5] [6] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After graduation, Maria received a grant from French to study the magnetic properties of steels under the guidance of Professor Gabriel Lippman, one of Maria's mentors at the Sorbonne [33] [34].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria returned 600 rubles of the money received to the Alexandrovich Foundation as a token of gratitude [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

While studying at the Sorbonne, Maria planned to return to Warsaw after receiving her diploma and teaching in educational institutions following the example of both parents [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

But these plans were disrupted by a meeting with her future husband [28].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Meeting with Pierre Curie


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the beginning of 1894, Maria Sklodowska met Pierre Curie in the house of Polish emigrants Kowalski.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

They were introduced by Jozef Kowalski, who hoped that Pierre would be able to give Maria the opportunity to work in his laboratory [35] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre was then head of the laboratory at the Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

And by that time, he had already done important research on the physics of crystals and the dependence of the magnetic properties of substances on temperature; his name, for example, is associated with the term “Curie point”, at which ferromagnetic material abruptly loses its ferromagnetism property [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

During the first meeting, Maria was still impressed by her relationship with Casimir Zoravski, and Pierre experienced the death of a girl for whom he had felt warm feelings since childhood [36].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre liked the fragile, blonde and gray-eyed girl, and gave Maria a small corner in his laboratory, and later became not only her colleague, but also her husband [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria rejected the first marriage proposal.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She was thinking about returning to her homeland [37] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre said that he was ready to move with her to Poland.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Later, in his memoirs, Pierre admitted that the proposal made was the only time in his life when he acted without hesitation [36].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1894, Sklodowska went to Warsaw for the summer to see her family and get a job at the University of Krakow, but the girl was denied a job: only men were hired.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Throughout the summer of 1894, Pierre wrote her long letters [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In October, Sklodowska returned to Paris and continued to work on her Ph.D. thesis.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Then she was going to return to Warsaw to engage in social activities for the benefit of her homeland in parallel with teaching [36].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On July 26, 1895, Pierre and Marie were married without a wedding.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The wedding took place in the municipality of Sault, in the suburbs of Paris, where Pierre lived with his parents [37] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The young refused religious service and rings, and instead of a wedding dress, Sklodowska wore a navy blue suit, in which she later worked in the laboratory for many years.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the wedding, Curie went on their honeymoon to Ile-de-France on bicycles, which they bought with the money they received as a wedding gift [34].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

They retained their passion for cycling later [38].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In October, they settled on Rue Glacier, in an apartment on the fifth floor that overlooked the garden.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The apartment consisted of three small rooms [36].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Irene was born on September 12, 1897.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre's father Eugene Curie, a retired doctor who was present at the birth, played an important role in her upbringing.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the death of his wife from breast cancer in 1897 [39], two weeks after the birth of Irene, he moved to the house of Maria and Pierre, fully devoted himself to caring for his granddaughter and leaving his parents opportunity to continue research [6] [38] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Irene followed in her parents' footsteps and became a physics and chemistry scientist.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Together with her husband Frederic Joliot-Curie, she discovered the phenomenon of artificial radioactivity, for which they were both awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Recognition


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1898, Pierre was unable to pass the competition for the position of head of the newly opened Department of Physical Chemistry at the Sorbonne, but in 1900 he received an invitation to work at the University of Geneva for himself and Mary [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The couple seriously considered moving to Switzerland.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

But Henri Poincaré, impressed by Pierre's work, helped him stay teaching at the Sorbonne [40].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the same time, in order to earn extra money, despite continuing research and raising her daughter, Maria began teaching physics at the Sevres Higher Women's Normal School, which prepared teachers [6] [32] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On June 23, 1903, Maria presented her doctoral dissertation “Research on Radioactive Substances” to the Sorbonne, which described the results of hard work in previous years, including selection of new elements — polonium and radium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The public defense of the dissertation, which was a formality taking into account the merits of the applicant, was attended by relatives and students of Maria [6] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Rutherford later recalled how, during a dinner organized by Langevin in honor of Mary, Pierre took out into the open air a flask partially covered with zinc sulfide with a solution of radium isolated by the couple Curie.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The brightly glowing flask with a radioactive substance impressed the guests very much [41] [38] [42].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In the same year, after the public defense of Mary's dissertation, Pierre Curie gave a lecture to the Royal Society of London, led by Lord Kelvin.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The lecture was accompanied by spectacular experiments demonstrating the properties of radium.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The merits of the couple were appreciated and awarded the Davy Medal for the most important discovery of the year in the field of chemistry [38] [32] [43] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In August 1903, after an exhausting bicycle trip, Maria gave birth to a girl five months pregnant, who did not survive.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria felt unwell from the first months of pregnancy and all this time continued to work with concentrated solutions of polonium and radium and regularly received doses of radiation that were dangerous for anyone a person, and not only for a woman in position [43] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Also in 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “in recognition of the exceptional services they provided to science by collaborating in research into the phenomena of radiation discovered Professor Henri Becquerel.”


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The latter shared the award with the Curie couple, receiving half of the amount.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria in her works recognized Becquerel's priority in the discovery of radioactivity [44].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel appeared in the original nomination, as Gosta Mittag-Leffler, a famous mathematician and influential member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, told Pierre.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

He replied:


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

I would like my work in the field of the study of radioactive bodies to be considered together with the activities of Mrs. Curie.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Indeed, it was her work that determined the discovery of new substances, and her contribution to this discovery is huge (she also determined the atomic mass of radium).


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

—Pierre Curie, [45]


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

As a result, Maria was nominated and won the Nobel Prize together with her colleagues [4].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She became the first woman laureate and remained the only one until 1935, when her daughter Irene was awarded the Nobel Prize [43].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

At the presentation of the award, another controversial question arose about which discipline works on radioactive substances belong to — physics or chemistry.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre Curie and Becquerel were physicists, but the work Maria did was mainly in the field of chemistry.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In addition, the discoveries made made changes to purely chemical concepts about the nature and stability of elements.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

As a result, they were awarded a prize in physics, although the Academy did not rule out awarding another prize in the future — in chemistry [4].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The award was presented by King Oscar II of Sweden.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Only Henri Becquerel was present at the solemn event: the Curie couple referred to employment and deteriorating health, for which the award was accepted by the French minister [38] [46] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the award, the Curie couple had the opportunity to equip their laboratory with the necessary equipment and buy a bath for their apartment [15] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

By that time, their hands were covered with wounds from constant contact with radioactive samples, which stimulated the idea of using radium in medical practice.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre Curie emphasized this fact in his Nobel speech on June 5, 1905: by that time the couple were strong enough to go to Stockholm [15].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In July 1905, Pierre Curie was finally admitted to the French Academy of Sciences [47] [48] [40] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

The second daughter, Eva, was born on December 6, 1904 [6] [49].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

By that time, the financial situation of the family had improved significantly.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Pierre became a professor of physics at the Sorbonne, and Maria worked for her husband as the head of the laboratory.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She had to hire governesses to care for her daughters [16] [14].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Eva became a journalist, musician and public figure after living to the age of 102.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

She wrote a biography of her mother [15], which became a bestseller in the United States and received.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

From 1962 to 1965, she was the head of UNICEF in Greece.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Eva was the only one in the family that did not win the Nobel Prize [49] [50] [51].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After her husband's death


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

On April 19, 1906, Pierre Curie was killed by a horse-drawn carriage as he crossed the street [32].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Maria was severely depressed for several months [52].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After the death of her husband, she was appointed to his place at the University of Paris [9] and on November 5, 1906 began her first lesson [15] [53], becoming the first female teacher in history [54] [7] and France as a whole [5] [55] [33] [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1908, she became a professor and received a department [17] [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1910, Marie Curie was nominated for election to the French Academy of Sciences.


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Since no woman had ever been elected a member of the Academy before, the nomination immediately led to violent controversy between supporters and opponents of her membership in this conservative organization [6].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

As a result, a few months later, Marie Curie was rejected in the January 1911 elections by a margin of only two votes [5] (according to other sources, by one vote [6]).


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

After that, Maria categorically refused to run for election to the academy [56] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

Also in 1910, she refused the Order of the Legion of Honor offered to her by the government [16].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

From 1911 until her death, Marie Sklodowska-Curie was a regular participant in the Solvey Congresses on Physics [6] [17].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

In 1910-1911, four years after her husband's death, Curie had an affair with her old acquaintance, a former student of Pierre Curie, physicist Paul Langevin [4] [57] [42].


Question: At what age did Marie Curie die?

Marie Sklodowska-Curie

He was 5 years younger than Maria, married and had four children.