Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

These weak rings and dust bands can only exist temporarily or consist of several separate arches that can sometimes be detected when the planet covers a star [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Some of them became noticeable when the Earth crossed the plane of the rings in 2007 [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Many of the dust bands between the rings were observed in directly scattered light by Voyager 2 [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

All Uranus rings show azimuthal changes in brightness [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The rings are made of extremely dark matter.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The geometric albedo of the particles that make up the rings does not exceed 5-6%, and the Bond albedo is about 2% [12] [16].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The rings show a strong oppositional effect — an increase in reflectivity with a decrease in the phase angle (in other words, most of the light is reflected towards its source) [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The rings appear slightly reddish from observations in the ultraviolet and visible parts of the spectrum, and gray from observations in the near infrared [17].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

There are no identifiable spectral features in the rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The chemical composition of the ring particles is unknown.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, they cannot consist of pure water ice, such as Saturn's rings, because they are too dark, even darker than the inner moons of Uranus [17].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This indicates that they are made up of a mixture of ice and dark matter.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The nature of this substance is unknown, but it may be organic matter, significantly darkened by irradiation with charged particles from the magnetosphere of Uranus.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Perhaps the rings consist of a highly transformed substance, initially similar to that of Uranus's internal satellites [17].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In general, Uranus's ring system is unlike Jupiter's dull dust rings or Saturn's wide and complex rings, some of which are very bright due to particles of water ice [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, the rings of Uranus and Saturn also have something in common: Saturn's F ring and the ε ring of Uranus are both narrow, relatively dark, and “graze” by a pair of satellites [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The recently discovered outer rings of Uranus are similar to the outer G and E rings of Saturn [18].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The small rings between Saturn's wide rings also resemble the narrow rings of Uranus [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In addition, dust accumulations between the rings of Uranus may be similar to those of Jupiter [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Neptune's ring system is more similar to the ring system of Uranus, but more complex, darker and contains more dust; Neptune's rings are located further from the planet than that of Uranus [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Narrow main rings


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

ε (epsilon)


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ε ring (epsilon) is the brightest and densest of the rings of Uranus and is responsible for about two-thirds of the light reflected by the rings [15] [17].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This ring has the largest eccentricity of all, and it also has a slight orbital inclination [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The elongation of the ring is the reason that its brightness is not the same in different places: the largest near the apocenter (the farthest point from the planet), and the smallest near the pericenter (closest) [ 20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This difference reaches 2.5—3.0 times [12] and is due to a change in the width of the ring, which is 19.7 km at the pericenter and 96.4 km at the apocenter [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

As the ring becomes wider, the amount of “shading” of each other's particles decreases, and more of them can be observed, which leads to a higher integral brightness [16].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Variations in the width of the ring were measured in the images taken by Voyager 2, since the ε ring was one of two whose width in these images is discernible [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This indicates that the ring is optically deep.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Indeed, observations of the coverage of stars with this ring from Earth and Voyager 2 have shown that its normal “optical depth” varies from 0.5 to 2.5 [20] [21] and is maximum near pericenter of the ring orbit.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The “equivalent depth” of the ε ring is about 47 kilometers and does not change throughout its length [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The geometric thickness of the ring ε is not known for certain, although, according to some estimates, it is about 150 meters [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Despite being so thin, the ring is made up of several layers of particles.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The apocenter of the ε ring is a place with a high concentration of particles: according to various estimates, they occupy 0.8-6% of the space, so the average distance between them can be only twice their diameter.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The average particle size of this ring is 0.2—20 meters [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Due to its exceptional fineness, the ε ring disappears when viewed from the rib.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This happened in 2007, when the Earth crossed the plane of the rings [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The low dust content in the ring can be explained by the aerodynamic drag of the extended atmospheric corona of Uranus [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Voyager 2 observed a strange signal from this ring in a “radio coverage” experiment [21].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It consisted in a significant increase in the direct scattering of radio waves near the apocenter of the ring at a wavelength of 3.6 cm. This requires an ordered ε ring structure.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This structure has been confirmed by many observations of coatings [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Apparently, the ε ring consists of many narrow optically dense rings [13], some of which may be open.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

He has two “shepherd companions” — Cordelia (inner) and Ophelia (outer) [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The inner edge of the ring is in orbital resonance 24:25 with Cordelia, and the outer edge is in a 14:13 resonance with Ophelia [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In order to effectively “herd” (hold within existing boundaries) the ring, the mass of each satellite must be at least three times the mass of the ring [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The weight of the ε ring is estimated at about 1016 kg [9] [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

δ (delta)


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The δ ring is round and has a slight inclination [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ring showed significant unexplained azimuthal changes in the normal optical depth and width [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

A possible explanation is that the ring has a wavy azimuthal structure created by a small satellite directly inside it [23].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The outer edge of the ring is in an orbital resonance 23:22 with Cordelia [24].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The δ ring consists of two components: a narrow, optically dense, and a wide one with a low optical depth [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The width of the narrow component is 4.1—6.1 km, its equivalent depth is 2.2 km, which corresponds to a normal optical depth of about 0.3—0.6 [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The wide component of the ring δ has a width of approximately 10—12 km, and its equivalent depth is close to 0.3 km, which corresponds to a normal optical depth of 3 × 10−2 [20] [25].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

All these data are obtained from observations of coatings, since the width of the ring is not visible in the Voyager 2 images [15] [25].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

When the ring was observed from Voyager 2 in direct scattering, it seemed relatively bright, which is compatible with the presence of cosmic dust in its wide component [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The geometrically wide component of the ring is dimmer than the narrow component.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This is confirmed by observations during the intersection of the plane of the rings by the Earth in 2007, when the brightness of the δ ring increased, which coincides with the behavior of a geometrically thick but optically thin ring [ 14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

γ (gamma)


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The γ ring is narrow, optically dense and has a slight eccentricity.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Its orbital inclination is almost zero [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The width of the ring varies from 3.6 to 4.7 km, although the equivalent depth is unchanged at 3.3 km [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The normal optical depth of this ring is 0.7—0.9.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

During the intersection of the plane of the rings in 2007, it turned out that the γ ring is as geometrically thin as the ε ring [13] and is practically devoid of dust [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The width and normal optical depth of this ring indicate significant azimuthal variations [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is not known what allows this ring to remain so narrow, but it has been noticed that its inner edge is in a 6:5 resonance with Ophelia [24] [26].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

η (this)


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The η ring has zero eccentricity and inclination [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Like the δ ring, it consists of two components: a narrow optically dense and a wide outer one with a low optical depth [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The width of the narrow component is 1.9—2.7 km, and the equivalent depth is about 0.42 km, which corresponds to a normal optical depth of about 0.16—0.25 [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The wide component has a width of about 40 km and an equivalent depth of about 0.85 km, which, in turn, indicates a normal optical depth of 2×10−2 [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The width of the ring can be seen in photos from Voyager 2 [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In directly scattered light, the η ring looks bright, indicating the presence of a significant amount of dust in it, most likely in a wide component [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The geometrically wide component is much thicker than the narrow one.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This is confirmed by observations during the Earth's crossing of the plane of the rings in 2007, when the η ring showed an increase in brightness, becoming the second brightest ring of Uranus [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This coincides with the behavior of a geometrically thick but optically thin ring [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Like most rings, the η ring shows significant azimuthal changes in normal optical depth and width, in some places the ring is so narrow that it even “disappears” [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

α and β (alpha and beta)


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

α and β are the brightest after ε rings in the Uranus system [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Like the ε ring, their brightness and width differ in different parts [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

These rings have the greatest brightness and width 30° from the apocenter, and the smallest - 30° from the pericenter [15] [27].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The α and β rings have a significant orbital eccentricity and a slight inclination [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The width of these rings is 4.8—10 km and 6.1—11.4 km, respectively [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The equivalent optical depths are 3.29 and 2.14 km, which indicates a normal optical depth of 0.3—0.7 and 0.2—0.35, respectively [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

When the Earth crossed the plane of the rings in 2007, these rings disappeared for a while.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This means that they, like the ε ring, are geometrically thin and free of dust [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, during the crossing, a geometrically thick but optically thin strip of dust was found immediately behind the outer side of the β ring, which was previously observed by Voyager 2 [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The masses of each of the rings α and β are approximately estimated as 5×1015 kg, which is approximately equal to half the mass of the ring ε [28].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Rings 6, 5 and 4


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Rings 6, 5 and 4 are the dimmest and almost closest rings to Uranus [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The inclination of these rings is the largest, and their orbital eccentricities are the largest among all rings except ε [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Moreover, their inclinations (0.06°, 0.05° and 0.03°, respectively) were large enough for Voyager 2 to observe their elevations above the equatorial plane of Uranus, which were 24—46 km [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Rings 6, 5 and 4 are also the narrowest rings of Uranus — estimated at 1.6—2.2 km, 1.9—4.9 km and 2.4—4.4 km, respectively [15] [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Their equivalent depths are 0.41 km, 0.91 km and 0.71 km, which indicates a normal optical depth of 0.18—0.25, 0.18—0.48 and 0.16—0.3, respectively [20].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

They were not visible when the Earth crossed the plane of the rings in 2007 due to their extreme narrowness and meager amount of dust [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Dust rings


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

λ (lambda)


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The λ ring is one of two rings discovered by Voyager 2 in 1986 [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This is a narrow and dull ring located between the ε ring and its “shepherd companion” Cordelia [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

When studied in backscattered light, the λ ring is extremely narrow — about 1-2 km — and has an equivalent optical depth of 0.1-0.2 km at a wavelength of 2.2 μm [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Its normal optical depth is 0.1-0.2 [15] [25].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The optical depth of the λ ring demonstrates a strong dependence on the wavelength, which is not typical for the Uranus ring system.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, the equivalent depth reaches 0.36 km, which explains why it was detected only when observing Voyager 2 coatings of stars in the ultraviolet range [25].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The discovery of the ring during observations at a wavelength of 2.2 microns was reported only in 1996 [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The appearance of the λ ring changed dramatically during observations in direct scattered light in 1986 [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

At its location at that time, it was observed as the brightest object of the Uranus system, surpassing even the ε ring [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

These observations, coupled with the dependence of the wavelength on the optical depth, indicate that the λ ring contains a significant amount of micrometer dust [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The normal optical depth of this dust is 10−4—10−3 [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Observations by the Keck Observatory telescope in 2007 during the Earth's crossing of the plane of Uranus's rings confirmed this assumption, as the λ ring became one of the brightest elements of the ring system Uranus [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

A detailed analysis of images from Voyager 2 revealed azimuthal changes in the brightness of the λ ring [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The changes seem to be intermittent, reminiscent of a standing wave.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The origin of this remarkable structure in the λ ring remains unknown [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In 1986, Voyager 2 discovered a wide, weak ring located closer to ring 6 [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It was given a temporary designation 1986U2R.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It had a normal optical depth of 10−3 or less and was extremely weak.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It was seen only in one image taken by Voyager 2 [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ring is located between 37,000 and 39,500 km from the center of Uranus, or 12,000 km above cloud level [29].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ring was not observed until 2003-2004, when telescopes at the Keck Observatory (Hawaii) again discovered a wide, weak ring inside ring 6.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ring was named [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, the position of the ring was significantly different from that observed in 1986.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is now located between 37,850 and 41,350 km from the center of the planet and, gradually weakening, stretches inward to at least 32,600 km [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This ring was again observed by the Keck Observatory only in 2007 when the Earth crossed the plane of Uranus's rings [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The equivalent optical depth of this ring is about 1 km (0.6 for the extended part of the ring), while the normal optical depth, as before, does not exceed 10−3 [3].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The difference between observations of the ring in 1986 and 2003 can be caused by different geometric configurations: backscatter geometry in 2003—2007 and lateral scattering geometry in 1986 year [3] [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, changes in the distribution of dust (which is believed to prevail in the ring) during those 20 years are also possible [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Other dust bands


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In addition to the 1986U2r/and λ rings, there are very weak dust bands in the system [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

They are not visible during coatings because they have a small optical depth, although they are quite bright in direct scattered light [10].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Images from Voyager 2 in direct scattered light showed the existence of bright dust bands between the λ and δ rings, between the η and β rings, and between the α and 4 rings [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Many of the dust bands observed in 1986 were again recorded by telescopes at the Keck Observatory in 2003-2004.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

They were also observed at the intersection of the plane of the rings in 2007 in backscattered light, but their exact location and brightness differed from observations from Voyager 2 [3] [14].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The normal optical depth of these dust bands is about 10−5 or less.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The size distribution of dust particles is believed to be exponential with an exponential index p = 2.5 ± 0.5 [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

External ring system


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In 2003—2005, the Hubble telescope discovered a pair of previously unknown rings that are now considered the outer part of Uranus's ring system, bringing the number of known rings to 13 [8].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Subsequently, these rings were named μ and ν (mu and nu) [11].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The μ ring in this pair is external.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is twice as far from the planet as the bright ring η (this) [8].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Outer rings differ in many ways from narrow inner rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

They are wide, 17,000 and 3800 km wide, and very dim.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The maximum normal optical depth is 8.5 × 10−6 and 5.4 × 10−6.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The equivalent optical depths are 0.14 km and 0.012 km.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The radial brightness profiles of the rings have a triangular shape [8].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The peak brightness region of the μ ring almost coincides with the orbit of the Uranus-Mab satellite, which is probably the source of the particles of the ring [8] [30].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ν ring is located between the moons of Portia and Rosalind and does not contain any satellites [8].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Re-analysis of the direct scattered light images obtained by Voyager makes it possible to clearly distinguish the μ and ν rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In this geometry, the rings are much brighter, which indicates a high content of dust particles about a micrometer in size in them [8].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The outer rings of Uranus resemble the G and E rings in Saturn's ring system.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

No particle source object is known for ring G, while ring E is extremely wide and replenished with dust from the surface of Enceladus [8] [30].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is possible that the μ ring consists entirely of dust, without any large particles.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This hypothesis is supported by observations of the Keck Observatory, which never detected a μ ring in the near infrared range at a wavelength of 2.2 μm, but found a ν ring [18].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Failure to detect the μ ring means that it is blue in color.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This, in turn, indicates that it mainly consists of the smallest (submicron) dust [18].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is possible that the dust consists of water ice [31].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The ν ring, on the contrary, has a reddish tint [18] [32].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The dynamics of rings and their origin


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

An important and still unsolved physical problem remains the solution of the riddle of the mechanism that holds the boundaries of the rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

If there was no such mechanism, these boundaries would gradually blur, and the rings of Uranus would not last longer than a million years [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The most frequently mentioned model of the deterrence mechanism was proposed by Peter Goldreich and Scott Tremaine [33]: a pair of adjacent satellites, external and internal “shepherds” who, through gravitational interaction is taken away from the ring excessive or the missing angular momentum (or, equivalent, energy) is added to it.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

“Shepherds” thus retain the particles that make up the rings, although they gradually move away from them [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

For this purpose, the masses of herding companions must exceed the mass of the ring by at least 2-3 times.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This mechanism works for the ε ring, which, as you know, is “grazed” by Cordelia and Ophelia [24].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Cordelia is also the external “shepherd” for the δ ring, and Ophelia for γ.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

However, not a single satellite larger than 10 kilometers is known near the other rings [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The current distance of Cordelia and Ophelia from the ε ring can be used to determine the age of the ring.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Calculations show that this ring cannot be older than 6 × 108 years old [9] [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Since the rings of Uranus are probably young, they must be continuously replenished with fragments of collisions between larger bodies [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

According to some estimates, the destruction time of a satellite the size of Pak could be several billion years.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Accordingly, a smaller satellite will collapse much faster [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Thus, it is possible that all the inner and outer rings of Uranus are the product of the destruction of satellites smaller than Puck over the past four and a half billion years [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Each such destruction would give rise to a cascade of collisions that would grind almost all large bodies into much smaller particles, including dust [9].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Ultimately, most of the mass would be lost, and particles would only be preserved in areas where their orbits are stabilized by mutual resonances and “grazing”.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The end product of such a “destructive evolution” would be a system of narrow rings, but small satellites would have to be preserved within the rings.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

According to modern estimates, their maximum size is about 10 kilometers [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The origin of the dust bands is clearer.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The dust has a very short lifespan, ranging from one hundred to a thousand years, and seems to be constantly replenished by collisions between large particles in rings, small satellites and meteoroids, entered the Uranus system from outside [10] [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The belts of dust-producing satellites and particles are invisible due to their low optical depth, while dust is clearly visible in direct scattered light [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

It is assumed that the narrow main rings and belts of dust bands and small satellites differ in the distribution of particle sizes.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The main rings have more particles ranging in size from centimeter to meter.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

This distribution increases the surface area of the ring material, which leads to a high optical density in backscattered light [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In dust bands, on the contrary, the number of large particles is relatively small, which leads to a low optical depth [22].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Ring research


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The rings of Uranus were thoroughly examined during the flight of Voyager 2 past Uranus in January 1986 [19].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Two new rings, λ and 1986U2R, were discovered, which increased the total number of known Uranus rings to 11.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The physical properties of the rings were studied when analyzing the results of radio [21], ultraviolet [25] and optical coatings [13].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Voyager 2 observed rings in different positions relative to the Sun, took photographs in forward and reverse scattered light [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The analysis of these images made it possible to establish the full phase function, geometric albedo and Bond albedo of particles in rings [12].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

In the images of two rings — ε and η — you can see their complex microstructure [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Image analysis also made it possible to discover 10 internal satellites of Uranus, including two “shepherd satellites” of the ε ring, Cordelia and Ophelia [15].


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

List of rings


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The table shows the main characteristics of the Uranus ring system.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Notes


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Directly (forward) scattered light is light that deviates from the original direction by an angle less than 90° (respectively, the phase angle is greater than 90°).


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Backward diffused light is light that is tilted at an angle greater than 90° (in other words, towards its source).


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

The phase angle is less than 90°.


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Sources


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Category:Uranus


Question: How many rings does Uranus have?

Uranus Rings

Uranus


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

August Kubizek (August Kubizek, August 3, 1888 — October 23, 1956) was a close friend of Adolf Hitler.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

He has published several biographical books about the latter.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Biography


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Early years


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

August Kubitschek was the first child in the family of Michael and Maria Kubichekov and, according to his autobiography, was the only one among their children who lived to adulthood.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Kubitschek later wrote that this was his resemblance to Adolf Hitler, who lost his parents early and almost all brothers and sisters (except Paula).


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Kubitschek and Hitler met while renting an apartment in Linz.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Their musical preferences were similar (both fond of Richard Wagner and loved opera), and they became friends.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

From February 22 to early June 1908, Kubitschek and Hitler shared a room in Vienna.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Kubitschek entered the Vienna Conservatory, where he studied viola, composition (with M. Jencha) and conducting, despite the protests of his father, who wanted his son to continue in the family business and become a upholsterer [1].


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Received the position of conductor in Klagenfurt [2].


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

He married Anna Funke.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

They had three sons: Augustine, Karl and Rudolph.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

With the outbreak of the First World War, Kubitschek's career as a musician ended.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

He went to the front, where he served in the Austro-Hungarian infantry from August 1914 to November 1918.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

After the war, he got a job as an official in the municipal council in Everding, Upper Austria.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Music has become Kubitschek's hobby.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Further relations with Hitler


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

After seeing Hitler's portrait on the front page of a German newspaper in 1920, Kubitschek followed his friend's political career, although he did not try to contact him until 1933, when Kubitschek sent Hitler a postcard congratulating you on receiving the post of Chancellor of Germany.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Six months later, Kubitschek received an answer in which Hitler wrote that he would be happy to restore friendship: “Gustl, I will be very... happy... to revive those best years of my life” [3].


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

On April 9, 1938, Hitler and Kubitschek met during one of Hitler's visits to Linz.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

The Chancellor offered Kubitschek the position of conductor of the orchestra, which he refused.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

However, he agreed that Hitler financed the education of Kubitschek's sons in [1].


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

In 1938, Kubitschek wrote two short propaganda booklets recalling his friendship with Hitler for the NSDAP.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

The last time he saw Hitler was on July 23, 1940, despite the fact that the Fuhrer sent Kubitschek's mother in 1944 gifts for her eightieth birthday.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Always far from politics, Kubitschek joined the NSDAP in 1942 as a sign of devotion to a friend [1].


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Recent years


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

In 1945, Kubitschek was arrested by US troops and taken to the Glasenbach concentration camp, where he stayed for 16 months.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

After his release, he refused to publish his memoirs for a long time, but in 1951 agreed to the publication of Adolf Hitler, mein Jugendfreund.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

The historical value of this book is questioned by many historians, in particular, Franz Jestingerz wrote that “90 percent of the information given by Kubitschek is a lie” [4].


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Kubitschek died on October 23, 1956 in Linz.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

He was buried in Eferding.


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

See also


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Notes


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Literature


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

References


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

(in German) on the German National Library website


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Category: Austrian conductors


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Category:Austrian writers


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Category:Adolf Hitler


Question: What was Hitler's hobby?

August Kubitschek

Category:NSDAP members


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Mini|180pcs|HTC S710 Communicator with Phone and QWERTY Keyboard (Windows Mobile)


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

A smartphone (English: smartphone) is a mobile phone complemented by the functionality of a handheld personal computer.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Also, the communicator (English: communicator, PDA phone) is a pocket personal computer supplemented by the functionality of a mobile phone.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Although mobile phones almost always had additional functions (calculator, calendar), more and more intelligent models were released over time, to emphasize the increased functionality and computing power of such models introduced the term “smartphone”.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the era of growing popularity of PDAs, they began to be produced with mobile phone functions, such devices were called communicators.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Currently, the division into smartphones and communicators is irrelevant, both terms mean the same thing - a miniature universal computer with full user interfaces and developed mobile phone radio interfaces.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphones differ from conventional mobile phones by the presence of a sufficiently developed operating system open to software development by third-party developers (operating system regular mobile phones are closed to third-party developers).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The installation of additional applications allows you to significantly improve the functionality of smartphones compared to conventional mobile phones.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

However, recently the line between “ordinary” phones and smartphones has been blurred more and more, new phones (with the exception of the cheapest models) have long acquired the functionality that was once inherent only smartphones, such as email and HTML browser, as well as multitasking [1].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphones and regular cell phones


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The presence of a fully functional operating system makes smartphones and communicators more attractive to most users.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Modern phones (mid-price models and above) perfectly cope with many tasks that go beyond telephone ones: working with e-mail, viewing text documents and spreadsheets, task scheduler, and more.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The expansion of the functionality of phones is possible due to J2ME programs, which are supported by almost all mobile phones.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The screen of a range of mobile phones is not inferior to most smartphones.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Many models are equipped with a memory card slot.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphones and communicators


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Currently, there is no clear distinction between communicators and smartphones, as the functionality of both classes of devices is approximately the same.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Different experts and manufacturers have different interpretations of these terms.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The so-called “historical approach” is often used, which consists in the following: if the device traces its pedigree from a PDA, then it is a communicator, and if from mobile phones, it is a smartphone .


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

As part of this approach, communicators usually refer to touch screen devices (which can be supplemented with a keyboard) running the Apple iOS operating system, Windows Phone, Open webOS or Android.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Windows Mobile devices that use only a QWERTY and/or numeric keypad (similar to a phone keypad) to enter information are called smartphones.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Most devices running Symbian OS are traditionally referred to as smartphones (with the exception of the Nokia 9xxx series, Nokia E90 and some others).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In other cases, the positioning of the device depends on the manufacturer.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Also, some specialists separate communicators and smartphones, respectively, by the presence or absence of a full-size (QWERTY) keyboard (virtual or physical).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the early 2000s, the boundary between smartphones and communicators was more pronounced.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The first communicators were actually a PDA with an additional GSM module.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

They did not differ from the PDA either in size (screen diagonal 3.5-4 inches, resolution 320 × 240), nor in weight, and additional telephone functions contributed to the rise in the cost of the device and reduced battery life .


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphones, in turn, did not differ much from phones, the screen size and resolution were low, and the functionality did not reach the PDA.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia, when promoting its smartphones, focused on design, gaming and multimedia capabilities, etc., without focusing on the intelligence of devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

However, over time, products called smartphones and communicators have become closer.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The size of communicators decreased, and telephone functions came to the fore.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The size of smartphones, on the contrary, increased, and the functionality reached the level of a PDA


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The next stage in the development of smartphones began after the successful entry of Apple's iPhone mobile phone into the market.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The operating system of this device, positioned as a smartphone, has been functionally trimmed for marketing reasons.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Thus, the ability to install third-party programs was limited, and there were restrictions in terms of multitasking.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

However, thanks to its successful design and competent promotion policy, this device has become a trendsetter and set new standards for keyboardless devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

If in the mid-2000s, the screen size of most communicators and smartphones was 2.4-2.8 inches with a resolution of 320 × 240 pixels, now a 5" screen with a resolution of 1920x1080 has become typical dots.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The history of smartphones and communicators


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The idea of combining the functionality of a cell phone and a handheld personal computer appeared almost immediately after the introduction of the first PDAs in the early 1990s.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The first such attempt is considered to be the IBM Simon phone, first introduced to the public as a concept on November 23, 1992 by IBM [2].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 1994, this device was released for sale by an American mobile operator.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The cost of the device was $899 with a contract and a little more than 1,000 without it.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In addition to telephone functions, the device included organizer functions, could send and receive faxes, allowed you to work with e-mail, and also contained several games.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

There were no control keys, all actions were performed via the touch screen.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Due to its large size and weight (more than 1 kg), the device did not receive significant distribution.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In early 1996, Hewlett-Packard, together with Nokia, released the HP 700LX PDA.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In fact, it was a redesigned HP 200LX model with space to install a Nokia 2110 cell phone.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The software part has also been improved for closer interaction with the mobile phone.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Of course, this device cannot be considered a communicator, since it consisted of two independent devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Communicators


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

mini|left|Nokia 9000 Communicator closed


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In August 1996, the first successful device that combines a PDA and a cell phone in one case appeared, the Nokia 9000 Communicator, running the GEOS operating system.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The communicator had a full-size QWERTY keyboard and a high-resolution monochrome screen (640×200).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The dimensions of the device were 173×65×38 mm, and the weight was 397 g. When closed, the device looked like an ordinary, only somewhat bulky phone, and when opened, it looked like a typical Handheld PC of the time.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The Nokia 9000 communicator was not inferior in functionality to the PDA of that time and allowed you to make calls, but the OS was closed and third-party applications could not be installed.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The main drawback of the device (compared to the PDA) was the lack of connectors for expanding functionality (PCMCIA and memory cards).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Subsequently, the 9xxx line of communicators was continued with the 9000i, 9110, 9110i models.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 1997, High Tech Computer Corporation (HTC) was founded in Taiwan, whose main goal was to develop mobile devices that combine the functionality of a PDA and a mobile phone.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 1998, Psion, Nokia, Ericsson and Motorola founded a consortium aimed at developing a full-fledged operating system for mobile devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Until the early 2000s, Nokia communicators had practically no competitors.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Some models were produced on local markets and were not successful.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

For example, in 1999, Qualcomm PDQ 800 and PDQ 1900 communicators running Palm OS were released for the American market.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Due to the heavy weight and high price, these devices failed to sell.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphones


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The term “smartphone” was coined by Ericsson in 2000 to refer to its new Ericsson R380s phone.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The device had relatively small dimensions (130×51×26 mm) and low weight (164 g).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

A special feature was the touch screen, covered with a hinged lid (flip).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The manufacturer emphasized the intelligence of the device with the name “smartphone”, but this device can not be considered a full-fledged smartphone, since it did not allow the installation of third-party applications (OS Symbian 5.1 was closed).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The rapid development of smartphones and communicators began in 2001: Nokia released the first 9xxx device with an open OS (Symbian 6.0), the Nokia 9210 communicator.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

It was based on the new Series 80 platform, which is incompatible with programs for previous generations of Nokia communicators.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The model had a very impressive functionality, the internal screen was colored.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In addition, the Nokia 7650 was announced, which is considered the first “real” smartphone, as it ran the Symbian 6.1 operating system open to third-party developers ( Series 60 platform).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

However, Nokia positioned this model primarily as an image phone with advanced multimedia features, and not as an intelligent device with an open OS.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

However, the small size of the available memory (4 MB) and the lack of a memory card slot severely limited the device's capabilities.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the same year, the first Pocket PC 2000 communicators appeared.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 2002, a number of communicators based on the HTC Wallaby platform (Microsoft PocketPC 2002 OS) and smartphones based on the HTC Canary platform (Microsoft Smartphone 2002 OS) were released under various trading brands (Qtek, O2, Siemens and others).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Devices based on Microsoft operating systems are becoming widespread and are becoming widespread.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The unofficial name “communicator” is assigned to devices with a touch screen based on Pocket PC (Windows Mobile).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the same year, BlackBerry smartphones with a QWERTY keyboard appeared, focused on working with e-mail.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

A number of Palm OS-based communicators are produced, which have become very popular.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia communicators remained niche devices due to the high price.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the same year, the first smartphone on the UIQ platform (development of Symbian 7.0 OS) was released.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The device continued a number of Ericsson phones with a touch screen closed by a flip, but rightfully was called a “smartphone”.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 2003, Microsoft released the Windows Mobile 2003 operating system.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia presents several smartphones running Symbian OS at once, and a number of manufacturers are running Windows Mobile.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the end of 2003, Nokia announced its first multimedia device with a touch screen, the Nokia 7700 based on the Series 90 software platform.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The device was supposed to be released in mid-2004, but after several postponements, the release was canceled and did not go on sale.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Instead, at the end of 2004, a model was released - the first and only smartphone based on the Series 90.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 2005, Microsoft released Windows Mobile 5, which has a number of significant improvements.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The operating system was released in three versions: for smartphones (Windows Mobile 5.0 for Smartphone), for PDAs (Windows Mobile 5.0 for Pocket PC) and communicators (Windows Mobile 5.0 for Pocket PC Phone) Edition).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

All three versions of the OS were built on a single platform, which contributed to increasing the functionality of the devices and blurring the boundaries between smartphones and communicators.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Palm announces the beginning of cooperation with Microsoft and announces a communicator running Windows Mobile 5.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia announced the termination of support for the Series 80 and Series 90 software platforms, focusing on the development of the Series 60.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the end of 2005, Nokia's first smartphones were introduced on the updated Series 60 version 3 platform.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 2006-2007, the smartphone market experienced significant growth (the increase in the supply of smartphones and communicators approximately doubled).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In early 2006, High Tech Computer Corporation decided to liquidate the Qtek trademark and promote its products under a single HTC brand.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the same year, the company released HTC MTeor, the world's first smartphone with support for 3rd generation networks based on Windows Mobile.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia releases a line of smartphones based on the new Symbian OS 9.1 and Symbian OS 9.2 (based on Series 60 version 3).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

A number of devices received features that were previously unique only to communicators (such as Wi-Fi and GPS), the updated software platform supported high resolutions (most models received screens 320 × 240 pixels).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In addition, some devices had a QWERTY/Ytsuken keyboard.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The Nokia line of communicators was continued by the Nokia E90, which when folded was a full-fledged smartphone (previous models combined an ordinary phone based on a software platform Series 40 and Series 80 based communicator).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

All N-series smartphones are referred to as “multimedia computers” in Nokia's official press releases.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

On the basis of the updated UIQ 3 (Symbian OS 9.1), a number of Sony-Ericsson touch smartphones (models M600i, P990, P1, W950, W960) were released.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In addition, in 2007, the first smartphone based on UIQ 3.1 without a touch screen appeared.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Microsoft released Windows Mobile 6 in the first half of 2007.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The words “Smartphone” and “Pocket PC” were excluded from the name of the operating system (the version without touch screen support was called Standard, with support - Classic and Professional).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

This finally combined smartphones and communicators into one class of devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Version 6.1 mainly featured a redesigned interface and was compatible with the programs for the previous version.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In mid-2007, Apple released the iPhone keyboardless device.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The device did not differ in functionality (for example, there was no possibility of MMS messages, file transfer via Bluetooth, etc.), the only innovation was the way to control the device with two fingers (Multi-Touch).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

However, a capacitive screen, a tactile user interface never seen before (kinetic scrolling in combination with multi-touch created a feeling of controlling the image on the screen with movements fingers) and an aggressive advertising campaign made this device a bestseller.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Initially, the iPhone operating system was closed, and the iPhone SDK application development environment for third-party developers appeared only in early 2008.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Apple's smartphone has attracted considerable attention, many manufacturers have released phones and communicators with an interface focused on finger control.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Often, the announcement of such devices was covered in the press as the appearance of the “iPhone killer”.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the end of 2007, Google announced an open Android mobile platform based on the Linux kernel.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The Open Handset Alliance (OHA) group of companies was formed to develop open standards for mobile devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In mid-2008, Google announced the discovery of Android sources.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia also announces its intention to open the source code of Symbian OS and begins the process of buying a full stake in Symbian to form a non-profit organization.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The purchase process was completed on December 2, 2008.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Symbian's unified open platform was launched on February 4, 2010 [3].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 2008, Apple introduced an updated version of its iPhone 3G smartphone.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The device has support for 3rd generation networks and GPS, and fixed some shortcomings of the previous model.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Official deliveries of the device were carried out to more than 70 countries (including Russia).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Thanks to successful iPhone sales, Apple began to conquer the smartphone market (about 5% of global sales).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the fall of 2008, the first Android-based device, the T-Mobile G1 (HTC Dream), was released.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the end of 2008, Sony Ericsson and Motorola abandoned further development of the UIQ platform [4].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the same time, Nokia is releasing the Nokia 5800 touch device based on Symbian OS 9.4.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The smartphone supports control without using a stylus and is aimed at the mass market.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the same time, the flagship Nokia N97 smartphone with a touch screen and a retractable QWERTY/Ytsuken keyboard was announced, which was released in mid-2009.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In 2016, Canadian scientists from the Human Media Lab presented a smartphone concept that has absolute resistance to deformation.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The flexibility of the model, called ReFlex, is ensured by the fact that the electronics are not located in the center, but around the perimeter of the display.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

This structure prevents the smartphone from completely curling up, and at the same time allows the device to perform its main functions [5].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Already in 2017, it became known that Samsung is going to introduce a smartphone with a body that can bend and unbend like a book or notebook.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The company assures that the screen does not stop working even during the change of shape, and it is almost impossible to break it - this makes it convenient to carry it in your pocket, and, if necessary, expand and get a screen that is comparable in size to a tablet.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Apple has also patented a new concept of a phone with a carbon nanotubes screen, the body of which can change shape directly during operation.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Major smartphone manufacturers


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Apple


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Sony


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Acer


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

ASUS


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

BlackBerry


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

BQ


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

DELL


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

DOOGEE


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Fly


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Fujitsu-Siemens


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Garmin


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Google


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Hedera


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

HTC


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Huawei


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

i-Mate


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

LG


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

lenovo


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

LuXian


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Meizu


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Microsoft


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Mitac


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Motorola


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Nokia


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

OnePlus


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Oukitel


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Palm


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Panasonic


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Philips


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

RoverComputers


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Samsung


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Sharp


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Symbol


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

T-Mobile


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Thl


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Toshiba


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Treo


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Typhoon


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Umidigi


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Xiaomi


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Yota Devices


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

ZTE


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphone market statistics by manufacturer [7] [8] [9]:


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Productivity 3 quarter 2009 1-4 quarter 2016 1-4 quarter 2017 pcs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%Nokia16 413 42039.7% —————RIM (BlackBerry) 8 521 28020.6 %————Apple7 362 67017.8 %215 400 00014.6 %215 800 00014.7 %Samsung——311 400 00021.1 %317 300 00021.6 %Huawei——139 300 0009.5 %153 100 00010.4 %OPPO—— 99 800 0006.8 %111 800 0007.6 %Xiaomi——53 000 0003.6 %92 400 0006.3 %Other9 096 87121.9 %654 500 0004.4 %577 700 00039.5 %All manufacturers41 394 250100 %1 473 400 000100 %1 472 400 000100%


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the first quarter of 2017, Samsung holds the lead in the smartphone market - 79.2 million.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

pcs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

with a market share of 14.2%.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Apple confidently holds the second position - 51.6 million.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

pcs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

(market share 9.3%).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Chinese manufacturers are next in terms of the number of devices: Huawei - 34.2 million.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

pcs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

(6.1%), OPPO - 25.6 million.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

pcs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

(4.6%), Vivo - 18.1 million.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

pcs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

According to the results of January-March, supplies from other producers amounted to 347.4 million.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

smartphones (62.5%) [10].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Operating systems


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The most common operating systems and platforms for smartphones [11] are:


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Android is an open source Linux-based smartphone platform developed by OHA (a group of companies led by Google).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Bada is Samsung's own platform.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Samsung Wave smartphones are based on it.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The closure of the project was announced in early 2013 [12].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

BlackBerry OS - devices on this system are widely used mainly in the United States, as the intelligence agencies of some countries are not interested in using these smartphones in their country due to the fact that incoming/outgoing data is encrypted using AES [13].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Firefox OS (codename Boot to Gecko, B2G) is a free operating system designed for smartphones and tablets.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The development is carried out by the Mozilla Foundation based on the free Gecko web engine.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Open webOS — On January 8, 2009, the Palm Pre smartphone was announced running the new Palm webOS, the core of which is Linux [14].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

From 2010 to 2011, it was supported and developed by Hewlett-Packard (as a result of the Palm takeover).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In September 2012, HP is due to finally publish the webOS source code (Open webOS 1.0) in free access, so the OS will be classified as open source software (as well as Android).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

iOS is Apple's operating system used in iPhone smartphones.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Linux — for example, Android and Firefox OS (see above).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

GNU/Linux distributions on mobile platforms are not widely used, but are traditionally considered a promising direction.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

GNU/Linux-based smartphones are mainly distributed in Asia.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Platforms: Maemo (used in Nokia 770/N810 Internet tablets and Nokia N900 smartphone), Openmoko (Neo 1973, Neo FreeRunner), MeeGo (Nokia N9).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Palm OS is a once popular platform, currently Palm OS-based devices are not common.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The last smartphone running this operating system was introduced at the end of 2007 (Palm Centro).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Symbian OS is used mainly in Nokia devices, as well as some Samsung, Sony Ericsson and Siemens models.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Windows Mobile and Windows CE is a compact Microsoft OS, has been produced since 1996 and occupies a large segment of the smartphone OS market.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Windows Phone is a new development by Microsoft, radically different from Windows Mobile.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphone production statistics by share of operating systems [7] [8] [9] [15] [16]:


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Platform3 quarter 2005 3 quarter 2006 3 quarter 2007 3 quarter 2008 3 quarter 2009 1 quarter 2010 pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%pcs


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

%Symbian OS8 164 79059.7 %13 217 98072.8 %21 219 39068.1 %18 583 06046.6 %19 107 49046.2 %24 069 80044.3 %BlackBerry OS210 1001.5 %506 2302.8 %3 298 09010.6 %6 09010.6 %6 051 73015.2 %8 521 28020.6 %10 552 60019.4% Windows Mobile302 2802.2 %1 025 5405.6 %3 797 36012.2 %5 425 47013.6 %3 631,6308.8 %3 706,0006.8 %androidn/day/day/day/day/dn/d1 455 1403.5 %5 214 7009.6 %Linux3 005 44022.0 %3 030 22016.7 %1 361 8104.4 %2,028 4905.1% ——1,993,9003.7 %Palm OS621 7004.5 %333 3401.8% — ———————Other85 5800.6 %51 3080.3 %372 1301.2 %862 3402.2 %1 316 0403.2 %404 8000.7 %Total12 389 89090.5 %18 164 618100 %31 156 2400.7% 100 %39 850 100100 %41 394 250100 %54 301 400100%


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartphones and malware


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The openness of the operating system of smartphones and communicators creates a problem that is well known to users of personal computers — computer viruses and other malicious programs.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

To protect against this danger, most leading antivirus software developers have created special versions of antivirus programs for mobile operating systems.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Most modern malware for mobile devices (mainly Trojans [17]) is distributed over the Internet under the guise of useful programs (games, codecs for video players and others), or locally in crowded places via bluetooth.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

At the same time, the installation of the malware must be confirmed by the user.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

To protect against such viruses, it is enough to take reasonable care: do not accept a bluetooth connection request from strangers, do not install suspicious programs from unreliable sources, and etc. However, as the number of smartphones and communicators used to access the Internet increases (thanks to the introduction of new wireless technologies 3G, Mobile WiMAX and others), malware can be a serious threat to mobile devices.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

It should also be noted that ordinary mobile phones can also be infected with malware (there are malicious J2ME programs [18], OS vulnerabilities may be exploited phone, etc.).


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Prohibition on use


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the Republic of Kazakhstan, since March 25, 2016, it is prohibited to bring smartphones to state institutions, mainly this ban is applied to ordinary visitors to state institutions, as well as for representatives The media, while civil servants themselves and their superiors continue to use smartphones [19].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

The Prime Minister's letter on the ban on smartphones is advisory in nature.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Since the letter is not a normative act, lawyers argue that the letter contradicts the Constitution, the Labor Code and procedural legislation, as it violates the right of citizens to disposal of property such as smartphones [20].


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

In the armed forces of the Russian Federation, conscripts are prohibited from using smartphones.


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

See also


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

phablet


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartpad


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Stylus pen


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Smartograph


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Microphone blocker


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Notes


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

References


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

Mobi magazine


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone

(in English)


Question: When did the first smartphone in the world appear?

Smartphone


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The Polsky Uprising of 1863-1864, or the January Uprising (Polish: Powstanie styczniowe) was a gentry uprising on the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which ceded to the Russian Empire, namely in the Kingdom Polish, North-Western Krai and Volyn.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The uprising was aimed at restoring the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth within the borders of 1772.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

It started a year and lasted up to a year.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Minor groups operated until the end of October 1864, and the last rebel field commander, General Stanislaw Brzuska, was arrested only in April 1865.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The last active lone rebel, Vasily Konopatsky, was discovered by regular troops and captured only in October 1866 [1].


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

It ended in the defeat of the rebels and led to the intensification of the anti-Polish policy of the Russian authorities.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Preparing and starting an uprising


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The armed uprising of 1863-1864 was preceded by a fairly long preparatory, or demonstration period.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The activities of Polish emigration, which had not been interrupted since 1831, kept the Kingdom of Poland in constant tension, but the harsh regime of the governor Prince I. F. Paskevich did not allow serious complications.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

After his death, which followed in 1856, Prince M. D. Gorchakov N. O. Sukhozanet, Count K. K. Lambert, Count A. N. Leaders.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

In 1861-1862, in the territories of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which ceded to Russia, the requirements of agrarian reforms, democratization and independence intensified.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Radical revolutionary groups (the so-called “reds”) advocated open armed struggle and prepared an uprising.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The beginning of preparations for the uprising usually dates back to 1859, when the war between France and Austria gave the Poles hope that after Italy Napoleon III would want to liberate Poland.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

There is no doubt, however, that the first attack to organize the uprising dates back to 1857, coinciding with the founding of the Agricultural Society, headed by Count Andrzej Zamoiski, and the return of 8 700 exiled Poles from Siberia under an amnesty [2].


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

At the end of 1862, the conspiracy organization that was preparing the uprising covered about 20,000 to 25,000 members and planned an armed uprising for the spring of 1863.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Since the summer of 1862, the conspiracy was led by the Central National Committee (CSC, Polish: Centralny Komitet Narodowy), founded in October 1861 under the leadership of Yaroslav Dombrovsky.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

In Lithuania and Belarus, the Lithuanian Provincial Committee, headed by Konstantin Kalinovsky, was engaged in the preparation of the uprising.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Revolutionary circles were organized everywhere according to the system of triples, which together were supposed to form a closely cohesive organism.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Each ordinary member of the circle knew only two participants and a foreman, which made it much more difficult to solve the conspiracy.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

More moderate groups of “whites” united landowners, large and small bourgeoisie.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The program of the “whites” differed from the program of the “reds” mainly in that the liberation of peasants from serfdom provided for significant compensation to the landowners, the uprising was postponed for a long time.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Unrest


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The beginning of the unrest dates back to the period of Prince M. D. Gorchakova.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The first open demonstration is usually considered to be the solemn funeral of the widow of General Yu.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Sovinsky, who died defending Warsaw during the uprising of 1830-1831.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The funeral itself was calm, but after that, radical Polish students and the urban poor went to the neighboring Orthodox cemetery, where they began to spit on the graves and tear the flowers planted there.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

A campaign against entertainment began: windows were broken in the houses where balls were held, and boys cut dresses for women who appeared in expensive outfits.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Signs written in Russian and in any language other than Polish were torn off the shops.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Russian residents of Warsaw were littered with anonymous threatening letters.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

More significant were demonstrations in memory of the anniversary of the first uprising (November 17) and especially the anniversary of the Battle of Grokhov ().


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

, during another illegal demonstration, soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing five demonstrators: two landowners, a craftsman, a worker and a student.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

About ten more people were injured.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

At first, the government hoped to restore order with conciliatory policies and reforms.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

In March, the Agricultural Society was dissolved, which became a center for collecting radicals.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

On March 14 (26), Alexander II issued a decree on the restoration of the State Council of the Kingdom of Poland and the establishment of self-government bodies in Poland.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

the new governor K. K. Lambert, who took office after Gorchakov's death, declared martial law in the Kingdom of Poland.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

However, two months later, Lambert resigned after he had a conflict with the Governor-General of Warsaw A. D. Gerstenzweig, as a result of which the latter shot himself.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

General A. N. Leaders.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

In June 1862, an attempt was made on his life.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

While he was walking in the park, an unknown person shot him from behind with a pistol.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The bullet pierced his neck, jaw and cheek, but Leaders survived.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

After that, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, a man who enjoyed the trust of the emperor and was liberal, was appointed governor of the Kingdom of Poland.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Marquis A. Velyopolsky was appointed head of the civil unit in the kingdom and vice-chairman of the State Council under him.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

However, shortly after the arrival of Konstantin Nikolaevich in Warsaw, an attempt was made on his life.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Apprentice tailor Louis Yaroshinsky shot him point-blank range with a pistol in the evening as he left the theater, but the Grand Duke escaped with a slight wound.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

There were two attempts on Velyopolsky's life (July 26 and August 3).


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Recruitment


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Marquis Alexander Velyopolsky, who headed the administration in the Kingdom of Poland, knew about the national liberation and reform movements that were gaining strength and, counting on an alliance with the “whites” and appeasement public, carried out a number of liberal reforms (replacement of the corps with chinshes, equality of Jews, transformations in the school).


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

On the other hand, in order to isolate young people and eliminate cadres of the rebel organization, he initiated recruitment in January 1863.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

In order to isolate dangerous elements, 12,000 people were included in the lists of recruits, out of 25,000 suspected of belonging to nationalist organizations.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The beginning of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The announcement of recruitment served as a signal for an open uprising that lasted more than 510 days.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Those who evaded recruitment left Warsaw and formed the first rebel detachments (a total of about 30 pieces, totaling up to 6,000 people) [3].


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The general management of the uprising was assumed by the so-called Provisional National Government, which was transformed on January 11 (23), 1863 from the Central National Committee.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The government included Chairman Bobrovsky and members Aveide, Maykovsky, Ksondz Mikoshevsky and Yanovsky (the first composition operated until February 5 (17), 1863).


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The government, headed by Stefan Bobrovsky, issued a manifesto and decrees proclaiming peasants owners of their plots with subsequent compensation to landowners at the expense of the state and guaranteeing landless participants of the uprising were given a small plot of land from national funds.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

It was designated the day of the armed uprising.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

On this day, in different places, individual detachments carried out armed attacks on Russian garrisons; all attacks number about 25 (the largest are in Plock, Kielce, Lukov, Kurov, Lomazy and Rossosh).


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Due to the poor armament of the Polish detachments (there were an average of 4 rifles and 2 revolvers per 100 rebels) [4], and the fragmentation of actions, these first clashes were insignificant, and almost everywhere were repulsed by regular troops, but due to the element of surprise in some places, the rebels had temporary success (for example, the battle of Tselkovo), seizing weapons, ammunition, money and food, total: (67 rifles, 14 revolvers, 2 guns, 2 food carts and 75,000 rubles).


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The total losses of regular troops throughout the territory covered by the uprising in the first day of the fighting are estimated at 29 killed (including one colonel and one lieutenant colonel) and 63 wounded (including 1 major general ), in addition, 92 soldiers and officers of the regular troops, including one colonel, deserted, disappeared, fled or were captured by the rebels.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The rebels lost 268 people during the same period of time (most prisoners) [5].


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Already on the second day of the uprising, regular troops were ordered to gather at the most important strategic points; later this order was canceled and the chiefs of individual detachments were given act according to local conditions.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

However, due to the confusion that arose on the second day of the uprising, 369 soldiers and 18 regular officers (62 of them irrevocably) temporarily deserted from their posts, mainly border horse crossings that fled to the territory of Prussia and later returned to their places, another 23 people on the second day of the uprising were taken prisoner by the rebels, or defected to their side voluntarily [5].


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The attitude of European powers to the uprising


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Prussia's position and the Alvensleben Convention


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

The beginning of the armed uprising in the Kingdom of Poland seriously concerned the Prussian authorities led by Otto von Bismarck.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Already on January 17 (29), 1863, a delegation led by General G. Alvensleben to clarify the scale of the rebellion and the possibility of coordinating joint actions against the Polish rebels.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

On January 24 (February 5), 1863, the delegation arrived in St. Petersburg and met personally with Emperor Alexander II.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

and in St. Petersburg, the Alvensleben Convention was signed, an agreement between Russia and Prussia on mutual assistance against Polish rebels, according to which Russian troops were allowed to pursue Polish rebels on Prussian territory.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

All persons detained by the Prussians, persons suspected of direct belonging to the rebels, or of providing any assistance to the Polish rebels, were subject to immediate arrest and extradition to the authorities of the Russian empire.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Prussia also pledged to significantly strengthen the protection of the border for its part.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

However, despite the agreement, Prussia, fearing uprisings in the areas bordering the Russian Empire inhabited by Poles, and afraid to completely spoil the already tense relations with France and Britain, did not comply with its obligations under the Convention.


Question: How many Poles died in the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising (1863—1864)

Prussia did not strengthen the protection of its border, which allowed the Polish rebels to cross it almost freely in two directions [6] [7] [7].