Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

They found an abandoned village, as the islanders, fearing a pirate attack, took refuge in caves west of the village.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

When they were persuaded to return, the soldiers found that the secluded villagers knew nothing about the prince and had never even heard of King George II.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Even at the end of the 19th century, the islanders communicated with the rest of the world only by making a fire on the top of Conahair in the hope of being noticed from a passing ship, or with the help of the St. Kilda Post Boat.


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St Kilda

It was invented by John Sands, who visited the island in 1877.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

When he was on the island, nine Austrian sailors were shipwrecked on St. Kilda, and by February food supplies were running out.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Sands attached the note to the rescue buoy that survived the Peti Dubrovacki and threw it into the sea.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[41] Nine days later, a buoy was caught near the village of Bersey in the northwest Mainland of the Orkney Islands, and a rescue operation was organized.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Creatively developing this idea, the inhabitants of St. Kilda gave the piece of wood the shape of a boat, attached a bubble of sheepskin to it, in which they placed a bottle or jar of message.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Sent to sea when the wind blew from the northwest, every two of the three messages were later found on the west coast of Scotland, or, less conveniently, in Norway.


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St Kilda

[42] [43]


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St Kilda

Another characteristic of life on St Kilda was its diet.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

The islanders kept sheep and some cattle and were able to grow a limited number of food crops, such as barley and potatoes, on the more drained land in Village Bay.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

According to Samuel Johnson, in the 18th century, the islanders made “small cheeses” from sheep's milk.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[44] They gave up fishing due to rough seas and unpredictable weather.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Their diet was based on the abundance of birds on the island, especially gannets and silly people.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

These birds were eaten in the form of eggs and young birds, which were eaten raw and processed.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Adult Atlantic puffins were also caught with bird fishing rods.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[29] However, this aspect of the islanders' lives was costly for them.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

When Henry Brougham visited here in 1799, he noted that “the air is saturated with an almost unbearable stench — a mixture of rotten fish, mud of all kinds, and smelly seabird” [45].


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[46] During excavations at Taigh an T-sithiche (“fairy house” — see below) in 1877, Sands discovered the remains of gannets, sheep, cattle, and sea saucer shells among various stone tools.


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St Kilda

The building is from 1,700 to 2,500 years old, which tells us that in a thousand years, the diet of St. Kilda residents has not changed much.


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St Kilda

Indeed, the islanders recognized stone tools and said their names, as similar ones were still in use.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Such hunting for feathered game requires significant climbing skills, especially on steep sea cliffs.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

One important island tradition was the Mistress Stone, a doorway hole in the rocks northwest of Ruival hanging over the ravine.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

The young men of the island had to undergo a ritual here to show that they were capable of climbing rocks and deserved to be married.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Martin Martin wrote:


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

History


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St Kilda

Prehistoric


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St Kilda

Previously, it was believed that St. Kilda was permanently inhabited by people for two thousand years or more, from the Bronze Age to the 20th century.


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St Kilda

[48] Recently, the first direct evidence of an earlier Neolithic settlement, Hebridean Ware pottery shards, found east of the village, has appeared.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

The subsequent discovery of a stone tool quarry at Mullach Sgar above Village Bay led to numerous finds of Skaill stone scrapers, sharpeners and knives [49] in stone warehouses Village Bay Clite structures (see below).


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St Kilda

It is possible that these tools are also of Neolithic origin. [50]


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St Kilda

14th—17th centuries


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St Kilda

The first written mention of St. Kilda dates back to 1202, when an Icelandic priest wrote that he had found refuge on “islands called Hirtir”.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[51] Early reports mention the findings of brooches, an iron sword and Danish coins, while the surviving Norwegian place names indicate the continued presence of Vikings on Hirte, but clear evidence of this has been lost.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[52] The first mention in English dates back to the end of the 14th century, when John of Fordun mentioned “the island of Irte, which is generally believed to belong to Cirtius and is at the end of the world” (“the isle of Irte, which is agreed to be under the Circius and on the margins of the world”).


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St Kilda

[53] Historically, the islands were part of the McLeod estate of Harris, whose manager was responsible for collecting in-kind rent and other duties.


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St Kilda

The first detailed report on a visit to the islands dates back to 1549, when Donald Munro wrote: “The inhabitants are ordinary poor people, hardly knowledgeable in any religion, but McLeod's manager of Harris or his the deputy sails there once a year in the middle of summer with a chaplain to baptize the children.” [54]


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St Kilda

Despite all the efforts of the chaplain, the isolation of the islanders and their dependence on the graces of nature meant that their worldview was as related to druidism as it was to Christianity [29] before arrival Reverend John McDonald in 1822 Macauley (1764) reported the existence of five druid altars, including a large circle of stones placed perpendicular to the ground, near Stallir House on Boreray Island.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Coll MacDonald from Colonsay Island raided Hirtu in 1615, taking 30 sheep and some barley.


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St Kilda

[56] Subsequently, the islands began to enjoy a reputation as abundant.


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St Kilda

At the time of Martin's visit in 1697, the population was 180 people and the manager went on a trip accompanied by almost 60 people, including him: “selected the thinnest” among his friends on nearby islands and periodically took them to St. Kilda to enjoy the benefits of the island's nutritious and abundant, albeit simple, provisions and thereby restore their health and strength” [57].


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Religion and tourism in the 18th and 19th centuries


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St Kilda

Tourism has had a different but equally devastating effect on St. Kilda.


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St Kilda

During the 19th century, steamers began to enter Hirtu, giving islanders the opportunity to earn money selling tweed and bird eggs, but at the same time losing self-esteem, as tourists looked at them as a curiosity.


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St Kilda

[59] The vessels brought with them previously unknown diseases, especially tetanus infantum, which led to a high infant mortality rate, reaching 80 per cent at the end of the 19th century.


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St Kilda

[29] “Steamship cough” (cnatan na gall), a disease that appeared after a ship approached Hirtu, has become common.


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St Kilda

[41] [46]


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St Kilda

By the beginning of the 20th century, schooling had appeared on the islands, and in 1906 the church was expanded to include a school.


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St Kilda

All children now studied English and their native Gaelic.


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St Kilda

The development of obstetrics, banned under Reverend McKay, has reduced child mortality from tetanus.


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St Kilda

Since the 1880s, trawlers fishing in the North Atlantic began to visit the islands regularly, facilitating trade.


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St Kilda

In 1875, under McKay, they started talking about resettlement from the islands, but despite the occasional shortage of food and the flu epidemic in 1913, the population stabilized at 75-80 man, and there were no signs that an island with a thousand-year history of human habitation would become uninhabited in just a few years.


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St Kilda

[60] [61] [62]


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St Kilda

World War I


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

At the beginning of World War I, Royal Navy installed a radio station on Hirt and for the first time the archipelago received daily communication with the mainland.


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St Kilda

At the end of the war, on May 15, 1918, a German submarine entered Village Bay, which, after warning, began shelling.


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St Kilda

Seventy-two shells destroyed a radio station, damaged the pastor's house, church and warehouse on the pier, but there were no casualties.


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St Kilda

One witness recalled: “This is not to say that this boat wanted to destroy everything, it could set fire to every house. But all she wanted was Admiralty property. One lamb was killed... the cattle fled to the other side of the island when they heard gunshots.”


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St Kilda

As a result, a 120 mm MKiII rapid-fire gun was installed at the Cape near Village Bay, but it never opened fire.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Among the long-term consequences were the establishment of regular contacts between the islanders and the outside world and the development of commodity-money relations.


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St Kilda

This made life easier for them, but it also made her more addicted.


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St Kilda

Both factors led to the evacuation of the island's population in just over a decade.


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St Kilda

Evacuation of the archipelago


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St Kilda

The reason for the evacuation was many factors.


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St Kilda

For centuries, the island has existed in relative isolation, but the emergence of tourism and the presence of the military in World War I prompted the islanders to find solutions to the difficulties of everyday life with which they have come across before.


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St Kilda

The authorities were unable (or unwilling) to help the islanders, although reliable radio communications and other infrastructure that the civilians living on the islands were deprived of were subsequently provided to a military base, which was worth millions of pounds sterling.


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St Kilda

[63] The changes of the 19th century disrupted the traditional way of life characteristic of the islanders.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Despite the construction of a small pier in 1902, the islands remained completely dependent on the weather.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

After World War I, most of the young islanders left the island, and the population fell from 73.


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St Kilda

in 1920 to 37 in 1928 [29] In 1926, the flu epidemic claimed the lives of four people, followed by crop failures in the 1920s. Research at the University of Aberdeen showed that the soil was contaminated with lead and other substances from fertilizers made from bird bones and peat ash.


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St Kilda

The use of manure for fertilization has become more intensive, and this has become another factor.


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St Kilda

The last straw was the death of a young woman, Mary Gilles, from appendicitis, in January 1930. On August 29 of the same year, the remaining 36 residents were evacuated to Movern, Scotland, to mainland, your own request.


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St Kilda

The morning on the day of the evacuation foreshadowed great weather.


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St Kilda

The sun rose from the calm sparkling sea and warmed the impressive rocks of Oyseval...


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St Kilda

Following tradition, the islanders left an open Bible and a handful of oats in every house, locked all the doors and boarded the Harebell at 7 am... They say that they stayed during loading fun.


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St Kilda

But as soon as the long horn of Dune disappeared beyond the horizon and the familiar outlines of the island blurred, the severance of the long-standing connection became a reality and the inhabitants of St. Kilda shed tears.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

In 1931, the islands were bought by Lord Dumfries (later 5th Marquess of Bute) from Sir Reginald McCloud.


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St Kilda

For the next 26 years, the islands were uninhabited, except for rare visits by tourists or briefly returning islanders.


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St Kilda

[66] [67]


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St Kilda

More recent military events


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St Kilda

The islands were not involved in World War II, during which they were completely abandoned, [68] but three crash sites have survived since then.


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St Kilda

Bristol Beaufighter LX798, based in Port Ellen on Fr. Islay, crashed into Conahair 100 meters below the summit on the night of June 3-4, 1943.


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St Kilda

A year later, just before midnight on June 7, 1944, the day after landing in Normandy, the Sunderland seaplane crashed on top of the Gleann Mòr.


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St Kilda

A small memorial plaque in a pickaxe is dedicated to those killed in this plane crash.


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St Kilda

69] A Wellington bomber crashed on the south shore of Soay in 1943.


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St Kilda

It was not until 1978 that an official attempt was made to investigate the crash site, but identification could not be carried out with absolute accuracy.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

A cockade of a Royal Canadian Air Force cap was found among the wreckage, suggesting that it may have been the aircraft that disappeared on September 28, 1943.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

In 1955, the British government decided to include St. Kilda in a missile tracking range based on Benbecula Island, where test launches and flights are carried out.


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St Kilda

Thus, in 1957, St. Kilda became inhabited again.


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St Kilda

Since then, a number of military buildings and towers have been built, including the first licensed premises on the island, the Puff Inn.


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St Kilda

The UK Department of Defense leases St. Kilda from the National Trust for Scotland for a nominal fee.


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St Kilda

[71] The main island of Hirta is still home to a small number of civilians working at the military base all year round.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Nature conservation


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St Kilda

Architecture


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St Kilda

Prehistoric buildings


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St Kilda

The oldest structures on St Kilda are the biggest mystery.


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St Kilda

Large koshars are located closer to the center of the island from the existing village in An Lag Bho'n Tuath (“hollow in the north”) and contain curious navicular stone rings or “masonry”.


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St Kilda

Soil samples date back to 1850 BC. e.


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St Kilda

, but they only occur on St Kilda and their destination is unknown.


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St Kilda

In the Gleann Mòr area, (northwest of Village Bay behind the central Hirta Ridge), there are 20 “horn-shaped structures”, significantly ruined buildings with a main courtyard of about 3×3 m, two or more smaller rooms and with a front yard formed by two curved or horn-shaped walls.


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St Kilda

Again, nothing like this exists in England or Europe, and their original purpose remains unknown.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

[73] [74] Gleann Mòr also houses the “Amazon house” (Taigh na Bana-Ghaisgich).


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St Kilda

According to Martin (1703), the female warrior is mentioned in many fairy tales of St. Kilda.


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St Kilda

This Amazon is famous in their tradition: its house (or farm) is still preserved; some of the residents live in it all summer, despite being several hundred years old; it is entirely built of stone, without the use of wood, limestone, earth or mortar to hold stones together, and has the shape of a circle, a pyramid tapering upwards, with a vent above the fire, which is always located in the center of the floor; the stones are elongated and thin, which makes up for the lack of wood; in the main part of the house can sit no more than nine people; on the right side of the wall there are three beds or low vault, between each bed that seats five people, there is a column; at the entrance to one of these low vaults there is a stone placed on the priest: it is said that she used to put her helmet on it; on the other side there are two stones on which, according to legend, she put her sword: she is said to have been very fond of hunting, and that in her time the whole space between this island and Harris was one continuous strip of land.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Harris has information about similar stories about a female warrior who hunted on the now submerged land between the Outer Hebrides and St. Kilda.


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St Kilda

[75] The front yard of this structure is similar to other “horn-shaped structures” in the vicinity, but like Martin's Amazon, its original purpose is more a legend than an archaeological fact.


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St Kilda

Much more is known about hundreds of unique “cleitean”, barns that adorn the archipelago.


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St Kilda

These domed structures are made of flat boulders and are covered with a turf roof on top.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

The wind freely penetrates through the cavities in the walls, but the rain does not get inside.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Peat, nets, grain were stored in these buildings, meat and eggs, manure, hay were stored, and sheep were sheltered in them in winter.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

The time of appearance of this invention by the inhabitants of the archipelago is unknown, but it was constantly used from prehistoric times until the evacuation of residents in 1930.


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St Kilda

Hirte has more than 1,200 destroyed and surviving “claytes”, and another 170 are located on neighboring islands.


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St Kilda

[76] [77] An early Christian stone cross is built into the front wall of house No. 16 in the modern village, which may date back to the 7th century.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Medieval settlement


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St Kilda

The medieval village was located near Tobar Childa, about 350 mattresses from the shore, at the foot of the slopes of Conachaira.


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St Kilda

The oldest structure is an underground passage with two small annexes called Taigh an T-sithiche (fairy house), dating back to 500 BC.


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St Kilda

— 300 AD


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St Kilda

The inhabitants of St. Kilda believed that it was a home or refuge, but according to a more modern hypothesis, it was a glacier.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Numerous ruins of fences and claytes, as well as the ruins of a medieval “house” with an extension resembling a hive, have survived.


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St Kilda

Nearby is the Bull's House, a rectangular structure without a roof, where the island's bull was kept in winter.


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St Kilda

Tobar Child is supplied with water from two springs, which are located just behind the Main Wall, which surrounded the Village to protect the cultivated plots of land within its limits from sheep and livestock.


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St Kilda

[80] There were a total of 25 to 30 houses.


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St Kilda

Most of them were black houses of the characteristic design of the Hebrides, but some older buildings were made of jagged stone with roofs not made of straw, but of turf.


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St Kilda

Turn protected from wind and rain.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Older buildings in the form of hives looked more like green hills than dwellings.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

More modern facilities


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St Kilda

The Head Wall was erected in 1834, when the medieval village was abandoned and a new settlement was planned between Tobar Childa and the coast about 200 meters away. hillside.


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St Kilda

The settlement was the result of the arrival of Sir Thomas Dyke Ackland, a parliamentarian from Devon.


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St Kilda

Amazed by the primitive living conditions of the islanders, he made a gift that led to the construction of a completely new settlement of 30 new houses in black.


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St Kilda

They were further strengthened after several new buildings were damaged by a strong storm in October 1860.


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St Kilda

At that time, 16 modern houses and a new manager's house were built among the black houses.


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St Kilda

The houses were built of stone without mortar, had thick walls and turf roofs.


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St Kilda

The building, as a rule, had one small window and a small hole for smoke to escape from the hearth in the middle of the room where peat was burning.


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St Kilda

Because of this, the room was all smeared with soot inside.


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St Kilda

In winter, cattle were housed at one end of the house, and once a year the straw covering the floor was removed and spread out on the ground.


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St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

One of the most interesting ruins on Hirt is the place where Lady Grange's House stood.


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St Kilda

Lady Grange was the wife of James Erskine, Jacobite supporter James Erskine of Grange, for 25 years when he decided that she knew too much about his treacherous conspiracies.


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St Kilda

On his instructions, she was kidnapped and secretly imprisoned in Edinburgh for six months.


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St Kilda

From there, she was sent to the Monk Islands, where she lived in isolation for two years, while he reported her death and arranged for her funeral.


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St Kilda

She was then transported to Hirtu, where she stayed from 1734 to 1742, and which she described as “a disgusting, vile, smelly beggar island.”


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St Kilda

After an unsuccessful escape attempt, Erskine took her to the Isle of Skye, where she died.


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St Kilda

The House is a large storage barn in the Village Meadow.


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St Kilda

[83] [84] [85] [86]


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St Kilda

Boswell and Johnson discussed this topic during their visit to the Hebrides in 1773.


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St Kilda

Boswell wrote: “Today after dinner, we talked about the striking case of Lady Grange being exiled to St. Kilda and imprisoned there for several years without any help. Dr. Johnson noted that if McLeod had made it known that he had such a place for bad wives, he could make it a very profitable island.” [87]


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St Kilda

In the 1860s, unsuccessful attempts were made to improve the landing zone by blowing up rocks.


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St Kilda

In 1877, a small pier was built, which was washed into the sea by a storm two years later.


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St Kilda

In 1883, statements to the Napier Commission proposed the restoration of the pier, but it was not until 1901 that the Congested Districts Board provided an engineer to berth construction next year.


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St Kilda

Almost on the coastline itself, there are several huge boulders that were known on the islands and northern Scotland in the 19th century as Doirneagan Hirt, naked Hirta [88] [89].


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St Kilda

At one time, there were three churches on Hirt.


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St Kilda

Christ Church, located in a cemetery in the center of the Village, was in use in 1697 and was the largest, but its thatched building could not accommodate the entire population, so during the service most of the parishioners had to be in the courtyard of the church.


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St Kilda

The Church of St.


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St Kilda

Brendana was a kilometer away on the slope of Ruival, and the Church of St.


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St Kilda

The Columbs are at the west end of Village Street, but there is little left of these buildings.


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St Kilda

In 1830, a new pickaxe (Scottish church) (kirk) and a parish priest's house were built on the eastern outskirts of the village, and in 1860 the manager's house was built [90] [91].


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St Kilda

Buildings on other islands


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St Kilda

The archipelago in art and literature


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St Kilda

The story of the evacuation of Hirt Island was the plot for the feature film “End of the World” directed by Michael Powell.


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St Kilda

The film was shot in the summer of 1936 on Fula Island [92].


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St Kilda

Literature


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Baxter, Colin and Crumley, Jim (1998) St Kilda: A portrait of Britain's remotest island landscape, Biggar, Colin Baxter Photography ISBN 0-948661-03-8


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Buchanan, Margaret St Kilda: a Photographic Album, W. Blackwood, 1983 ISBN 0-85158-162-5


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Coates, Richard (1990) The Place-names of St Kilda, Lampeter, Edwin Mellen Press


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Fraser Darling, F., and Boyd, J.M. (1969) Natural History in the Highlands and Islands, London, Bloomsbury ISBN 1-870630-98-X


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Fleming, Andrew (2005) St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda and the Wider World: Tales of an Iconic Island, Windgather Press ISBN 1-905119-00-3


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Harvie-Brown, J.A. and Buckley, T.E. (1888), A Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Pub.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

David Douglas.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

, Edinburgh.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Haswell-Smith, Hamish (2004) The Scottish Islands, Edinburgh, Canongate ISBN 1-84195-454-3


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Keay, J., and Kay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland, London, HarperCollins ISBN 0-00-255082-2


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Maclean, Charles (1977) Island on the Edge of the World: the Story of St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda, Canongate ISBN 0-903937-41-7


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Martin, Martin (1703) “” in A Description of The Western Islands of Scotland, Appin Regiment/Appin Historical Society.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 3 March 2007


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Murray, W.H. (1966) The Hebrides, London, Heinemann


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Quine, David (2000) St Kilda, Grantown-on-Spey, Colin Baxter Island Guides ISBN 1-84107-008-4


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Steel, Tom (1988) The Life and Death of St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda, London, Fontana ISBN 0-00-637340-2


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Williamson, Kenneth; & Boyd, J. Morton.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

St Kilda Summer, London, Hutchinson


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

See also


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Scottish Wildlife Trust


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Notes


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Supplementary literature


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Atkinson, Robert Island going to the remoter isles, chiefly uninhabited, off the north-west corner of Scotland, William Collins, 1949.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

(Reprinted Birlinn, 1995 ISBN 1-874744-31-9)


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Charnley, Bob Last Greetings of St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda, Richard Stenlake, 1989 ISBN 1-872074-02-2


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Coates, Richard The Place-Names of St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda, Edwin Mellen Press, 1990 ISBN 0-88946-077-9


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Gilbert, O. The Lichen Hunters.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

St Kilda: Lichens at the Edge of the World, The Book Guild Ltd.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

, England, 2004 ISBN 1-85776-930-9


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Harman, Mary An Isle Called Hirte: History and Culture of St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda to 1930, MacLean Press, 1996 ISBN 1-899272-03-8


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kearton, Richard, Cassell and Company, London, 1898


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

McCutcheon, Campbell St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilda: a Journey to the End of the World, Tempus, 2002 ISBN 0-7524-2380-0


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Stell, Geoffrey P., and Mary Harman Buildings of St Kilda, RCAHMS, 1988 ISBN 0-11-493391-X


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

References


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

National Trust for Scotland.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

culturehebrides.com.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

(12 May 2003)


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

The Scottish Executive.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

An architectural and historical account by Christian Lassue.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Utopia Britannica: British Utopian Experiments 1325—1945.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

(29 August 1930) nls.uk reprint of report from The Times.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

London.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

(26 June 2005)


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Glasgow.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Sunday Herald.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

A report of a surviving St Kildan re-visiting the islands by Torcuil Crichton.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

abandonedcommunties.co.uk Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

(January 2003) (pdf) Retrieved 28 December 2007.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Includes a detailed map.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

— the last resident of St.


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Kilds


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Category:Uninhabited islands of Scotland


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Category:Outer Hebrides


Question: Does St. Kilda have its own flag?

St Kilda

Category:Nature reserves in Scotland


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil (from Turkish: neft, from Persian:, naft [1]) is a natural oily combustible liquid with a specific odor, consisting mainly of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and some other chemical compounds.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

It belongs to caustobiolites [2] (fossil fuel [3]).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The vast majority of oil fields are confined to sedimentary rocks [4] [5].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The oil color is usually pure black.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Sometimes it varies in brown-brown tones (from dirty yellow to dark brown, almost black), occasionally there is oil painted in a light yellow-green color, and even colorless, as well as rich green oil [6] [7].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

It has a specific smell, which also varies from light pleasant to heavy and very unpleasant.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The color and smell of oil is largely due to the presence of nitrogen-, sulfur- and oxygen-containing components that are concentrated in lubricating oil and oil residue.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Most petroleum hydrocarbons (except aromatic ones) in their pure form are odorless and colorless [8].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Throughout the 20th century and in the 21st century, oil has been one of the most important minerals for mankind.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In terms of chemical composition and origin, oil is close to natural combustible gases and ozocerite.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

These minerals are combined under the common name petrolites.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petrolites belong to an even larger group of so-called caustobiolites - combustible minerals of biogenic origin, which also include other fossil fuels (peat, brown and coal, anthracite, shale).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is found together with gaseous hydrocarbons at depths from tens of meters to 5-6 km.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, at depths above 4.5—5 km, gas and gas condensate deposits with a small number of light fractions predominate.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The maximum number of oil deposits is located at a depth of 1—3 km.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

At shallow depths and during natural exits to the earth's surface, oil is converted into dense Malta, semi-solid asphalt and other formations, such as tar sands and bitumen.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Name


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The word petroleum, which means oil in English and some other languages, is formed by the addition of two words: Ancient Greek: ptra - stone and Latin: oleum - oil, that is, literally “stone oil”.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

At the time of chemist and mineralogist V. M. Severgin (1765—1826) in Russia, oil was called “rock oil” [9], then “stone oil” [10].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The Russian word “oil” was most likely borrowed from Turkish: neft “oil”, where it got from Persian: naft (naft) “oil”.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

There is an alternative Semitic version [11].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In German, oil is German: Erdöl, which literally means “earth oil”, Hungarian: kőolaj — “stone oil”, Japanese: (sekiyu) - “stone oil”, Finnish: vuoriöljy - “rock oil”.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

History


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil has been known to mankind since ancient times, as illustrated by the following data:


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the Middle Ages, interest in oil was mainly based on its ability to burn.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

There is information about the “combustible water — thick” brought from Ukhta to Moscow under Boris Godunov.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Until the 18th century, oil was mainly used in natural, that is, unprocessed and unrefined form.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Some information about oil distillation dates back to the 10th century AD.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

, however, distillation products were not widely used [14].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 1733, Russian military doctor Johann Lerche, visiting the Baku oil fields, recorded observations about oil distillation: Oil does not begin to burn soon, it is dark brown in color, and when it is distilled, turns light yellow.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

White oil is somewhat cloudy, but distillation is as light as alcohol, and this one lights up very soon.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 1746, ore expert F. S. Pryadunov supplied an oil refinery on the Ukhta River on a natural source of oil.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, the remoteness from civilization made it difficult for the plant to operate, which could not ensure profitability and was abandoned a quarter of a century later.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

[15] In 1823, serfs, the Dubinin brothers, built an oil refinery cube in the North Caucasus, in the city of Mozdok.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

This enterprise has been operating for more than 20 years, supplying several hundred pounds of oil distillation products per year for pharmacy and lighting purposes.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

[16] In 1857, Vasily Kokorev built an oil refinery in Surakhany near Baku with an initial capacity of 100,000 pounds of kerosene per year.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

[17] From this moment, the rapid development of the kerosene field begins, which has led to oil production.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

By the end of the 19th century, Russia had already produced about 100 million pounds of kerosene per year.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The primary use of refined oil began only in the second half of the 19th century, which was facilitated by the new method of oil extraction that arose at that time using boreholes instead of wells.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The world's first oil production from a borehole took place in 1848 at the Bibi-Heybat field near Baku [18].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Origins


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil formation is a staged, long-term process of oil formation from organic matter of sedimentary rocks (remains of ancient living organisms), according to the dominant biogenic (organic) theory oil origin.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

This process takes tens and hundreds of millions of years [19].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the 20th century, the hypothesis of the abiogenic origin of oil from inorganic matter at great depths under conditions of colossal pressures and high temperatures had a certain popularity, especially in the USSR, however, the vast majority of evidence supports biogenic theory [20].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Abiogenic hypotheses did not allow making effective forecasts for the discovery of new deposits [21].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petroleum geology


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The rocks enclosing oil have relatively high porosity and permeability sufficient for its extraction.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Rocks that allow free movement and accumulation of liquids and gases in them are called reservoirs.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The porosity of the reservoirs depends on the degree of sorting of the grains, their shape and laying, as well as on the presence of cement.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Permeability is determined by the size of the pores and their connectivity.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The main reservoirs of oil are sands, sandstones, conglomerates, dolomites, limestones and other well-permeable rocks contained among such low-permeable rocks as clays or gypsum.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Under favorable conditions, reservoirs can be fractured metamorphic and igneous rocks located in the vicinity of sedimentary oil-bearing rocks.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

For a very long time (since the second half of the 19th century), geologists believed that oil deposits were confined almost exclusively to anticlinal folds, and only in 1911 I. M. Gubkin discovered a new type of deposit in the Maykopsky district, timed to coincide with alluvial sands and called “sleeve-shaped”.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

More than 10 years later, similar deposits were discovered in the United States.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Further development of exploration in the USSR and the United States ended with the discovery of deposits associated with salt domes that lift and sometimes pierce sedimentary strata.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The study of oil fields has shown that the formation of oil deposits is due to various structural forms of reservoir bends, stratigraphic ratios of suites and lithological features breeds.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Several classifications of oil fields and deposits both in Russia and abroad have been proposed.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil fields differ from each other in terms of the type of structural forms and the conditions for their formation.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil and gas deposits differ from each other in the shape of reservoir traps and in the conditions for the formation of oil accumulations in them.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Properties


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Physical properties


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is a liquid from light brown (almost colorless) to dark brown (almost black) in color (although there are even samples of emerald green oil).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The average molecular weight is 220-400 g/mol (rarely 450-470).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The density is 0.65—1.05 (usually 0.82—0.95) g/cm³; oil whose density is below 0.83 is called light, 0.831—0.860 is medium, above 0.860 is heavy.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The density of oil, like other hydrocarbons, is highly dependent on temperature and pressure [22].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

It contains a large number of different organic substances and therefore is characterized not by a boiling point, but by the initial boiling point of liquid hydrocarbons (usually >28° C, less often ≥100° C in the case of heavy nefti) and fractional composition - the yield of individual fractions that are distilled first at atmospheric pressure, and then under vacuum within certain temperature ranges, as a rule, up to 450-500° C (boils ~ 80% of the sample volume), less often 560—580°C (90—95%).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The crystallization temperature is from −60 to +30°C; depends mainly on the content of paraffin in the oil (the more it is, the higher the crystallization temperature) and light fractions (the more of them, the higher this temperature below).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Viscosity varies widely (from 1.98 to 265.90 mm²/s for various oil produced in Russia), is determined by the fractional composition of oil and its temperature (the higher it is and the greater the number of lungs fractions, the lower the viscosity), as well as the content of resinous-asphaltene substances (the more of them, the higher the viscosity).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Specific heat capacity 1.7—2.1 kJ/ (kg∙K); specific heat of combustion (lower) 43.7—46.2 MJ/kg; dielectric constant 2.0—2.5; electrical conductivity [specific] from 2∙10−10 to 0.3∙10−18 ohm−1∙cm−1 .


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is a flammable liquid; the flash point is from −35 [4] to+121°C (depending on the fractional composition and the content of dissolved gases in it).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is soluble in organic solvents, under normal conditions it is insoluble in water, but can form stable emulsions with it.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the technology for separating water and salt dissolved in it from oil, dehydration and desalination are carried out.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Chemical composition


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

From the point of view of colloidal chemistry, oil is a multicomponent colloidal system, that is, a liquid in which micelles are suspended - semi-solid clots of high molecular weight resins, asphaltenes and carbenes [23] that are insoluble in liquid hydrocarbons at normal temperatures — as well as, often, carbonaceous (consisting of carbenes and carboids) and mineral particles and water [24].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The oil contains about a thousand individual substances, most of which are liquid hydrocarbons (> 500 substances or usually 80—90% by weight) and heteroatomic organic compounds (4—5%), mainly sulfur (about 250 substances), nitrogenous (> 30 substances) and oxygen (about 85 substances), as well as organometallic compounds (mainly vanadium and nickel); the remaining components are dissolved hydrocarbon gases (C1-C4, from tenths to 4%), water (from traces to 10%), mineral salts (mainly chlorides, 0.1-4000 mg/l or more), solutions of salts of organic acids, etc.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

, mechanical impurities.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil mainly contains paraffin (usually 30—35, less often 40—50% by volume) and naphthenic (25—75%) compounds.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

To a lesser extent, compounds of the aromatic series (10—20, less often 35%) and mixed or hybrid structure (for example, paraffin-naphthenic, naphtheno-aromatic).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Along with hydrocarbons, oil contains substances containing impurity atoms.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Sulfur-containing — H2S, mercaptans, mono- and disulfides, thiophenes and thiophanes, as well as polycyclic, etc. (70-90% concentrated in residual products — fuel oil and tar); nitrogen-containing — mainly homologues of pyridine, quinoline, indole, carbazole, pyrrole, as well as porphyrins (mostly concentrated in heavy fractions and residues); oxygen-containing - naphthenic acids, phenols, resinous asphaltene, etc.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

substances (usually concentrated in high-boiling fractions).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Elemental composition (%): 82-87C; 11-14.5 N; 0.01-6 S (rarely up to 8); 0.001-1.8 N; 0.005—0.35 O (rarely up to 1.2), etc.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In total, more than 50 elements were found in oil.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Thus, along with those mentioned, oil contains V (10−5 — 10−2%), Ni (10−4−10−3%), Cl (from traces to 2×10−2%), etc. The content of these compounds and impurities in the raw materials of different fields varies widely, so it is possible to talk about the average chemical composition of oil only conditionally.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Table 1. Elemental composition of oil from various fields (in%) fieldDensity, g/cm³CHSnoZolaukhtinskoye (RF) 0.89785,3012,460,880,14-0.01Grozny (RF) 0.85085,9513,000,140,070,740,740,740,740,10Surakhanskoye (Azerbaijan) 0.79385,3414,140.03-0.49 - California (USA) 0.91284,0012,700,401,701.20-


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

By its ability to dissolve in organic liquids, including:


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

carbon disulfide


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

chloroform,


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

alcohol-benzene mixture


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

oil as well as:


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

other petrolites,


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

substances extracted by these solvents from peat,


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

substances extracted by these solvents from fossil coals


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

scientists usually refer to the group of bitumen.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil as a component of hydrocarbon deposits


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Often, an oil reservoir occupies only a part of the reservoir, and therefore, depending on the nature of the porosity and the degree of cementation of the rock (heterogeneity of the deposit), different degrees of saturation are found oil from its individual sections within the reservoir itself.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Sometimes this reason is due to the presence of unproductive areas of the deposit.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Usually, oil in the deposit is accompanied by water, which limits the deposit down the fall of the layers or along its entire bottom.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In addition, in each oil deposit, along with it, there is so-called film, or residual water, enveloping rock (sand) particles and pore walls.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the event of wedging out of the reservoir rocks or cutting it off by discharges, shifts, etc., disjunctive disturbances, the deposit may either be completely or partially limited to weakly permeable rocks.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Gas is sometimes concentrated in the upper parts of the oil deposit (the so-called “gas cap”).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The flow rate of wells, in addition to the physical properties of the reservoir, its capacity and saturation, is determined by the pressure of the gas dissolved in the oil and marginal waters.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

When oil is extracted by wells, it is not possible to completely extract all the oil from the deposit, a significant amount of it remains in the depths of the earth's crust (see Fig. Oil recovery and oil production).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

For more complete oil extraction, special methods are used, of which the method of flooding (contour, intra-contour, focal) is of great importance.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil in the deposit is under pressure (elastic expansion and/or marginal water and/or gas, both dissolved and gas cap), as a result of which the opening of the deposit, especially by the first wells, is accompanied by the risk of gas and oil occurrences (very rarely by fountain oil emissions).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Grading


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The hydrocarbon class for which the oil is named must be present in an amount of more than 50%.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

If hydrocarbons of other classes are also present and one of the classes is at least 25%, mixed types of oil are distinguished: methane-naphthenic, naphtheno-methane, aromatic-naphthenic, naphthenic - aromatic, aromatic-methane and methano-aromatic; they contain more than 25% of the first component, and more than 50% of the second component.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Table 2. The content of the main classes of hydrocarbons in various oils (in fractions boiling up to 300° C in% for all oil) Fieldensity, g/cm³ParaffinNaphthenesAromatic Permskoye (RF) 0.9418,16,715,3Grozny (RF) 0.84422,210,55,5Surakhanskoye (Azerbaijan) 0.84813,221.35.2California (USA) 0.8979,814.95,1Texas (USA) 0.84526,49,76.4


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Commercial oil grades


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The introduction of grade is necessary due to the difference in the composition of oil (sulfur content, different content of alkane groups, the presence of impurities) depending on the field.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The standard for prices is WTI and Light Sweet oil (for the Western Hemisphere and in general a benchmark for other grades of oil), as well as Brent (for the markets of Europe and OPEC countries).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

To simplify exports, some standard grades of oil were invented related either to the main field or to a group of fields.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

For Russia, this is heavy Urals and Siberian Light light oil, in Azerbaijan Azeri Light.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the UK — Brent, in Norway — Statfjord, in Iraq — Kirkuk, in the USA — Light Sweet and WTI.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

It often happens that a country produces two types of oil — light and heavy.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

For example, in Iran, these are Iran Light and Iran Heavy [25].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil production


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

According to the methods of lifting, modern methods of extracting fluids or borehole fluid (including oil) are divided into:


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

fountain (fluid is released due to reservoir pressure)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

gas lift


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

installation of an electric centrifugal pump (ESP)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

EVN installation of an electro-screw pump (EEVN)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

SGN (sucker rod pumps), often driven by a ground pumping unit


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

others


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The first centrifugal pump for oil production was developed in 1916 by the Russian inventor Armais Arutyunov.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 1923, Arutyunov emigrated to the United States, and in 1928 founded the Bart Manufacturing Company, which in 1930 was renamed the REDA Pump (an abbreviation for Russian Electrical Dynamo of Arutunoff). which for many years has been the market leader in submersible pumps for oil production.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the USSR, a great contribution to the development of electric submersible pumps for oil production was made by the Special Design Bureau for the Design, Research and Implementation of Deep Rodless Pumps (OKB BN) established in 1950 Alexander Antonovich Bogdanov was the founder of the BN Design Bureau.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Until the mid-1970s, global oil production doubled every decade, and then its growth slowed down.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 1938, it was about 280 million tons, in 1950 about 550 million tons, in 1960 more than 1 billion tons, and in 1970 more than 2 billion tons. In 1973, world oil production exceeded 2.8 billion tons. World oil production in 2005 amounted to about 3.6 billion tons.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In total, from the beginning of industrial production (from the late 1850s) to the end of 1973, 41 billion tons were extracted from the subsoil in the world, half of which accounted for 1965-1973.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

World oil production in 2006 was about 3.8 billion tons per year [27], or 30 billion barrels per year.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The world's largest oil producers (According to the International Energy Agency) Country20082006 [28] 2003Production, million tons World market share (%) Production, million tons World market share (%) Production, million tons Share of global market (%) Saudi Arabia505 [29] 9,247712,147012,7Russia480 [30] 9,150712,941911,3US294 [31] 5,63107,93489,4Iran252 [32] 4,82165,51945,2China189 [33] 3,51844,71654,4Mexico167.94 [34] 3,21834,61895,1Canada173.4 [35] 3,31513,81383,7Venezuela180 [36] 3,41513,81494Kazakhstan70 [37] 1,364,91,751,31.2 other countries:1985,56 561692,1431589,743 World oil production, total:10039361003710100


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The oil-producing countries are also Libya, Norway.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

See also: Oil overproduction in the 1980s


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil industry in Russia


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

One of the first references to oil in Russia dates back to the XV century, when oil was found in Ukhta.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 1684, Irkutsk writing head Leonty Kislyansky discovered oil in the area of the Irkutsk prison.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Another oil discovery in Russia was reported on January 2, 1703 in the Russian newspaper Vedomosti.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil production began in 1745.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, during the 18th century, the development of oil fields was unprofitable due to the extremely narrow practical application of the product.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

With the development of industry, demand has increased.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The Caucasus became the main oil region of Russia.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Wars and revolutionary events in Russia have plunged oil production into crisis.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Only in the 1920s it became possible to talk about the restoration of the industry.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil production in the USSR grew rapidly until the early 80s, then growth slowed down.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 1988, oil production in the USSR and Russia reached an all-time high, and then began to fall.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, state-owned enterprises were corporatized, and a significant part of them passed to private hands.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil production continued to fall until the mid-90s, after which it began to grow again.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is the main item of Russian exports, accounting, according to data for 2009, 33% of exports in monetary terms (together with petroleum products — 49%).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In addition, prices for the third main export component, natural gas, significantly depend on the level of prices for oil and petroleum products.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The Russian government plans to increase oil production by 2030 to 530 million tons per year [38].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In 2011, oil production in the Russian Federation amounted to about 511 million tons, which is 1.23% higher than in 2010 [39].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil exports fell by 2.4% according to the Federal State Statistics Service [39], or 6.4% according to the Federal Customs Service [40], but export revenues increased from 129 to 171.7 billion dollars [40].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil refining


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The first oil refinery was built in Russia in 1745, during the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, at the Ukhta oil field.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Candles were used in St. Petersburg and Moscow at that time, and rays were used in small towns.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

But even then, unquenchable lamps were burning in many churches.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

They were filled with mountain oil, which was nothing more than a mixture of refined oil and vegetable oil.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Merchant Nabatov was the only supplier of refined oil for cathedrals and monasteries.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

At the end of the 18th century, a lamp was invented.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

With the advent of lamps, the demand for kerosene has increased.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil refining is the removal of undesirable components from petroleum products that adversely affect the performance properties of fuels and oils.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Chemical purification is carried out by exposing various reagents to the removed components of the products to be cleaned.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The simplest method is purification with 92-96% sulfuric acid or oleum, used to remove unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Physico-chemical purification is carried out with the help of solvents that selectively remove unwanted components from the product to be purified.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Non-polar solvents (propane and butane) are used to remove aromatic hydrocarbons from oil refining residues (tars) (deasphalting process).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Polar solvents (phenol, etc.) are used to remove polycyclic aromatic carbons with short side chains, sulfur and nitrogen compounds from oil distillates.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

During adsorption purification, unsaturated hydrocarbons, resins, acids, etc. are removed from petroleum products.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Adsorption purification is carried out by contacting heated air with adsorbents or filtering the product through adsorbent grains.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Catalytic purification is hydrogenation used to remove sulfur and nitrogen compounds.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Application


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Crude oil is practically not used directly (crude oil, along with nerosine, is used for sand protection — fixing sand sand from blowing by the wind during the construction of power lines and pipelines).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

To obtain technically valuable products from it, mainly motor fuels (gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, jet fuel), fuel for gas turbines and boilers, lubricants and special oils, paraffin, bitumen for road construction and waterproofing, synthetic fatty acids, carbon black for the rubber industry, coke for electrodes, solvents, raw materials for chemical industry, it is processed.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Associated petroleum gases, petroleum refining gases, a number of oil fractions, aromatic hydrocarbons, liquid and solid paraffins obtained from oil are used as raw materials for the petrochemical synthesis of polymeric materials and plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, synthetic detergents, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, feed proteins and other valuable materials.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil occupies a leading place in the global fuel and energy balance: its share in total energy consumption was 33.6% in 2010 [41].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the future, this share will decrease [42] due to an increase in the use of nuclear and other types of energy, as well as an increase in cost and a decrease in production.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Due to the rapid development of the chemical and petrochemical industries in the world, the demand for oil is increasing not only in order to increase the production of fuels and oils, but also as a source of valuable raw materials for production of synthetic rubbers and fibers, plastics, surfactants, detergents, plasticizers, additives, dyes, etc.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

(more than 8% of world production).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Among the starting materials obtained from oil for these industries, the most widely used are: paraffin hydrocarbons — methane, ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, hexanes, as well as high molecular weight (10—20 carbon atoms in the molecule); naphthenic; aromatic hydrocarbons — benzene, toluene, xylenes, ethylbenzene; olefinic and diolefin — ethylene, propylene, butadiene; acetylene.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is unique in its combination of qualities: high energy density (thirty percent higher than that of the highest quality coals), oil is easy to transport (compared to gas or coal, for example), Finally, it is easy to obtain a mass of the above products from oil


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Depletion of oil resources, rising oil prices, etc.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

the reasons have led to an intensive search for substitutes for liquid fuels.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

explorations


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

D. AND. Mendeleev for the first time drew attention to the fact that oil is the most important source of chemical raw materials, and not only fuel; he devoted a number of works to the origin and rational refining of oil.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

He wrote a well-known statement about attempts to heat steam boilers with oil instead of coal: “You can also heat it with bank notes” (1885).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Of great importance were the works of V. IN. Markovnikov (1880s), devoted to the study of the composition of oil; he discovered a new class of hydrocarbons in oil, called naphthenes, and studied the structure of many hydrocarbons.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

L. G. Gurvich, on the basis of his research, developed a physico-chemical basis for refining oil and petroleum products and significantly improved the methods of its refining.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Continuing Markovnikov's work, N. D. Zelinsky developed in 1918 a catalytic method for producing gasoline from heavy oil residues.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

For many years, S. S. Nametkin; he developed methods for determining the content of hydrocarbons of different classes in oil (determining the group composition) and indicated ways to increase the yield of petroleum products.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

IN. G. Shukhov invented the world's first industrial thermal oil cracking unit (1891), was the author of the project and chief engineer for the construction of the first Russian oil pipeline (1878), laid the foundations design of oil pipelines, oil storage tanks and oil refining equipment.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Stocks


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil is a non-renewable resource.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Proven oil reserves amount (as of 2004) to 210 billion tons (1200 billion barrels), undiscovered oil reserves are estimated at 52—260 billion tons (300—1500 billion barrels).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

By the beginning of 1973, world proven oil reserves were estimated at 100 billion tons (570 billion barrels).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Thus, in the past, proven reserves have grown (oil consumption is also growing — over the past 35 years it has increased from 20 to 30 billion barrels per year).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, since 1984, the annual volume of world oil production has exceeded the volume of explored oil reserves [45].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

World oil production in 2006 was about 3.8 billion tons per year [27], or 30 billion barrels per year.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Thus, at the current rate of consumption, explored oil will last for about 40 years, and unexplored oil for another 10-50 years.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Despite the existence of such forecasts, the Russian government in 2009 planned to increase oil production by 2030 to 530 million tons per year (as part of the Energy Strategy of Russia for the period until 2030 years) [46] Unknown parameter |deadlink= ignored (|dead-url= suggested) (help).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Notes:


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

1. Billion (109) bbl estimated reserves


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

2. Thousands (10³) barrels per day production


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

3. Resource availability is calculated as reserves/production


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

As of January 1, 2012, according to officially released information (before that, data on oil and gas reserves were classified), recoverable oil reserves in the Russian Federation in categories A /B/C1 are 17.8 billion tons [49] or 129.9 billion barrels (assuming that 1 ton of Urals export mixture is 7.3 barrels).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The estimated time for which these reserves will last at current production (just over 10 million barrels or 1.4 million tons per day) is 35 years.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

There are also large oil reserves (3,400 billion barrels) in the oil sands of Canada and Venezuela.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

At the current rate of consumption, this oil will last for 110 years.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Currently, companies are not yet able to produce much oil from oil sands, but they are developing in this direction.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil and the economy


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil occupies a leading place in the global fuel and energy sector.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Its share in total energy consumption grew continuously: 3% in 1900,5% before the First World War (1914—1918), 17.5% on the eve of World War II (1939—1945), 24% in 1950, 41.5% in 1972 [41], 48% in 2004 and 46.2% in 1973 [43], but subsequently began to decrease, amounting to 33.6% in 2010 [41] and 31.3% in 2014 [43].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Conventional oil alternatives


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The sharp increase in prices in 2003—2008, as well as the limited reserves of conventional oil, make it relevant to develop technologies with reduced consumption of petroleum products, as well as the development of alternative generating capacities that do not use refined products.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Bituminous (petroleum) sands


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil reserves in the tar sands of Alberta, Canada and Orinoco, Venezuela are 1.7 and 2.0 trillion barrels, respectively [50], while world reserves of traditional oil at the beginning of 2006 were estimated at 1.1 trillion barrels [51].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil production from Alberta tar sands was 1.126 MB/d (million barrels per day) in 2006.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

It is planned to increase it to 3 Mb/d in 2020 and 5 Mb/d in 2030.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil production from Orinoco tar sands is 0.5 Mb/d, and in 2010 it is planned to increase it to 1 Mb/d [52].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

All world oil production is about 84 Mb/d.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Thus, although the reserves of tar sands are huge, oil production from them in the foreseeable future (according to current forecasts) will meet only a few percent of the world's oil needs.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The problem is that the currently known technologies for extracting oil from tar sands require a large amount of fresh water and total energy consumption, which (according to some estimates) is about 2/3 energy potential of the oil thus produced [53] [54] (see para. EROEI - Energy Return on Energy Investment - “energy return on energy spent”).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Other researchers estimate energy consumption as only 1/5 of the energy potential of the oil produced [55].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil from oil shale


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil shale, the total reserves of which in the world amount to about 650 trillion tons, contain 2.8-3.3 trillion barrels of recoverable oil [56] [57] [58].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

According to a study by RAND, oil production from shale in the US will become profitable at a price of $70-95 per barrel [59].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

This threshold was passed in 2007.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Thus, the Australian project for the production of oil from shale was closed in 2004 thanks to the efforts of Greenpeace [60].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

But in 2011, it was reported that Stanford University had developed an environmentally friendly technology for retoring shale rocks and extracting electricity without generating carbon dioxide through creating a temperature below the critical temperature [61].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Coal fuel


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Synthetic gasoline and diesel fuel from coal (see Fig. Fischer-Tropsch synthesis) was produced by Nazi Germany during the Second World War.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In South Africa, Sasol Limited has been producing synthetic fuels from coal since 1955.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

At the beginning of 2006, the United States considered projects for the construction of 9 plants for indirect liquefaction of coal with a total capacity of 90-250 thousand barrels per day.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

China plans to invest $15 billion by 2010-2015 in the construction of plants for the production of synthetic fuel from coal.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) said that the total capacity of coal liquefaction plants will reach 16 million tons of synthetic fuel per year, which is about 0.4 million barrels per day.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

As in the case of oil from shale, a serious problem in obtaining fuel from coal is environmental pollution, albeit on a smaller scale.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Gas cars


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Gas cars use an engine that runs on methane, propane, or butane.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

According to Delta Auto, a company engaged in the conversion of cars to gas fuel, in Russia, gas sales to vehicles are growing by 20% per year, and in the European Union it is planned to transfer to gas fuel for 10% of cars.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Argentina is the leader in this area, which has converted 1.4 million cars to gas fuel.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Gas fuel is cheaper than gasoline, is more environmentally friendly and increases the service life of the car.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, natural gas reserves are also limited, and according to forecasts, natural gas production will begin to fall from 2020.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Biofuel


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Brazil is the leader in the use of biofuels, which provides 40% of its fuel needs from alcohol [63], due to high sugar cane yields and low labor costs.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Biofuels do not formally lead to greenhouse gas emissions: carbon dioxide (CO2) removed from it during photosynthesis returns to the atmosphere.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, the sharp increase in biofuel production requires large areas for planting plants.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

These areas are either cleared by burning forests (which leads to huge emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere), or are created at the expense of feed and food crops (which leads to an increase in prices for food) [64].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In addition, growing crops requires a lot of energy.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

For many crops, EROEI (the ratio of energy received to spent) is only slightly above or below one.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

So, corn has an EROEI of only 1.5.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Contrary to popular belief, this is not true for all crops: for example, sugar cane has an EROEI of 8, palm oil 9 [65].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The total production of biofuels (bioethanol and biodiesel) in 2005 was about 40 billion liters.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In March 2007, Japanese scientists proposed the production of biofuels from seaweed [66].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

According to some scientists, the massive use of ethanol engines (not to be confused with biodiesel) will increase the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere, which can lead to an increase in the number of respiratory diseases and asthma [67].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Hybrid cars


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Electric cars.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Israel, Denmark and Portugal have already signed agreements with Renault and Nissan to create a network of gas stations for electric vehicles [68].


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The sale of electric vehicles will start in 2011.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The disadvantages of electric vehicles are: the high price, the need to charge batteries frequently and the problem of recycling batteries, and the advantage is that they do not pollute the air in cities (although for power generation may have to pollute the atmosphere).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Cars with a hydrogen engine are also close to electric cars.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Hydrogen is obtained from water by electrolysis, so hydrogen cylinders are actually a way to store electricity.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In addition, hydrogen engines, like electric cars, do not pollute the atmosphere, releasing only water there.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The disadvantage of hydrogen engines is the need for a huge fuel tank, because hydrogen is a very light gas.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The problem of storing and transporting hydrogen helps to solve its ability to dissolve in some metals (metal hydrides).


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In palladium, up to 850 volumes of H2 dissolve per volume of Pd metal. [69] To date, there is no energy-efficient method for producing hydrogen.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, the second modern method of producing hydrogen is conversion from natural gas.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

This method is used in Honda's home hydrogen generating plants for a hydrogen car of the same company.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

This method is energy efficient, since energy-containing raw materials (combustible gas) are used, and not energy-neutral water.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil prices


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil prices, like any other commodity, are determined by the ratio of supply and demand.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

If supply falls, prices rise until demand equals supply.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The peculiarity of oil, however, is that in the short term demand is inelastic [70]: rising prices have little effect on demand.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Therefore, even a slight drop in oil supply leads to a sharp increase in prices.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the medium term (5-10 years) and long term (decades), demand, however, is constantly increasing due to an increase in the number of cars and similar equipment.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

According to repeated observations, the rise in world oil prices accelerates dollar inflation, and there is an opinion that this is due to the fact that the United States is the largest consumer of oil in the world.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, the exact justification for this point of view is not known.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In addition, relatively recently, China and India have become among the world's largest oil consumers.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In the 20th century, the growth in demand for oil was balanced by the exploration of new fields, which made it possible to increase oil production.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

However, many believe that in the 21st century, oil fields will exhaust themselves, and the imbalance between oil demand and supply will lead to a sharp increase in prices — an oil crisis will occur.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

In addition, prices for natural gas significantly depend on the level of prices for oil and petroleum products.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil prices are also one of the political instruments of the international economy.


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

See also


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Barrel (American oil)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil companies


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petroleum industry


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil and gas production license


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil pipeline


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Refinery


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil Peak


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Energy crisis


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

1973 Oil Crisis


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Tertiary oil production method


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Commercial oil grades


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil classification


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil fractional composition


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petroleum trace elements


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil reserves


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

World oil reserves


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petroleum products


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Malta (oil)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petrochemicals


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil storage


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The origin of oil


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Oil density


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

oilfield


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

The largest oil fields in the world


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

List of oil fields in Kazakhstan


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

List of oil fields in Russia


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

US Strategic Petroleum Reserve


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Petrodollars


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Notes


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Literature


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

References


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Extraction


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

, Aleksandr Deryagin, 2012 (16+)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

History


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

(in English)


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

, “World of Measurements”, 01.11.2010


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Recycling


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Category:Chemogenic, biochemogenic and organogenic rocks


Question: What does oil consist of?

Petroleum

Category:Fuel


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The Moscow Metro (Moscow Metro) is a rail off-street (mainly underground) urban public transport on electric traction, located in Moscow and partially in the Moscow Region.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

It is historically the first and largest metro in the USSR and Russia.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The Moscow Metro is the sixth in the world in terms of intensity of use after the Beijing, Tokyo, Shanghai, Seoul and Guangzhou subways, and the fifth in terms of the length of lines in operation.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The metro is operated by the State Unitary Enterprise “Moscow Metro” (full name: State Unitary Enterprise of the City of Moscow “Moscow Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner of Labor” metro named after V. AND. Lenin” [1]).


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The first line opened on May 15 of the year and ran from the station to the station, with a branch to.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

It consists of 14 lines (four of which will later be connected in pairs; two lines are temporarily connected now, organizationally working as one route) with a total length of 381 km in double-track terms [2], without taking into account the monorail and MCC.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The Moscow Metro has 223 operating stations and one mothballed, 44 stations are recognized as cultural heritage sites [3], and more than 40 are architectural monuments.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

By 2023, according to the plans of the Moscow government, another 35 stations should be built [4].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

History


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Unimplemented projects


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The very first proposals for the creation of a metro in Moscow appeared back in the year when the idea arose to build a line from the Kursky Railway Station through Lubyanskaya and Trubnaya Squares to Maryina Roshcha [5].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

But it did not come to the project.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In 1902, engineers P. A. Balinsky and E.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

K. Knorra was offered a project according to which the metro was to connect Zamoskvorechye with Tverskaya Zastava by an underground line.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

However, the City Council rejected it, issuing a resolution: “Messrs. Knorra and Balinsky should refuse their harassment...”


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Vowel thoughts questioned the sufficient elaboration of the project, and the tram lobby that existed at that time also played a role (the tram then brought a significant part of the profit to the treasury) [5] [6].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In the same 1902, railway engineers A. AND. Antonovich, N. AND. Golinevich and N. P. Dmitriev developed a project for the Moscow City Railway.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Unlike the Knorre and Balinsky project, this project provided for both underground (in the central part of the city) and above-ground laying of lines on the ground or on overpasses — on the outskirts.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

It was planned to build four radial lines and one ring line along the Kamer-Kollezhsky Val highway with interchange stations.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In 1913, the Moscow City Council developed its own project for an underground railway consisting of three underground diameters: Tagansko-Tversky (from Tverskaya Zastava to Kalitnikov); Arbatsko - Myasnitsky (from Kalanchevskaya Square to Bryansk (Kievsky) railway station) and Vindavsko-Zamoskvoretsky (from Vindavsky (Rizhsky) railway station to the current ZIL platform).


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The construction project, scheduled for 1914-1920, was approved by the City Council.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In the spring of 1914, construction of the first depot began in Kalitniki, a construction site was prepared, building materials were delivered and the construction of the first buildings began.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The construction was prevented by the outbreak of the First World War [7].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

And the depot in Kalitniki in 1923-1927 was completed as Oktyabrskoye tram depot No. 4.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

There is also a detailed project proposed by electrical engineer M. K. Polivanov in a year.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Tunnels of three underground diameters were connected to the tracks of main railways, the suburban sections of which were to be electrified [7].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In 1923, the Moscow Metro project was commissioned by a foreign company Siemens Bauunion GmbH.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

By 1925, the German project, which included 80 km of tunnels and 86 stations, was ready.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

However, no money was found for implementation, and the Siemens Bauunion GmbH project remained on paper [7].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In 1925, the Myasnitsky Radius project was developed, but it was not implemented [7].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Implemented project


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Soviet times


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

On June 15, at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (B), after the report of Lazar Kaganovich, First Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee, it was decided to build the Moscow Metro in order to improve the situation in the city and partially relieve the tram lines [8].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In November 1931, construction of the first experimental site on Rusakovskaya Street began [9].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

During the design, a dispute arose about the type of future metro stations: whether they will have island or side platforms.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

As a result, it was decided to opt for a three-vaulted station with an island platform.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Escalators were supposed to be used to lift passengers to the surface.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Moscow engineer V. L. Makovsky substantiated the possibility and necessity of laying deep-laid tunnels in difficult conditions of Moscow soils [10].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

In the year, the technical design of the first stage of the metro was approved, at the same time, the Metrostroy Trust began the main construction work.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

The route of the first stage was determined by studying the passenger traffic of the Moscow tram: it was decided to repeat its most intense routes by subway [10].


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Sections of the line from Sokolniki to Komsomolskaya and from the Lenin Library to the Park of Culture were built by an open method.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

Tunnels between the stations “Aleksandrovsky Sad” and “Smolenskaya” were built in a trench way.


Question: How many branches are there in the Moscow Metro?

Moscow Subway

On the deep site from Okhotny Ryad to Dzerzhinsky Square, the English method of shield penetration was used [11].