Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Mapping surface temperatures of Pluto and Charon


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The search for rings and new moons of Pluto


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Exploring Kuiper Belt Objects


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Description of the device


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The mass of the device is 478, including 77 fuels.


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Dimensions — 2.2×2.7×3.2 meters.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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For the launch, the American Atlas-5 launch vehicle was used in the 551 configuration with the Russian RD-180 engine installed on it [5], which was due to the need for significant acceleration and is the heaviest version of this missile used for 2012.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Telemetry and control system


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Communication with the spacecraft is carried out in the X-band using antennas - narrowly focused with high gain, broad-directional with medium gain and a pair of omnidirectional .


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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From the Earth, communication is carried out using deep space communication antennas having a diameter of 70 and have already been used to fly beyond the orbit of Jupiter.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The signal is circularly polarized.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The narrowly focused antenna of the apparatus has a diameter of 2.1, is made according to the Cassegrain scheme, and has an opening angle of 0.3 and a gain of 42.


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A wide-directional antenna with a diameter of 0.3 and an opening angle of 14 is attached to the reverse side of the secondary reflector of the narrowly directed antenna.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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A pair of omnidirectional antennas are located on opposite sides of the spacecraft.


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One of them is located on top of the receiver of the wide-directional antenna, and the other is inside the adapter for mounting to the launch vehicle.


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Omnidirectional antennas were used only in the early phases of flight in near-Earth space and could help in emergency situations when losing orientation.


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The outgoing signal is amplified by a 12-watt traveling wave tube, which (together with the spare one) is installed on the spacecraft body under the dish of a narrowly focused antenna.


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The control of the transmitting device allows the simultaneous use of both lamps, which makes it possible to almost double the speed of data transmission to Earth.


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At the same time, the signal will be polarized twice.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Tests of this transmission method at the beginning of the flight were recognized as successful and are now considered a working option (if there is enough power reserve of the power supply system).


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The communication system has a redundant design — most of the key devices in the communication system are duplicated, and in the event of failure of the main devices, their work will be taken over by backup ones.


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The system made it possible to transmit data to Earth at a speed of 38 (4.75) in the Jupiter region, a speed comparable to the speed of an outdated modem.


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Upon reaching Pluto, the device will be able to transmit data at a speed of 768 (96 per second); 1 will transmit approximately 3.


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This is an extremely low speed, but it will also allow us to transfer valuable scientific data and even high-quality photographs to Earth.


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In addition to the low speed, an additional complicating factor will be the signal delay of 4.5 in each direction.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Scientific information obtained as a result of observations will not be transmitted immediately — first it is stored in the memory banks of the on-board computer complex.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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This is partly because the speed of receipt of such information is significantly higher than the bandwidth of the transmitter, and also because all equipment, in order to reduce the mass of the device is mounted directly on the body of the spacecraft and requires the rotation of the entire spacecraft for its aiming.


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This arrangement makes it possible to make the spacecraft lighter.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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This approach is not widely used — for example, Voyager spacecraft had turntables for scientific instruments.


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However, Voyager 2 jammed its platform during the flight of Saturn, and changes had to be made to the scientific program - to obtain images of Uranus and Neptune with proper exposure without smearing effects I had to turn the spacecraft after the planet.


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The same approach has been applied at New Horizons.


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Power supply system


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A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) was taken as a source of electricity.


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At the start, its electric capacity was 250, and according to forecasts, it will fall by 5% every four years, which will provide a capacity of 200 in 2015, during the main phase of the entire of the research program — the Pluton-Charon flight.


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This is much less than the capacity of the Voyagers RTG (470 at launch, 290 in 2006), which explains the shorter duration of the program, which is scheduled to be completed in the 2020s, when the device passes 50-55


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It was based on the existing model of the RTAG “GPHS-RTG”, which has already been used in the space missions “Ulysses”, “Galileo”, “Cassini-Huygens”.


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RTGs contain about 11 radioactive fuels in the form of 72 plutonium-238 oxide.


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An interesting parallel is that the chemical element plutonium was named after the celestial body of Pluto, the study of which is the purpose of the New Horizons spacecraft.


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Each tablet is enclosed in a power case made of iridium and covered with a graphite shell on top of it.


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The features of this isotope are high heat generation per unit mass, as well as radioactive decay that occurs with the emission of only alpha particles, which makes it possible to do with light radiation protection.


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However, this isotope is a by-product of the production of weapons-grade plutonium, the production of which has been stopped in both the United States and Russia, which makes it an extremely scarce material.


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The RTG was developed by the US Department of Energy at the Materials and Fuels Complex (formerly West Argonne), a division of the Idaho National Laboratory in Bingham.


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In 2002, the US Department of Energy was forced to transfer the spacecraft battery development program from Ohio to Idaho for safety reasons.


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Due to funding difficulties and delays in production, the generator turned out to be less powerful than originally planned.


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This required a review of the mission's scientific program.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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There are no other power sources on board the spacecraft, all energy is fully generated by the RTG, and peak load periods are covered by capacitor banks.


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The load is controlled by means of quick switch units.


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The mass of plutonium loaded into the New Horizons RTG is about three times less than it was at Cassini-Huygens.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Nevertheless, this project caused protests from activists.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The United States Department of Energy estimated the probability of a failed launch, which would cause a radioactive release into the atmosphere, at 1 in 350.


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It was believed that the worst case for full dispersion of plutonium would spread radioactive contamination equivalent to 80% of the average annual background radiation dose in North America to a neighborhood with a radius 105 (65).


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Onboard computing complex


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The on-board computer complex consists of two systems — a command and data processing system and a navigation and control system [6].


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Each of the two systems is duplicated, which makes a total of four computers.


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The computers are built on the Mongoose-V processor with MIPS architecture, which is a radiation-resistant version of the R3000 processor and operates at a frequency of 12.


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Compared to the RAD750 processor used in the Curiosity rover, it is less productive and runs at a lower frequency (12 versus 200), but also much cheaper ($20-40 [7] vs $200, based on contract prices for 2012).


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To store scientific information, two flash memory banks (main and spare) with a volume of 8 [8] were used.


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Computer boards are housed in integrated electronic modules, inside which the required mode is maintained.


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In addition to computer boards, there are boards of other electronics — scientific instruments and controls.


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Each module contains 9.


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On March 19, 2007, the command and data processing system computer experienced an uncorrectable memory failure, as a result of which the computer rebooted and entered protected mode.


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It took two days to fully restore performance, while part of the scientific data on the magnetosphere of Jupiter was lost.


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This failure did not affect the main scientific program.


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Orientation and stabilization system


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The New Horizons space probe does not have sufficient onboard power to be able to stabilize by means of flywheels.


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Therefore, the task of orientation and stabilization is entirely entrusted to the corrective propulsion system.


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Methylhydrazine is used as fuel for it.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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As a monofuel, methylhydrazine has slightly worse energy characteristics and requires a certain culture of system execution to prevent premature decomposition, according to compared to traditional two-component fuels.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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On the other hand, the two-component system is more complicated, including due to the need for long-term storage of a chemically aggressive high-boiling oxidizing agent (for example, nitric acid, diazote tetraoxide), although it was successfully implemented earlier in the USSR and the United States (currently used on Soyuz spacecraft, it was previously used, in particular, on the Apollo spacecraft and in the Sistema orbital maneuvering” of space shuttle spacecraft).


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Up to 90 methylhydrazine could be placed in the spacecraft's fuel tank, but only 77 were refueled during this flight.


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This amount of fuel is enough to give the device an additional speed of 290.


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Helium is used as a displacer.


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The stock of the main research program (that is, the mass of fuel that should remain after completing the main task — the flight past Pluto) is divided into the main and additional reserves and can be used to execute an extended program — flying past an object from the Kuiper Belt.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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New Horizons has two stabilization modes — normal and high-precision.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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In normal mode, stabilization by engines is carried out along two axes, and along the third, directed from the Earth and passing through antennas, the device is stabilized by a gyroscopic effect (rotation at a speed five revolutions per minute).


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In high-precision mode, the engines are stabilized along all three axes.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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High-precision mode is used for most scientific research and requires higher fuel consumption.


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In normal stabilization mode, observations using REX, SWAP, PEPSSI and VB-SDC are available.


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Thermal management system


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The temperature inside the spacecraft is maintained in the range of 10—30 °C.


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At the beginning of the flight, on the side facing the Sun, the temperature was higher, but did not exceed 40° C.


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The lowest permissible temperature is 0 °C and is due to the freezing point of hydrazine fuel.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The temperature regime is maintained by balancing the power supply and waste heat of the RTG and heat losses through thermal insulation, external parts of the devices and the control system.


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To maintain the temperature, the spacecraft is wrapped in light multilayer thermal insulation, which retains heat from operating electronics according to the thermos principle [9].


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Scientific instruments


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The following devices are installed on the device itself:


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Alice ultraviolet spectrometer that will study the composition of the atmosphere and the surface structure of Pluto.


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It is developed.


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A similar instrument has been developed for the Rosetta spacecraft of the European Space Agency;


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Ralph surveillance camera operating in the visible and infrared wavelength ranges;


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LORRI camera () with a resolution of 5 for detailed shooting and shooting from a long distance, developed in APL;


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a solar wind particle meter SWAP () developed at the Southwest Research Institute.


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With its help, it is planned to determine whether Pluto has a magnetosphere, as well as to establish the leakage rate of its atmosphere;


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PEPSSI energy particle spectrometer () to search for neutral atoms that leave Pluto's atmosphere and turn into charged particles when interacting with the solar wind;


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VB-SDC dust detector () for measuring the concentration of dust particles in the Kuiper belt.


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The device is a fan-shaped device with a radius of 42 and a thickness of 3 made of aluminum honeycomb material covered with a thin film, connected by a cable to the electronics unit;


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REX radio spectrometer (English: Radio Experiment) combined with the main antenna of the probe (it is planned to study the structure of Pluto's atmosphere, the thermal properties of its surface and measure the mass of Pluto, Charon, and Kuiper Belt objects that have not yet been selected).


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events


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The flight was repeatedly postponed due to lack of funding, as well as delays in the manufacture of a plutonium thermoelectric generator.


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The cost of implementing the project in 2006 was estimated at 650 dollars [10].


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Past


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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2004—2005 — spacecraft assembly [11];


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January 19, 2006 — the New Horizons spacecraft was successfully launched from Cape Canaveral [12];


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January 2006 — planned correction of the flight path of the spacecraft was carried out for the upcoming gravitational maneuver near Jupiter.


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On 28 and 30 January, two shunting engines of the probe were briefly switched on, as a result of which the speed of the device changed by a total of 18;


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April 7, 2006 — The spacecraft crossed the orbit of Mars [1] at a distance of 243 million km from the Sun.


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The speed of the device was about 21;


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June 13, 2006 — The spacecraft sailed 110 from the small asteroid 132524 APL (formerly known as 2002 JF56).


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The systems for capturing and tracking a moving target were photographed and checked;


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By September 2006, the operability of all seven scientific instruments was tested;


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February 28, 2007 — A gravitational maneuver around Jupiter.


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At 05:43:40 UTC, the device approached the planet at a distance of 2.305; high-resolution photographs of the planet and its satellites were obtained [13];


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June 8, 2008 — the spacecraft crossed the orbit of Saturn;


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From July 7 to September 2, 2009 — the third scheduled inspection (ASO-3).


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A comprehensive inspection began with the removal of the station from standby mode on July 7.


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During it, it was found that the on-board equipment was functioning normally.


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After checking, New Horizons went back into hibernation mode;


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November 9, 2009 — a series of trajectory corrections was carried out to ensure the necessary orientation of the antenna radiation pattern for communication with the Earth;


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December 29, 2009 — the probe crossed the conventional boundary, which marks half the distance from Earth to Pluto [14];


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July 30, 2010 — New Horizons successfully tested the LORRI camera on Neptune and its satellite Triton from a distance of about 23.2 from Neptune [15].


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March 18, 2011 — the spacecraft crossed the orbit of Uranus [16];


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February 11, 2012 — the device was at a distance of 10 minutes from Pluto;


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January 10, 2013 — regular communication session with the device, passing the planned equipment inspection cycle, downloading updated software [17];


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On July 1 and 3, 2013, the LORRI camera captured Pluto and its largest satellite, Charon, from a distance of 880.


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LORRI's excellent sensitivity and angular resolution showed Charon exactly in the predicted position relative to Pluto, 35 years after its discovery by James Christie.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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The New Horizons camera took images of Pluto and Charon at a much larger phase angle (the angle between the ray of light from the Sun falling on the surface of the celestial body and the ray of light reflected by it in the direction observer) than can be reached from Earth or Earth orbit.


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This can provide important information about the surface properties of Pluto and Charon — for example, the presence of a layer of fine particles covering the surface;


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October 2013 — the device was at a distance of 5 from Pluto;


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at the end of 2013, the spacecraft passed 1.2 from the Trojan asteroid Neptune 2011 HM102, but no observations were carried out, as preparations for Pluto were already underway [18];


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On January 5, 2014, the device was removed from hibernation in order to check the antenna, update the navigation map of the stars, and a number of other technical checks.


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On January 17, the device was re-introduced into hibernation mode;


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June 17, 2014 — the beginning of the annual inspection of systems (the last before arriving at Pluto) [19].


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July 14, 2014 — for the first time since 2010 (and for the sixth time since launch), the device corrected the course.


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The engines of the device worked 87.52 and provided an increment of speed of 1.08, spending about 250 fuel out of 53 available on board.


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As a result of the maneuver, the probe will arrive at the target 36 earlier - according to calculations based on updated data on the orbits of Pluto and Charon, their relative position at this moment will allow observations according to plans.


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Performing a correction at this relatively long distance from the target avoids more serious maneuvers in the future [20].


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August 25, 2014 — The spacecraft crossed the orbit of Neptune [21].


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December 6, 2014 — successful withdrawal of the device from sleep mode; from mid-2007 to that time, the device spent 1837 in sleep mode (almost two-thirds of the flight time), divided into 18 periods with a duration of 36 to 202.


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January 15, 2015 — The spacecraft flew 75 (0.5) from the asteroid 2011 KW48.


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This celestial body orbits at a distance of about 30-40 astronomical units from the Sun.


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January 2015 — the beginning of observations of Pluto from a long distance [22].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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It was possible that it would be necessary to correct the trajectory in order to avoid a collision of the probe with space objects located near Pluto (satellites, rings invisible so far);


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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On March 12, 2015, the spacecraft approached Pluto at a distance of less than 1; two days earlier, another trajectory correction was carried out, which became the most remote in the history of cosmonautics - the probe was on a distance of about 4.77 from the Sun [23];


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May 5, 2015 — The resolution of New Horizons images of Pluto exceeded the resolution of the best images of the object obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope [24].


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May 12, 2015 — Photos taken by New Horizons are published showing all currently known satellites of Pluto (photos taken from April 25 to May 1) [25].


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June 30, 2015 — New Horizons using the Ralph instrument confirmed the presence of methane ice on Pluto, discovered back in 1976 at the Kitt Peak Observatory [26] [27].


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July 4, 2015 — The computer of the New Horizons probe crashes, leading to the interruption of communication with the mission control center at 81.


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The task of eliminating the problem was complicated by the passage of command packets from the Earth to the probe (at the time of the disconnection, it was 4,30) [28].


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July 6, 2015 — NASA experts assured that the computer failure on July 4 will not affect the further course of the mission [29].


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July 14, 2015, at about 11:50 UTC [24], flew at a distance of about 12.5 kilometers from the surface of Pluto [24].


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In general, the device conducted only 9 observations, for which it collected about 50 information [30].


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The transfer of all collected data will continue until the end of 2016 — early 2017 [31] [32].


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July 20, 2015 — the completion of the transmission to Earth of the first package of images of the Pluto system from the flight path.


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August 28, 2015 — NASA's management team made a choice for the next New Horizons target.


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Due to the extremely limited fuel supply, any trajectory corrections after the passage of Pluto were possible only in a small range (about 1).


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At the time of the launch of the device, there were no known target objects.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Only in 2014, the Hubble telescope was able to find 3 suitable asteroids: (486958) 2014 MU69 (1110113Y), 100% probability of reachability, would require about 35% of the available fuel (designation in the New Horizons team — PT1, from English: potential target1, potential target 1); (G12000JZ, PT3), 97% reachability probability, would require almost all fuel (the size of this object about 2 more than the 2014 MU69 dimensions), and (E31007AI, PT2) is a 7% probability of reachability.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

The last two goals were rejected.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

September 5, 2015 — The resumption of transmission of data collected during the flight past Pluto.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

October 22, 2015 was the first correction of the trajectory of a space probe after the flight of Pluto using two small hydrazine engines that worked 16 and changed the station's speed by 10 [34].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

October 25, 2015 — the second correction of the space probe trajectory.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

October 28, 2015 — third correction of the space probe trajectory.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

November 2, 2015 — LORRI camera footage of asteroid (15810) 1994 JR1 (called (15810) Araun in January 2017) from a distance of 274 [35].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

November 4, 2015 — the fourth correction of the space probe trajectory [36].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

April 7—8, 2016 was another LORRI camera footage of asteroid (15810) 1994 JR1 from a distance of 111 (0.74).


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

July 13—14, 2016 — photography of the trans-Neptunian object (50,000) Kvawar, galaxies IC 1048 and UGC 09485 [37].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

October 25, 2016 — The transfer to Earth of scientific data collected during the flight of Pluto in July 2015 was completed [38].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

On December 5, 2017, at a distance of 6.12 billion km (40.9 AU) from Earth, New Horizons took images of trans-Neptunian objects 2012 HZ84 and 2012 HE85 from a distance of 0.50 and 0.34 AU.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

respectively [39] [40] (the diameter of the footage is approximately 42 and 51 km [41]).


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

December 9, 2017 — engine start to correct the trajectory and increase the speed by 1.51 m/s [42].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

August 2018 — New Horizons made further measurements and found an increase in radiation in the ultraviolet range from the opposite direction to the Sun.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

This effect can be explained by the existence of a “hydrogen wall” surrounding the solar system — an area of compaction of interstellar matter at the boundary of the distribution of the solar wind.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Similar observations were made by Voyager 30 years ago [43].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

On August 16, 2018, the Kuiper Belt object Ultima Thule (2014 MU69), to which the station is heading, was first photographed by a LORRI camera from a distance of more than 160 million km [44] [45].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

On December 2, 2018, being at a distance of 6.48 billion km from Earth, the New Horizons station, during a 105-second turn on of the engines, updated its own record for the farthest correction in history by changing its speed to 1 m/s [46].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

January 1, 2019 — The station flew near the Kuiper Belt 2014 MU69 object at a distance of 43.4 from the Sun [47] and more than 1 billion km from the orbit of Pluto [48].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Between January 4 and 9, the station will not transmit new data to Earth: during this period of time, the Sun will be near the conditional line between the Earth and the spacecraft.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

She will be in touch again on January 10.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

It will take about 20 months to fully transfer all the information collected during the flight [49].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

The New Horizons flight near Pluto in the artist's view


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Pluto.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

A photograph taken as the spacecraft approached Pluto


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Pluto's surface: mountains and plain visible


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Pluto's surface: plain


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Pluto and Charon.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Two-frame composite photo


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Planned


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

January 2019 — observation from a distance of 0.09-0.15


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

March 2019 — observation from a distance of 0.1-0.2


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

2026 is the expected end of the research program on the condition of producing an isotopic source.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

2038 — the device will reach 100 from the Sun.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Interesting facts


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

In addition to scientific equipment, the spacecraft has a capsule with part of the ashes of astronomer Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto [50], a CD with 434,738 names of people who participated in NASA's Send Your Name to Pluto [51], two coins, two US flags, a fragment of the first manned private spacecraft, a CD with photographs of the spacecraft and its developers, mail 1990 US brand “Pluto: Not Yet Explored” [11].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

The data transfer rate from a distance of 4.5 was no more than 2,000 [31] (for comparison, the Voyager 2 probe located 15 kilometers from Earth transmits data at a speed of about 160).


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

After the flight of Pluto, scientific data was transmitted for more than a year, until October 2016.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Based on part of the data, a concise survey set was created, completely transferred for 40 [31] [52].


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Shortly after flying past Pluto and Charon, the automatic interplanetary station fell successively into the shadow of each of the bodies, which made it possible to check for even a weak atmosphere in the form of haze.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

However, it should be borne in mind that the speed of the spacecraft (unlike spacecraft sent to the Earth's satellite) did not decrease to enter lunar orbit.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

New horizons in culture


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Brian May, British rock musician, Queen guitarist and former astrophysicist, released the New Horizons (Ultima Thule Mix) video clip on January 1, 2019.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

See also


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Radioisotope energy sources


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Notes


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Literature


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Glen H. Fountain, et al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:23-47 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9374-8


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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H.A. Weaver, et al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:75-91 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9376-6


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Leslie A. Young, et al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:93-127 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9462-9


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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S. Alan Stern, et al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:155-187 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9407-3


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Dennis C. Reuter, et al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:129-154 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9375-7


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

S. Alan Stern, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:3-21 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9295-y


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Ralph L. McNutt, et al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:315-385 ,2008; Corr.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

-ibid t. 145:381 ,2009 doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9436-y 10.1007/s11214-009-9534-5


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

D. McComas, et.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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al.


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, //Space Sci.Rev. 140:261-313 ,2008 doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9205-3


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

References


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Space Science Reviews, dedicated to the mission New Horizons (New Horizons: Reconnaissance of the Pluto-Charon System. Volume 140, Issue 1-4, October 2008) (in English)


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics Laboratory (in English)


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

(in English)


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

(in English)


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

//Elements, 20.01.2006


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

//magazine “Cosmonautics News” № 2006/3


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

/“X-Files”, No. 5, March 2006


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

//RIA Novosti, 2012-08-21


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

, 2013-04


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Category:Automatic interplanetary stations


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Category:US space


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Category:nasa


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Category:New Frontiers Program


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Category:Exploration of Jupiter


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

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Category:Asteroid exploration


Question: How many years is the full New Horizons research program designed for?

New horizons

Category:Current events in space


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Coordinates:


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia is a transcontinental country: it is located in eastern Europe and northern Asia, occupying about the territory of Eurasia and ¹of the earth's land.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The European part of the country (about 23% of the area) includes territories west of the Ural Mountains (the border is conditionally drawn along the Urals and the Kumo-Manychskaya depression); the Asian part of Russia, which occupies about 76% territory, lies east of the Urals and is also called Siberia (but the exact definition of the borders of Siberia is a controversial issue) and the Far East.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The northernmost point of Russia is Cape Fligeli on Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago (81°51′ N), the easternmost point is Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait (western of the two islands) Diomede, 169°0′ W).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The extreme northern and eastern mainland points of Russia are Cape Chelyuskin on the Taimyr Peninsula (77°43′ N) and Cape Dezhnev in Chukotka (169°39′ W).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

These extreme points are also the corresponding extreme points of Eurasia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The southernmost point of Russia (41°11′ N) is located southwest of Mount Bazarduzu, on the border of Dagestan with Azerbaijan.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The westernmost point lies in Kaliningrad Oblast under 19°38′ E, on the Baltic Spit of the Gdansk Bay of the Baltic Sea; but Kaliningrad Oblast is an exclave, and the main territory of Russia begins to the east, at 27°17′ E, on the banks of the Pededze River in the Pskov Region on the border with Estonia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Thus, the length of the territory of Russia from north to south exceeds 4,000 km, from west to east it is approaching 10,000 km.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The geographical center of Russia is located on the territory of Krasnoyarsk Krai, near the southeastern shore of Lake Vivi [1].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The total length of Russia's borders is 60,933 km (of which 38,808 km are maritime borders); Russia's borders in the north and east are sea, in the south and west are mainly land.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The country has land borders with Kazakhstan (7,598.6 km), China (4,209.3 km), Mongolia (3,485 km), Ukraine (2,245.8 km), Finland (1325.8 km), Belarus (1239 km), Abkhazia (245.0 km) [2] [3] [4], South Ossetia (74.0 km) [4] [5] [6], Georgia (561.0 km excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia, with them 879.9 km), Estonia (466.8 km), Azerbaijan (350 km), Lithuania (288.4 km), Latvia (270.5 km), Poland (236.3 km), Norway (219.1 km), North Korea (39.4 km); maritime borders with Japan (194.3 km) and the United States (49 km) [7].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Despite the fact that Russia is the largest country in the world by area, climatic and soil conditions in most of its territory are not conducive to agriculture.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Due to its vast area, Russia is a country of natural contrasts: average temperatures of the warmest month range from +1°C in the Far North to +25°C in the Caspian Lowland, the coldest months — from +6°C on the Black Sea coast to −50°C in northeastern Siberia [8] :51.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia has the deepest lake in the world (Baikal), the longest river in Europe (Volga) and the largest lake in Europe (Ladoga), the cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere (Verkhoyansk), as well as the highest peak in Europe (Elbrus) (when drawing the border between Europe and Asia along the Greater Caucasus Range, and not along the Kume and Manych rivers to the mouth of the Don).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The main part of Russia lies between 40°N.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

and 70° N


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Administrative division


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The borders of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation mostly repeat the boundaries of autonomous republics, territories, regions, autonomous regions and autonomous (until 1977 — national) districts of the RSFSR; changes only affected some regions.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

As of 2014, the Russian Federation includes 85 constituent entities: 22 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 4 autonomous districts and 1 autonomous region; Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sevastopol are federal cities values — by individual constituent entities of the Russian Federation.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In 2000, the territory of the Russian Federation was divided into 7 federal districts — Central, North-Western, Volga, Southern, Ural, Siberian and Far Eastern.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In January 2010, a new North Caucasus Federal District was separated from the Southern Federal District [8] :8-9 [9].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In March 2014, Crimea was annexed to the Russian Federation, and in 2014-2016, the Crimean Federal District existed on the peninsula, later included in the Southern Federal District counties.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Republics, autonomous okrugs and autonomous oblast are formed on a national basis (Tatars, some Caucasian and Finno-Ugric peoples, indigenous peoples of Siberia and etc.).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest regions in terms of area are located in Siberia (including the largest in terms of area is the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Sevastopol has the smallest area among the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest constituent entities of the Federation in terms of population are Moscow and the Moscow Region, followed by Krasnodar Krai [10].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Relief


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

From the point of view of geological structure and relief, the territory of Russia can be divided into two main parts, eastern and western, the border of which runs approximately along the Yenisei.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The western part is mostly flat, with low hills and hills; the eastern part is dominated by mountains (although there are several large lowlands).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Taking into account these topological factors, six main orographic parts can be distinguished on the territory of Russia: Fennoscandia, the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the West Siberian plain, Central Siberian Plateau, mountains of southern and eastern Russia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

[8] :34


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Fennoscandia


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Fennoscandia (or Kola Karelian region) is located in the northwest of the European part of Russia, between the Finnish border and the White Sea, and mainly corresponds to the Baltic Crystal Shield.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

It is characterized by the predominance of denudation-ridge hills, block low-mountains (Khibiny), sea, lake-glacial and rural plain (since in anthropogenic times the territory of Fennoscandia was the center of glaciation, there are many glacial forms of relief here).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The highest altitude is 1190 m, but heights of less than 200 m predominate. Low mountains alternate with swampy lowlands.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

There are many lakes (mostly in Karelia).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the central part of the Kola Peninsula there are remnants of ancient weathering crusts.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Minerals in the Khibiny lie, as a rule, near the surface [8] :34,39.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Eastern European (Russian) Plain


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A significant part of the European territory of Russia is located on one of the largest plains in the world — East European (Russian), the length of which is from west to east, from the borders of the country to the Urals, reaches 1600 km, and from north to south, from the seas of the Arctic Ocean to the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian Sea, 2,400 km; the amplitude of the latest tectonic movements here is low; the main features of the relief formed in the Late Cenozoic.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Most of the territory of the East European Plain lies below 200 m above sea level; the highest point, 343 m, is located on the Valdai Upland.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Nevertheless, the nature of the relief of the Russian Plain is quite complex.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the north of the latitude of Moscow, glacial forms of relief predominate, including moraine ridges, of which the most famous are the Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands (the latter reaches a height 314 m); moraine, zander, lake-glacial lowlands are common.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the south of the latitude of Moscow, the hills, directed mainly in the meridional direction, alternate with flat areas.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

There are numerous ravines and beams on the hills.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the west is the Central Russian Upland (maximum height 293 m), which separates the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Oka and Don; here the valleys of small rivers are clearly defined; at the same time, large rivers have wide shallow floodplains; in some places there is a strong influence of aeolian processes and the formation of dunes.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the east is the Volga Upland, reaching an altitude of 329 m and steeply breaking off to the river.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The lower reaches of the Volga are located within the Caspian lowland, some sections of which have a height of 90 m below sea level.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the south, the East European Plain extends all the way to the spurs of the Greater Caucasus.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The vast Kuban and Kuma lowlands are separated by the Stavropol Upland, where heights from 300 to 600 m prevail (in the upper reaches of the Kuma there is also a group of island mountains up to 1401 m high).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Human economic activity has greatly changed the relief of the East European Plain [8] :40-42.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Ural Mountains


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

On the eastern border of the East European Plain, a belt of low (350-460 m) hills and mountains precedes the ridges of the Ural Mountains proper, stretching for 2,100 km from north to south, from the Northern Arctic Ocean to the border with Kazakhstan.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Being a historical border between Europe and Asia, the Ural Mountains are not a significant natural boundary; despite the fact that Mount Narodnaya, the highest peak of the Urals, reaches 1895 m, the mountain the system consists mostly of intermittent parallel ridges, the peaks of which have heights of mainly 900-1500 m; between the ridges there are several extensive passes, along the largest of which between Perm and Yekaterinburg - and there are convenient roads and railways connecting the European part of Russia with the Asian part; the Polar Urals, the Subpolar Urals are distinguished as part of the Ural Mountains The Urals, the Northern Urals, the Middle Urals and the Southern Urals; the latter in the south passes into the low shallow mountains of Mugodzhary, located on the territory of Kazakhstan.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Many regions of the Urals have rich mineral deposits.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

There are traces of glaciers in the north.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the east of the Urals there is the Ural-Tobolsk Plateau, the Ivdel-Turinskoye ridge highlands.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Geologically, Novaya Zemlya is a continuation of the Ural Range [8] and crosses two climatic zones.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

West Siberian Plain


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The relief of the West Siberian Plain is one of the most homogeneous in the world.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Covering an area of 2.6 million km², the West Siberian Plain stretches from west to east, from the Urals to the Yenisei, for 1,900 km, from north to south, from the Arctic Ocean to the Altai Mountains, for 2,400 km.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Only in the extreme south, heights exceed 200 m; the vast majority of the plain has a height of less than 100 m above sea level; (in the south also denudation).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Such relief features characteristic of Western Siberia as extensive floodplains and huge swamps are especially common in the northern part of the plain; the relief north of the latitudinal section of the Ob River is formed under influence of sea and glacier transgressions.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the north-west and north-east of the West Siberian Plain, the relief is accumulative glacial, formed by glaciers descending from the mountains of the Northern Urals and the Putorana plateau.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The valleys of major rivers are terraced.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

On the Yamal and Gydan peninsulas there are aeolian dunes.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Relatively elevated and dry territories, where the bulk of the population of Western Siberia is concentrated, are located south of 55° N.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

[8] :43


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Central Siberian Plateau


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Located on the territory between the Yenisei and Lena rivers, the Central Siberian Plateau consists of several heavily dissected plateaus with prevailing heights of 320—740 m. The highest plateau of the plateau — Putorana (maximum height 1700 m) — is located in the north of Central Siberia and is dissected by river valleys and glacial trogues; other high plateaus are Leno-Angarskoye and Saverma; the highest ridges are Yenisei (1104 m) and Angarsk.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the south, the plateau borders with the ridges of the Eastern Sayan and the mountains of the Baikal region.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the north of the plateau is the vast North Siberian Lowland; further to the north are the Byrranga Mountains on the Taimyr Peninsula (height up to 1146 m).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the east, the Central Siberian Plateau is replaced by the low Prilensky Plateau.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the interfluve there are denudation-structural terraces, karst and glacial forms of relief, ancient pebbles [8] :43.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Mountains of southern and eastern Russia


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the south of Russia, between the Black and Caspian Seas, is the Greater Caucasus mountain system, which forms the natural border of Russia with Abkhazia, Georgia, South Ossetia and Azerbaijan and extends more less than 1,100 km from northwest to southeast.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The highest point of the Caucasus Mountains, the Elbrus stratovolcano (5642 m), is not only the highest mountain peak in Russia, but also the highest point of the whole of Europe.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Geologically, the Caucasus Mountains are part of the Carpathian Mountains — Crimean Mountains — Tien Shan — Pamir system.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The main ridge of the Greater Caucasus is Watershed (Main Caucasian) with alpinotype relief, a wide spread of nival and glacial processes (more pronounced in the west of the Bolshoi Caucasus), to the north of it, behind the longitudinal North Jurassic erosion depression, there are several lower parallel ridges (including monoclinal).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The southern and southeastern parts of the Crimean Peninsula are occupied by the Crimean Mountains.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The highest mountain system of southern Siberia is Altai (height up to 4506 m, Mount Belukha), which includes a number of subparallel ridges (Katunsky, Severo-Chuysky, etc.) with modern glacial relief and intermountain depressions (“steppes”); its continuation is the V-shaped system of the Western Sayan (height up to 3121 m) and the Eastern Sayan (height up to 3491 m), surrounding the high Tuva depression; in the Eastern Sayan glacial relief is not common, the surfaces of the char are domed, with mountainous terraces; in the Western Sayan there is a heavily dismembered erosion-denudation relief; there are 61 karov glaciers.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The secondary ridges of Altai and Sayan (Salair Ridge, 590 m; Kuznetsky Alatau, 2178 m; Gornaya Shoria, 1560 m; Abakan Range, 1984 m, etc.) go north, surrounding the Kuznetsk and Minusinsk basins.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The mountains surrounding Lake Baikal (Baikal Range, 2588 m; Barguzinsky Range, 2,841 m; Kodar Range, 2999 m; etc.) are formed as a result of a geological fault; the largest faults separate high mountain ridges and plateaus from low-lying valleys and basins.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A special feature of the relief here is the deep (up to 1637 m) depression of Lake Baikal and high (up to 2841 m) mountains, steeply breaking off to the western shore of the lake; thus, the height difference in the Baikal region exceeds 4500 m. The mountains of Transbaikalia are mostly low, with developed char and denudation relief; the Daursky vault has the highest height (Barun-Shebetsky char — 2524 m).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the south-west of the Vitim Plateau there are ancient volcanoes (Mushketova, Obruchev, Lopatina, etc.).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the east of the Yenisei, the mountains occupy most of the territory and overlook the shores of the Pacific Ocean.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

This area along the Stanovoy Ridge line can be divided into two parts — northern and southern.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the southern part of the Far Eastern mountain belt, there is Neogene-Quaternary volcanism; the entire belt (except for the extreme south) is located within the distribution of permafrost.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The relief of individual territories has been greatly changed by human economic activity (mining).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Stanovoy Range (maximum height 2142 m) with a length of about 400 km stretches in the meridional direction to the Pacific Ocean and separates the Amur and Lena basins; in the relief of the Stanovoy Range, they are widespread plateaus.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The northeastern extension of the Stanovoy Range is the Dzhugjur Ridge, which stretches along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk; its line on the Chukotka Peninsula continues the Kolyma Highlands.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A number of ridges directed to the north-west depart from this coastal chain of mountains; the largest of them are the Suntar-Hayata ridge and its continuation is the Verkhoyansky Range (the highest point is 2389 m), running along the lower Lena currents; Chersky ridge (height up to 3147 m, Mount Pobeda).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Medium-low-mountain relief prevails; cryogenic forms of relief are common.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

From the north, these ridges are adjacent to the swampy Kolyma Lowland, which overlooks the Arctic Ocean.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A small low-lying strip between the Okhotsk and Bering Seas separates this mountain system from the Kamchatsk-Kuril Mountain Province, where the Koryak Highlands and the Sredinny Range, directed from the northeast to the south-west, reach heights of 2562 and 3,621 m, respectively.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Middle Range is the main mountain range of the Kamchatka Peninsula, which is a zone of active volcanism; some of the volcanic peaks are quite high; here is the highest (4750 m) peak of the Far The east is the active volcano Klyuchevskaya Sopka; there are several more volcanoes with a height of more than 3000 m (Ichinskaya, Kronotskaya, Koryakskaya hills, etc.).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The volcanic zone of Kamchatka continues further in the south-west direction along the chain of the Kuril Islands to Japan.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Kuril island arc with 85 volcanoes (the highest height is 2339 m) consists of two subparallel arcs separated by a deep (up to 3000 m) basin.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the south of the Far East, there are a number of high mountain ranges, of which the most significant is Sikhote-Alin (up to 2090 m in height) between the Amur-Ussuri lowlands and the Pacific Ocean, characterized by the predominance of low-mountain erosion-denudation relief.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the west of the lower reaches of the Amur River stretches the Bureinsky Range (maximum height - 2167 m) with plateau-shaped relief and deep Pleistocene valleys.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The narrow Tatar Strait (6 km wide at its narrowest point) separates Sakhalin Island from the mainland, which is about 970 km long from north to south and only 30-150 km from west to east.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the northern part of the island there is a low-lying denudation Severosakhalinsk Plain, in the southern part there are parallel Eastern (up to 1609 m) and Western (up to 1325 m) Sakhalin ridges, between which Tym- Poronaisk plain.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The mountains of the Far East are one of the most earthquake-prone zones in Russia (for example, in 1995, a strong earthquake completely destroyed the village of Neftegorsk on Sakhalin) [8] :43-50.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Geological structure and minerals


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Geologically, the territory of Russia is located on two large platforms — East European and Siberian — and in several folded regions (within Russia, areas of Precambrian, Early Paleozoic, Late Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic folding).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the central parts of two ancient platforms, which have a pre-Upper Paleozoic crystal foundation, repeatedly metamorphized, melted with granites, there are areas of the Precambrian Karelian folding, which are adjacent to areas of ancient Baikal folding.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Early Paleozoic platforms cover the territory of the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago and, in part, the Taimyr Peninsula.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Hercynian platforms of Late Paleozoic folding are located within the West Siberian and North Siberian lowlands.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Mesozoic folding platforms are confined to the territory of Siberia east of the Lena River and to the south of the Far East.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Kamchatka, the Kuril and Commander Islands, Sakhalin, the Caucasus belong to the areas of the newest Cenozoic folding, where folding, accompanied by active volcanism, continues along present time.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the river basin there is an area of epiplatform activation, including the structures of Karelian, Baikal, Caledonian, Hercyn and Mesozoic folding changed in the Cenozoic.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral raw materials.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In 2002, the extractive industries provided at least 33% of the country's GDP [12].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia has up to 75% of the world's natural gas reserves, up to 18% of oil reserves, up to 10% of uranium (9th place), up to 40% of nickel, up to 30% of coal (3rd place).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

At the beginning of the 2000s, more than 20,000 deposits were explored [8] :30.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest oil and gas basin is located in Western Siberia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest oil field is Samotlor in the Tyumen region.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Significant oil and gas reserves are also available in the North Caucasus, the Volga region, the Urals, the Pechora basin, in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits of Eastern Siberia, and on Sakhalin Island.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Large gas fields are Urengoyskoye, Yamburgskoye, Zapolyarnoye, Astrakhanskoye and others.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest coal deposit is the Kuznetsk Basin (Kuzbass).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia has the largest reserves of iron ore.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

High quality ores lie in the area of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia is well supplied with ores of the most important non-ferrous metals (with the exception of manganese, chromium, aluminum, titanium).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Bauxite deposits are located mainly in the north of the Urals.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The richest deposits of copper-nickel ores are located in the Norilsk region; copper deposits have been explored in the North Caucasus, the Urals, and Eastern Siberia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The most important tin deposits are located in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, lead and zinc deposits are located in the North Caucasus, Altai, Baikal, Transbaikalia, and the Far East.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The main reserves of tungsten and molybdenum are concentrated in the North Caucasus and the Far East.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Mercury deposits have been explored in the Far East.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Large deposits of boron (borosilicates), fluorite, fluorite, fluorite ores are being developed in Primorye.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The mountains of the Kola Peninsula are rich in apatite-nepheline ores.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Large asbestos deposits are located in Tuva and the Urals.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

There are deposits of phosphorites and various building materials on the East European Plain.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Most of the potash salt reserves are concentrated in the Verkhnekamskoye deposit (Perm Krai).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In many mountainous regions of the country, there are deposits of precious and semi-precious stones (amethysts, garnets, jasper, rhodonite, jade, etc.); in Yakutia and the Arkhangelsk region [13] — diamond deposits [8]: 20-34.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Hydrography


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia is one of the most water-supplied countries in the world.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The country has one of the world's largest freshwater reserves.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Surface waters occupy 12.4% of the territory of Russia, while 84% of surface water is concentrated east of the Urals; many densely populated areas of the European part of Russia experience a shortage of water resources.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Production needs predominate in the structure of water use.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Rivers


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A significant part of the country's population currently lives along river valleys.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Some of Russia's rivers, such as the Volga, are important economic arteries.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The total length of Russian rivers exceeds 8 million km.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

(at the same time, 90% of rivers are less than 100 km long); in total, Russia has more than 2.5 million rivers.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the Asian part of Russia, 40 rivers with a length of more than 1,000 km flow.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest deltas are near the Lena and Volga rivers, estuaries are near the Ob and Yenisei.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia ranks second (after Brazil) in terms of total river flow; one Russian accounts for 23 thousand m³ of river flow per year.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Almost all rivers have a mixed type of food.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Most rivers in Russia experience freezing every year; only some rivers in the south of the European part of Russia are not covered with ice every year.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The rivers of Russia belong to five main basins — the Black Sea, Caspian, Arctic, Baltic and Pacific.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The European part of Russia is drained by rivers of four basins — the Arctic Ocean, the Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Black Sea basin includes the Dnieper (in Russia only the upper reaches), the Kuban (870 km) and, through the Sea of Azov, the Don (1870 km long).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A relatively small section in the north-west of the European part of Russia flows into the Baltic Sea.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The most significant river in this basin in Russia is the Neva (74 km), the length is Lovat (530 km), Velikaya (430 km), Volkhov (224 km).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Volga, the largest river in the Caspian Sea basin, is also the largest river in Europe.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Starting at the Valdai Upland in the Tver Region, the Volga covers 3,530 km on its way to the Caspian Sea.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Volga has the fourth largest basin area in Russia (1.38 million km²), second only to the Ob, Yenisei and Lena.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Four of the thirteen largest cities in Russia are located on the banks of the Volga — Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Samara and Volgograd; the banks of the main tributary of the Volga, the Kama River, are also densely populated (especially in lower reaches).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Being connected by several shipping channels, the rivers of the European part of Russia are of great transport importance.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

2/3 of Russia's inland waterway transportation is carried out along the Volga River System.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest of the Russian river basins is the Arctic (Arctic Ocean basin), which lies mostly in Siberia, but also includes the north of the European part of Russia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

This basin includes the greatest rivers in Siberia — the Ob (3,650 km long) with the Irtysh (5,410 km), the Yenisei (4,090 km) and the Lena River (4,400 km).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The basins of the above rivers cover a total of 8.1 million km² in Western Siberia, Eastern Siberia and the Far East north of the Stanovoy Range; their total flow into the Arctic Ocean is 49,554 m³/s.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Other rivers of the Arctic basin are less significant; in the European part of Russia, the main ones are the Northern Dvina with Vychegda, Sukhona (and with the South - 1318 km) and Pechora (1809 km), in the Asian part - Indigirka (1726 km) and Kolyma (2129 km).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest rivers in Siberia, flowing mainly from south to north, provide transport links between the interior of the country and the coast of the Arctic Ocean, despite the fact that every year are covered with ice for a long time.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

A special feature of Siberian rivers is a slight slope — for example, for the Ob it is only 200 m for more than 2010 km.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

It should be noted that in the upper reaches Siberian rivers are often opened earlier than in the lower reaches, which leads to the formation of ice congestion.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

During floods, water floods vast areas, which leads to the appearance of numerous swamps.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

One of the largest, the Vasyugan swamp at the confluence of the Ob and the Irtysh, covers an area of 49 thousand km².


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The rest of Siberia (about 4.7 million km²) is irrigated by rivers of the Pacific Ocean basin, the main of which is the Amur (2,820 km long).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Amur basin covers most of the south of the Russian Far East and forms the Russian-Chinese border along a significant part of its length.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The border with China in Primorye is formed by one of the largest tributaries of the Amur — Ussuri.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

To the north of the mouth of the Amur, the watershed comes close to the coastline, so the rivers here are short and characterized by a rapid flow.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the European part of Russia, major rivers are connected by a system of canals; the longest shipping channel in Russia is the Volga-Baltiysky (about 1,100 km long) [8] :65-80.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest rivers in Russia


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

titlelength,


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

cms including


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

in RF, kmsquare


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

swimming pool,


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

thousand km²flows VOB - Irtysh 541030502990Ob Bay, Karskoye SeaOb - Chulym - White Jus4545652990Ob Bay, Kara SeaOb - Katun433843382990Ob Bay, Kara SeaOb Own 365036502990Ob Bay, Karskoye Moreamur - Argun - Kerulen505241331855Amur Estuary, Okhotsk Moreamur - Argun - Khailar444441331855Amur Estuary, Okhotsk Moreamur - Shilka - Onon427939811855Amur estuary, Okhotsk Moreamur own2824241855Amur estuary, Okhotsk Morelena - Vitim - Vitimkan469246922490More Laptevykhlena440044002490Sea Laptevykhenisey - Angara - Baikal - Selenga — Ider507544602580Yenisei Bay, Kara SeaYenisei — Maly Yenisei (Kaa-Khem) 428739302580Yenisei Bay, Kara Sea-Bolshoy Yenisei (Biy-Khem) 412341232580Yenisei Bay, Kara SeaYenisey Own 348734872580Yenisei Bay, Karskoye SeaIrtysh424819001643 ObVolga River — Oka373137311360Caspian SeaVolga — Kama356035601360Caspian SeaVolga353135311360Caspian Sea Tunguska29892989473 Yeniseyvilyui River26502650454Lenakolyma River - Kulu25132513643East Siberian MoreKolyma21292129643East Siberian SeaUral24281550237Caspian SeaOlenek2292219Olenek Bay , LaptevyKhaldan Sea22732273729Lena River


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Rivers with official lengths (km) or the most common in reference books are shown in bold


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Rivers with lengths (km) unofficial or not common in directories, but exceeding the official (most common) data in length, including uncommon ones, are shown in italics data on the sources and tributaries of the river


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Sources: [14] [15] [16] [17].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Lakes


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

There are more than two million lakes on the territory of Russia with a total area of more than 350,000 km² (excluding the Caspian Sea-Lake).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The total reserves of lake water reach 26,000 km3.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Most of the lakes are of glacial origin.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest lakes in the European part of Russia (located mainly in its north-west) are Ladoga and Onega (with an area of 17,680 and 9,720 km², respectively); Lake Peipsi on the border with Estonia ( 3550 km²); Ilmen (about 1000 km², the area varies depending on the water level), as well as Topozero, Vygozero and other “lake land” of Karelia.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Baikal, the largest lake in Siberia and Russia (excluding the Caspian Sea), is also the deepest in the world; Baikal contains 85% of Russia's fresh lake water and 22% of the world's freshwater reserves.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The length of the lake is 636 km, the average width is 48 km; the total area is 31.7 thousand km²; the greatest depth is 1620 m (Teletskoye Lake (325 m) in Altai and Khantai Lake (520 m) in Predtaymyr).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Baikal is located in a rift depression and is approximately 25—30 million years old.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

However, the vast majority of Russian lakes are small; lakes are numerous in the north-west of the European part of Russia (especially in Karelia) and on the West Siberian Plain.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Fresh lakes predominate among the lakes, but there are also salty ones, the largest of which (1990 km²) is Chany in southwestern Siberia [8] :65-80.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest lakes in Russia [14]


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

lake namearea, km²max


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

depth, river basin (flows out) regions of Russia, other countriesCaspian Sea396 0001026Drainless Russia (Astrakhan region, Kalmykia, Dagestan), Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, IranBaikal31 7221637Angara — YeniseyIrkutsk Region, BuryatiyLadoga Lake 17 700230Nevakarelia, Leningrad OblastOnezhskoye Lake9690127SvirKarelia, Leningrad Oblast, Vologda OblastTaimyr456026Nizhnyaya TaimyraKrasnoyarsk Kraykhanka419011Sungacha - UssuriRussia (Primorsky Krai), Kitaypskovsko-Chudskoye Lake355515NarvaRussia (Pskov Oblast), EstoniaChany20007StochnoenovoSiberian OblastVygozero ( Vygozerskoye Vdhr.) 1250 [18] 40VygkareliaBeloe Ozero112533Sheksna (Volga) Vologda OblastTopozero (Kumskoye Reservoir) 98656KovDakareliyailmen98210VolkhovNovgorod OblastMandra87667NivaMurmanskaya OblastKhantayskoye Lake822520Khantaika - YeniseyKrasnoyarsk Kraysegozero (Segozerskoye Vdhr.) 81597Segezhakareliyapyasino73510PyasinaKrasnoyarsk Kraikulundinskoe Lake7284KulundaAltai Kraipyaozero (Kumskoye reservoir) 65949kovDakareliyanerpichye55212KamchatkaKamchatka Krai


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Reservoirs


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In total, Russia has about 4,000 reservoirs with a volume of more than 1 million m³ [19].


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest reservoirs in terms of area in the European part of Russia are Rybinskoye and Kuibyshevskoye (“Samara Sea”).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The chain of reservoirs stretches along the currents of the Volga and Kama.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

These reservoirs, as a rule, have a relatively small width and a very significant length of 160-320 km.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In Siberia, large reservoirs are located in the upper reaches of the Yenisei (Shushenskoye, Krasnoyarskoye), on its main tributary Angara (Bratsk Reservoir 550 km long, one of the largest in the world) and on the river Vilyui, the left tributary of the Lena (Vilyuyskoye).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In northwestern Russia, some natural lakes have been transformed into reservoirs.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Unique, both in terms of area and volume, is the Irkutsk Reservoir, which includes Lake Baikal and has a useful volume of 46.4 km³.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest reservoirs in Russia by area [14]


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

titlesquare,


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

max.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

, moby.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

km³RekaregionKuibyshevskoye (Samara) Reservoir65004058.0VolgaSamara Region, Ulyanovsk Region, TatarstanBratsk Reservoir5470150169,3Angarairkut OblastRybinsk Reservoir458025- 3025,5VolgaYaroslavl Oblast, Vologda Oblast, Tver OblastVolgograd Reservoir31173831,5VolgaVolgograd Region, Saratov OblastTsimlyanskoye Reservoir27003523,9DonRostov region, Volgograd OblastZeyskoye Reservoir241968,4Zeyamurskaya OblastVilyuyskoye Reservoir23607035,9VilyuyYakutia (Sakha) Boguchanskoye Reservoir23267558,2AngaraKrasnoyarsk Krai, Irkutsk OblastCheboksary Reservoir2190214,6VolgaChuvashia, Mari ElKrasnoyarsk Reservoir200010573,3YeniseyKrasnoyarsk Krai, Khakasiakamskoye Reservoir19103012,2Kamapermsky Kraikumskoye Reservoir1910569,8Kovda, Topozero, PyaozerokareliaUst-Ilimsk Reservoir18739158,9Angarairkut OblastSaratov Reservoir18312512,9Volgasaratov Region, Samara Region, Ulyanovsk OblastSheksninskoye Reservoir1670176,5VygkareliyaGorkovskoye Reservoir1590228.7VolganNizhny Novgorod Region, Kostroma Oblast, Ivanovo Oblast, Yaroslavl OblastUst-Khantayskoye Reservoir156124,5KhantaikaKrasnoyarsk KrayvyGozerskoye Reservoir1250406,4VygkareliyVotkinskoye Reservoir1120289,4Kamaudmurtia, Perm KrayNovosibirsk Reservoir1082258,8ObNovosibirskaya region, Altai KraiNizhnekamsk Reservoir1080202,9KamaTatarstan, Bashkortostan, UdmurtiaProletarskoye Reservoir7984,52,0Western ManychRostov Region, KalmykiyaVerkhnetulomskoye Reservoir74511,5Tulomanskaya OblastBureyskoye Reservoir74020.9BureyaAmur Region, Khabarovsk Kraisayano-Shushenskoye Reservoir62122031,3YeniseyKrasnoyarsk Krai, Khakassia, Tyvakureyskoye Reservoir55810,0KureikaKrasnoyarsk Krayserebryanskoye Reservoir5564,2VoronyaMurmansk Region


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Swamps


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Swamps occupy about 2 million km² on the territory of Russia; in Western Siberia, wetlands cover up to 50% of the territory.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In the north-west of the European part of Russia, upper bogs predominate, in other regions - lowland.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The vast majority of swamps in the steppe and forest-steppe zones belong to the grassroots.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Geysers


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Geysers in Russia are not numerous, despite the fact that seismic activity zones in Russia have a significant area.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In 1941, about 20 largest erupting geysers and 80 less noticeable ones were discovered in the valley of the Geyzernaya River.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The largest geyser in Kamchatka is the Giant, which emits water jets 40 meters high and steam several hundred meters high.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Now the Valley of Geysers is a geothermal reserve in Kamchatka.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

There is also the Small Valley of Geysers.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The Valley of Geysers is a volcanic canyon only about two kilometers wide and just over four kilometers long.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

In June 2007, part of the valley was covered by a major landslide.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Climate


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The climate of the Russian Federation is formed under the influence of several determining factors.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

One of the most important is the huge size of the territory and the remoteness of many areas from the sea (most of the country's territory is more than 400 km from the sea, and some areas are 2,400 km away), which led to the predominance of the continental climate.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Due to the location of Russia in northern latitudes, a cold climate dominates (only the south of the European part of Russia, some parts of southern Siberia and Primorye are located south of 50° N, while more half of the territory lies to the north of 60°N).


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The mountains in the south of the country prevent the entry of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, and the flat nature of the territory in the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

As a result, only two distinct seasons can be distinguished in a large part of the territory — winter and summer; spring and autumn are short periods of changes in extremely low temperatures and extremely high.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

The coldest month is January (February on the coast of the seas), the warmest is usually July.


Question: What is the length of Russia?

Geography of Russia

Russia is located in four climatic zones — Arctic, subarctic, temperate and subtropical; the longest of them is temperate; the subtropical climate in Russia is narrow the Black Sea strip of Crimea and the Caucasus.