Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Archaeological and ethnographic studies were carried out in unexplored parts of Asia, rare manuscripts were found, linguistic materials, works of folklore were collected, descriptions of local customs, books have been written (“Heart of Asia”, “Altai-Himalayas”), about five hundred paintings have been created, in which the artist displayed a picturesque panorama of the expedition route, a series of paintings “The Himalayas” has been launched, series “Maitreya”, “The Sikkim Way”, “His Country”, “Teachers of the East”, etc.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Nikolai Roerich's Central Asian Expedition

[15] [16] [17]


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The merger of Buddhism with communism.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Visit to Moscow.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Mahatma Lenin


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

After the October Revolution, Roerich stood in open opposition to the Soviet power, wrote accusatory articles in the emigrant press.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, soon his views suddenly changed, and the Bolsheviks found themselves in the category of ideological allies of Roerich.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In the autumn of 1924, he went to Europe, where he visited the USSR representative office in Berlin, met with Plenipotentiary Envoy N. N. Krestinsky and then with his assistant G. A. Astakhov [18].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Ideological closeness to communism was manifested among the Roerichs in literature.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The Mongolian edition of The Communities (1926), one of the books of Agni Yoga, contained frequent references to Lenin and drew parallels between the communist community and the Buddhist community.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Subsequently, when the Roerichs again turned away from communism, all paragraphs about Lenin were excluded from the Riga reissue of the book in 1936 [19].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

For example, paragraph 64 of the Communities of 1936 no longer contains the words that were in the 1926 edition: “Accept the appearance of Lenin as a sign of sensitivity to the Cosmos” [20].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In Khotan, the Roerichs received a famous letter from the Mahatmas to be handed over to the Soviet government and a casket with Himalayan land to the grave of Mahatma Lenin.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Roerich personally presented all the gifts, including several paintings and “The Community” (1926), to People's Commissar Chicherin in June 1926, and he handed them over to the Lenin Institute.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Also in Khotan, on October 5, 1925, the artist conceived the painting “Mount Lenin”, which is now stored in the Nizhny Novgorod Museum of Fine Arts.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The picture clearly shows the easily recognizable image of Lenin [21].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Later, Roerich renamed the painting “The Phenomenon of Term”, but in Moscow it appeared under its original title, about which Roerich wrote with his own hand: “Mount Lenin” [18].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Mount Lenin is a cone between the two wings of the white ridge.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The Lama whispers: “Lenin was not against true Buddhism” [22]


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Entrepreneurial activity.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Belukha.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Visit to Altai


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In the process of preparing the expedition, the Roerichs, together with American businessman Louis Horsch, created two business corporations in New York — Ur and Belukha, which were aimed at conducting a broad business entrepreneurship on the territory of the Soviet Union — in the fields of forestry, mining, transport, construction, agriculture and others [23].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In Moscow, Roerich's American employees defended the interests of Belukha to acquire concessions in Altai, holding meetings with officials of the authorities B.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

N. Melnikov (People's Commissariat) and M. A. Trilisser (OGPU) [24].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Nikolai Roerich wanted to obtain registration, in accordance with Soviet laws, of the Belukha Corporation for the development of deposits [25] [26].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The Roerichs visited Altai on a scientific, reconnaissance and ethnographic expedition, selecting places for proposed concessions and studying the possibility of “organizing a cultural - industrial center” [24].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Mission to Tibet.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“Head of Western Buddhists”


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The first Central Asian expedition of N. K. Roerich took place in several stages.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Upon arrival in Mongolia, it grew into an independent Tibetan journey, now known as the Western Buddhist Mission to Lhasa (1927—28) [27] [28].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

By its nature, the Tibetan expedition was not just artistic and archaeological, but, according to its leader, Roerich, had the status of a diplomatic embassy on behalf of the Union of Western Buddhists” [27] [28].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

During the expedition, Roerich was considered by his entourage as the “Western Dalai Lama” [29].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, in reality, Roerich did not convert to Buddhism.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

During the seven-month stay in Urga, thorough preparations were underway for the Tibetan campaign [30].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The Roerichs sent their employees to America a task - to make the Order of the Buddha of the All-Conquering, which was supposed to be awarded to the Dalai Lama.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The sketch for the order was drawn by Roerich himself.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

This Buddhist sign was ordered from the best workshop in New York, from Tiffany's hereditary jewelers.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Against the background of the double vajra, the relief gilded figure of Manjushri with a fiery sword stood out, and his lotus feet had a five-pointed star [30].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, the meeting with the Dalai Lama did not take place: in the fall of 1927, the expedition was detained by the Tibetan authorities on the outskirts of Lhasa and spent five months in snow captivity high in the mountains on the Chantang Plateau [31] , where Roerich wrote numerous letters to the Tibetan authorities, including the Dalai Lama, about how unfairly the first “Buddhist embassy” was received:


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“In our country of great America, even the most serious criminals receive much better living conditions than here, you have, the benevolent Buddhist Embassy” (23.10.1927 Roerich writes to the major) [32]:


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“Your Holiness! Upon the election of the Buddhist Council in America, I, as the Head of Western Buddhists, undertook the task of going to head the first Embassy of Western Buddhists to personally hand over to you the Diploma, the Order of the Buddha All-conquering” (28.10.1927 Roerich writes to the Dalai Lama) [33]


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“We are all dangerously ill; the population, despite our payment for food, is unable to supply them, and more than two-thirds of the caravan of animals have already died. This cruelty contradicts the Teachings of the Blessed Buddha. <... > The Tibet government has now brutally offended our Mission to the great country of America and the noble intentions of Western Buddhists. The news of this thunder will sweep all over the world” (14.11.1927 Roerich writes to the Dalai Lama) [34]


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The expedition was never allowed to enter Lhasa and was forced to make its way to India at the cost of incredible difficulties and losses [35].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

At the end of the expedition, Roerich wrote a letter to the Buddhist Center in New York, in which he urged them to dissociate themselves from the Dalai Lama and break off all relations with him [36] [37].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Versions and interpretations of the main goals of the expedition


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

There are several versions of what was the main purpose of the Roerichs' trip to the Central Asian expedition.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Artistic and ethnographic purposes


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The Roerichs themselves described the goals and objectives of the expedition as follows:


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“In addition to artistic tasks, during our expedition we meant to familiarize ourselves with the situation of antiquities of Central Asia, observe the current state of religion and customs and note traces of the great resettlement of peoples. This last task has been close to me for a long time.”


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

(N. K. Roerich)


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“The main goal of the expedition was to create a picturesque panorama of the lands and peoples of Inner Asia. Five hundred paintings by N. K. Roerich <... > are one of her greatest achievements. The second task of the expedition was to conduct archaeological exploration in order to prepare the basis for further serious research of these little-studied areas of Inner Asia. Finally, we attached great importance to the collection of ethnographic and linguistic material that characterizes the ancient cultures of the region.” (YU. N. Roerich [38])


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The version about exclusively artistic and ethnographic goals of Roerich's Central Asian expedition is described in the works of L. IN. Shaposhnikova [39] and P. F. Belikov [15], who wrote Roerich's biography in 1972, when additional sources about the expedition were not yet available [40].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to this version, the opportunity to make a scientific expedition to Central Asia Roerich was provided by the sale of paintings, fees for the design of theatrical productions, the publication of numerous articles, income from the activities of American public cultural and educational organizations [15].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

As for the delay of the expedition by the Tibetan authorities to the Chantang Plateau, in the framework of this version, Roerich's use of the words “Embassy”, “Head of Western Buddhists” is explained exclusively diplomatic form that does not have any special content, and “the content of the letters that the Roerichs sent to the rulers of Tibet had the sole purpose of escaping from dangerous captivity” [41].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The International Center of the Roerichs in Moscow plays an active role in distributing this version [42].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Versions about N. K. Roerich with the OGPU


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The version about Roerich's connection with the OGPU was presented by Oleg Shishkin in 1999 in the documentary novel “Battle for the Himalayas” [43], in which he makes more than 150 references to documents of various archives, as well as historian M. L. Dubaev in the monograph “Roerich”, published in the ZhZL series in 2003 [44] [45].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Based on Oleg Shishkin's version, a number of articles were written in the media [46] and books, including the documentary and historical book “Occult Secrets of the NKVD and the SS” [47] by Anton Pervushin, Igor Minutko's book “Temptation teachers. Version of the Life and Death of Nikolai Roerich” [48], as well as programs and documentaries shown on Kultura and NTV channels were shot.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

A number of articles were published in the media, the authors of which, mainly supporters of various organizations competing with each other for the legacy of the Roerichs, deny Nikolai Roerich's connection with the OGPU [12] [13] [49].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, the version about the Roerich agent has become widespread and is used by a number of professional historians [50], but at the same time it is denied by others [51].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to this version, Nikolai Roerich was recruited by the OGPU and sent to America with the money of the Soviet Union in order to contribute to economic and other ties of the USSR.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Together with American businessman Louis Horsch, nicknamed “Buddhist”, recruited by Soviet intelligence, funded by Moscow, the Roerichs organize a number of companies in America, including Belukha.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

With the money of Soviet intelligence, a Central Asian expedition was organized, the purpose of which was to overthrow the 13th Dalai Lama, who achieved Tibet independence in 1913 and invited him for modernization British Tibetan Army.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

This did not suit the Soviet authorities, so a coup plan was invented in Tibet in order to cause unrest and remove the Dalai Lama XIII, which was objectionable to the USSR.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to Shishkin, the OGPU used Yakov Blumkin as one of the main coordinators of the Tibetan mission, who took part in the expedition under the guise of a Buddhist monk.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, the mission to overthrow the Dalai Lama failed, as the expedition aroused suspicion not only among the British, but also among the Dalai Lama and his entourage.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Subsequently, Blumkin was shot, and Louis Horsch received a directive from his leadership to ruin all Roerich's institutions in the United States, using the debt obligations he had stored, which happened in the second half of the 1930s.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

(see below) Master Building)


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Oleg Shishkin considers one of the proofs of Blumkin's participation in the Central Asian expedition of Roerich to be a photo from an expedition passport to Beijing, issued by the Chinese governor to Urumqi in 1926.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In Shishkin's documentary novel in this photo, the first lama on the left with a tie is Yakov Blumkin [52].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to a representative of one of the organizations conflicting for the legacy of the Roerichs, Deputy General Director of the N. K. Roerich A. IN. Stetsenko, the photo shows Ramzan's Ladake, not Blumkin [53].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

A representative of the other side of the conflict, head of the Roerichs' heritage department of the Museum of the East, orientalist Vladimir Rosov, who studied the activities of N. K. Roerich, based on materials in the archives of Russia, the USA, India and other countries, notes in his works that during the expedition Nikolai Roerich established friendly relations with the Deputy Chairman of the OGPU M. A. Trilisser [54] and that Roerich often “expressed loyalty to the Soviets and even cooperated with them” [55].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

On the other hand, in the abstract to his dissertation, Rosov notes that scientific research does not confirm the version that N. K. Roerich was an agent of the Soviet special services and carried out his Central Asian expedition “under the leadership” of Y.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

G. Blumkin.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Rosov claims that official representatives of the Foreign Intelligence Service also deny this version.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The novels and novels of Shishkin, Pervushin and Minutko were called by Rosov “historical and mystical”, distorting ideas about the expeditions of N. K. Roerich [56].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Historian Maxim Dubaev in his monograph “Roerich” [44] [45] does not refer to the works of Oleg Shishkin, but, like him, believes that Roerich was associated with the OGPU and conducted the expedition not without the help of the Soviets [57].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Dubaev writes that Roerich held meetings with the leadership of the OGPU [58], and the plenipotentiary envoy P. N. Nikiforov, for example, at first did not even know that “the artist was in Urga on the instructions of the Soviet government” [59].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In a different way from Shishkin, Dubaev describes the role of Y.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

G. Blumkin in N. K. Roerich [57]: “Suddenly, the Soviet trade representative began to convince N.K. Roerich to leave Mongolia as soon as possible, as he was instructed to delay the expedition until Ya.G. Blumkin arrived from Moscow, and this could mean only one thing — the arrest of Nikolai Konstantinovich” [60].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Political goals.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The construction of the “New Country”


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The version was proposed by V. A. Rosov, who defended his doctoral dissertation on it [61].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to Rosov, who analyzed the Tibetan and Manchu expeditions, Roerich was involved in big politics, trying to realize the utopian dream of a “New Country”.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to Rosov, at meetings in the fall of 1924, Nikolai Roerich and N. N. Krestinsky and G. A. Astakhov, at the USSR representative office in Berlin, developed a general plan for United Asia, the main thesis of which was to combine the teachings of Buddhism with the communist one on a national scale ideology [18].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Roerich's world plan contained the idea of creating a New Country in Asia.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The plan for the construction of a Mongol-Siberian state with its capital in Zvenigorod in Altai was based on the cult of Maitreya [19].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The concepts of Shambhala and Maitreya Roerich were directly linked to communist ideals.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“The march of communism must be firmly woven with the name of Maitreya.”


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Thus, the beginning of a new religious movement in Asia was laid [62].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Regarding his visit to Lhasa, Rosov announced that on behalf of Western Buddhists, the artist intended to offer the Lord of Tibet, the Dalai Lama XIII, an alliance to protect the Buddhist world [63].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Rosov suggests that the main point of the planned negotiations between Roerich and the Dalai Lama was to be the thesis about the merger of Buddhism and communism [30].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Since there was a need to reform Buddhism in Asia, N. K. Roerich intended to establish the “Order of Buddha the All-Conquering” and agree with the Dalai Lama on an independent parallel branch of Western Buddhists.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

This would be the final step before starting to create an independent state, conditionally called the “New Country”.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

This, according to Rosov, was the World Plan of the Roerichs, conceived in order to redraw the map of Eastern Siberia and the Far East [64].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, due to the opposition of the British, the Roerichs failed to reach the capital of Tibet and meet with the Dalai Lama [65], the Buddhist campaign to the expanses of Siberia and the Mongolian steppes was postponed, World Plan underwent changes, and the subsequent Manchu expedition became a necessary and main part of it [64].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

IN. A. Rosov is the head of the Heritage of the Roerichs department of the State Museum of Oriental Art, where Roerich's version as a politician was adopted and, in particular, is published in brochures published by the museum [66].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to the version of Tibetologist A. AND. Andreeva, Theosopher [67] :181-182, 327, 401-432 Nikolai Roerich, who was allegedly “identified” Dalai Lama V [67] :249, was going to proclaim himself the Dalai Lama of the West [67] :329, 339 and “reform” Tibetan Buddhism [ 67] :349-352, and his expedition was part of this plan.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to Andreev, on the way Roerich received contradictory instructions from his wife, which did not reflect the state of affairs in Tibet, and the failure of the expedition was the reason for his negative feedback on the state of affairs in Tibet.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Historian [68] Andrei Znamensky adheres to the version about both the spiritual and political goals of the Roerichs expedition in his book “Red Shambhala” [69].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Search for Shambhala


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

According to one version, the Roerichs went on a Central Asian expedition to find Shambhala, and not to study plants, ethnology and languages [70].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

It is also assumed that Roerich's mission was to return to Shambhala the mysterious chintamani stone (Skt. “a wish-fulfilling jewel”) entrusted to him by the League of Nations.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The expedition members were sure that Altai was a great spiritual center, in some way connected with Shambhala.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

It is assumed that Roerich's search for Shambhala was inspired by the translation of the Guide to Shambhala, written in the middle of the XVIII century by the Third Panchen Lama (1738—1780).


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

It described the journey to Shambhala as an inner spiritual quest.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

However, this explanation did not deter the Roerichs from trying to reach Shambhala by simply getting there on foot or on horseback [70].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Lama, we know the greatness of Shambhala.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

We know that this indescribable realm is real.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

But we also know about the reality of Shambhala on earth.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

.> We know stories about the Buryat Lama, how he was led through a very narrow secret passage.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

We know that another visitor saw a caravan of highlanders with salt from lakes on the very border of Shambhala.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Moreover, we saw for ourselves the white border pillar of one of the three borders of Shambhala [71].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

In Shambhala: In Search of a New Era (1930), Roerich described Shambhala as a holy city north of India, where its ruler preaches the teachings of Buddha Maitreya for universal peace.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Roerich also hinted at the similarities between Shambhala and Thule, a country hidden at the North Pole that inspired the Germans to search for a secret land.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

He also mentioned the connection of Shambhala with the underground city of Agarti, which can be accessed through an underground tunnel under the Himalayas [70].


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Expedition results


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The expedition resulted in the writing of about 500 paintings by N. K. Roerich, as well as rich ethnographic and linguistic material.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The material collected was so extensive that on July 12, 1928. The Roerichs founded the Urusvati Institute for Himalayan Studies:


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

“The Institute is a direct result of Roerich's Central Asian expedition...” (Yu. N. Roerich — First Director of the Institute [72])


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

On December 20, 1960, Lev Gumilyov, during a speech at a meeting of the Eastern Commission of the All-Union Geographical Society dedicated to the death of Yu.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

N.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Roerich, said:... although I always honored and remembered the great Russian geographers — the discoverers of Central Asia: the great Przhevalsky, Kozlov, Grumm-Grzhimailo, Pevtsov, Potanin and others — I knew that Yuri Nikolaevich Roerich and his father Nikolai Konstantinovich in their travels did not only no less than they did, but in some ways surpassed them.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

See also


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

The series of paintings “Maitreya” by N. K. Roerich


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Notes


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Literature


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Expedition diaries


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

External link in |title= (help)


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Expedition research


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

External link in |title= (help)


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

A. IN. Stetsenko


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

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Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Andreev A. AND. The Himalayan Brotherhood: Theosophical Myth and Its Creators.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

— SPb.: Izd.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

SPbU, 2008.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Znamenski A.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

— Quest Books, 2011.— 304 p.


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

— ISBN 0835608913, ISBN 9780835608916


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Category:Nikolai Roerich


Question: What was the main goal of the Central Asian expedition?

Category:Expeditions and hikes


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WiFi

Wi-Fi is a wireless LAN technology with devices based on IEEE 802.11 standards.


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WiFi

The Wi-Fi logo is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance.


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Under the abbreviation Wi-Fi (from the English phrase Wireless Fidelity [1], which can be literally translated as “wireless attachment”), a whole family of standards is currently being developed transmission of digital data streams over radio channels.


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History


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WiFi

Wi-Fi was created in 1998 at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization) radio astronomy laboratory in Canberra, Australia [2].


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WiFi

The creator of the wireless data exchange protocol is an engineer.


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WiFi

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WiFi

The term “Wi-Fi” was originally coined as a play on words to attract the consumer's attention with a “hint” of Hi-Fi (English: High Fidelity).


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WiFi

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Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The principle of operation


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Typically, a Wi-Fi network layout contains at least one access point and at least one client.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It is also possible to connect two clients in point-to-point (AD-hoc) mode, when the access point is not in use and clients are connected via network adapters “directly”.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The access point transmits its network identifier () using special signal packets at a speed of 0.1 Mbps every 100 ms.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Therefore, 0.1 Mbps is the lowest data transfer rate for Wi-Fi.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Knowing the SSID of the network, the client can determine whether it is possible to connect to this access point.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

When two access points with identical SSIDs fall into range, the receiver can choose between them based on signal strength data.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The Wi-Fi standard gives the customer complete freedom in choosing the criteria for the connection.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The working principle is described in more detail in the official text of the standard [11].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

However, the standard does not cover all aspects of building Wi-Fi wireless LANs.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Therefore, each equipment manufacturer solves this problem in its own way, applying the approaches that it considers the best from one point of view or another.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Therefore, there is a need to classify ways to build wireless local networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

According to the method of combining access points into a single system, we can distinguish:


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Autonomous access points (also called autonomous, decentralized, smart)


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Controller-controlled access points (also referred to as “lightweight”, centralized)


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Uncontrolled but not autonomous (controllable without a controller)


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

According to the method of organizing and managing radio channels, wireless local networks can be distinguished:


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

With static settings for radio channels


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

With dynamic (adaptive) radio channel settings


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

With a “layered” or multilayer structure of radio channels


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Performance and speed


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi Benefits


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It allows you to deploy a network without laying a cable, which can reduce the cost of deploying and/or expanding the network.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Locations where cabling is not possible, such as outdoors and in buildings of historical value, can be served by wireless networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Allows mobile devices to access the network.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi devices are widely available in the market.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Equipment compatibility is guaranteed due to mandatory certification of equipment with the Wi-Fi logo.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Mobility.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

You are no longer tied to one place and can surf the Internet in a comfortable environment for you.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Within the Wi-Fi zone, several users can access the Internet from computers, laptops, phones, etc.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Radiation from Wi-Fi devices at the time of data transmission is an order of magnitude (10 times) less than that of a cell phone [12].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Disadvantages of Wi-Fi


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

There are many devices in the 2.4GHz band, such as devices that support Bluetooth, etc.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

, and even microwaves, which impairs electromagnetic compatibility.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Equipment manufacturers indicate the speed on L1 (OSI), which creates the illusion that the equipment manufacturer is overestimating the speed, but in fact, Wi-Fi has very high service rates.” overhead costs.”


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It turns out that the data transfer rate to L2 (OSI) in a Wi-Fi network is always lower than the declared speed on L1 (OSI).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The actual speed depends on the share of service traffic, which depends on the presence of physical barriers between the devices (furniture, walls), the presence of interference from other wireless devices or electronic equipment, device locations relative to each other, etc. [13]


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The frequency range and operating limits vary from country to country.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Many European countries allow two additional channels, which are banned in the US; Japan has another channel in the upper end of the range, and other countries, such as Spain, ban use of low-frequency channels.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Moreover, some countries, such as Russia, Belarus and Italy, require registration of all Wi-Fi networks operating outdoors or require registration of a Wi-Fi operator [14].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

As mentioned above, in Russia, wireless access points, as well as Wi-Fi adapters with an EIMI exceeding 100 mW (20 dBm), are subject to mandatory registration [15].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The WEP encryption standard can be broken relatively easily even with the correct configuration (due to the weak strength of the algorithm).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The new devices support more advanced WPA and WPA2 data encryption protocols.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The adoption of the IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) standard in June 2004 made it possible to apply a more secure communication scheme that is available in new equipment.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Both schemes require a stronger password than those usually assigned by users.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Many organizations use additional encryption (such as a VPN) to protect against intrusion.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

At the moment, the main method of hacking WPA2 is password guessing and active KRACK attacks, so it is recommended to use complex alphanumeric passwords in order to make the task as difficult as possible password guessing.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In point-to-point (AD-hoc) mode, the standard only prescribes to implement a speed of 11 Mbit/s (802.11b) [16].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

WPA (2) encryption is not available, only easily cracked WEP.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wireless technologies in industry


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi technologies are still offered for use in industry by a limited number of suppliers.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

This is how Siemens Automation & Drives offers Wi-Fi solutions for its SIMATIC controllers in accordance with the IEEE 802.11g standard in the free 2.4 GHz ISM band and provides maximum speed 54 Mbit/s transmission.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

These technologies are used to manage moving objects and warehouse logistics, as well as in cases where for any reason it is impossible to lay wired Ethernet networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The use of Wi-Fi devices in enterprises is due to their high noise immunity, which leads to their use in enterprises with many metal structures.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In turn, Wi-Fi devices do not create significant interference with narrowband radio signals.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Currently, the technology is widely used in remote or hazardous production, where the presence of operational personnel is associated with increased danger or even difficult.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

For example, for telemetry tasks at oil and gas production enterprises, as well as for monitoring the movement of personnel and vehicles in mines and mines, to determine the location of personnel in emergency situations.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi and cell phones


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Some believe that Wi-Fi and similar technologies can eventually replace cellular networks such as GSM.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Obstacles to this development in the near future are the lack of global roaming, limited frequency range and very limited Wi-Fi range.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It is more correct to compare cellular networks with other wireless network standards, such as UMTS, CDMA, or WiMAX.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

However, Wi-Fi is suitable for VoIP use in corporate networks or in a SOHO environment.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The first samples of equipment appeared in the early 2000s, but they entered the market only in 2005.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Then companies such as Zyxel, UT Starcomm, Samsung, Hitachi and many others introduced VoIP Wi-Fi phones to the market at “reasonable” prices.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In 2005, ADSL ISP providers began to provide VoIP services to their customers (for example, the Dutch ISP).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

When VoIP calls became very cheap, and often free, providers capable of providing VoIP services were able to open a new market — VoIP services.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

GSM phones with integrated support for Wi-Fi and VoIP capabilities have begun to enter the market, and they have the potential to replace corded phones.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

At the moment, a direct comparison of Wi-Fi and cellular networks is unreasonable.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi-only phones have a very limited range, so deploying such networks is very expensive.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

However, deploying such networks may be the best solution for local use, for example, in corporate networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

However, devices that support multiple standards can take a significant market share.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It is worth noting that if there is both GSM and Wi-Fi coverage in this particular place, it is economically much more profitable to use Wi-Fi when talking through Internet telephony services.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

For example, the Skype client has long existed in versions for both smartphones and PDAs.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

International projects


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Another business model is to connect existing networks into new ones.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The idea is that users will share their


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

frequency range through personal wireless routers equipped with special software.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

For example


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

FON is a Spanish company established in November 2005.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The community now has more than 2,000,000 users in Europe, Asia and the Americas and is growing rapidly.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Users fall into three categories:


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

linus — providing free Internet access,


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

bills — selling their frequency range,


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

aliens — using access through bills.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Thus, the system is similar to peer-to-peer services.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Despite the fact that FON receives financial support from companies such as Google and Skype, it will only be clear over time whether this idea will really work.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Currently, this service has three main problems.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The first is that more attention from the public and the media is required to move the project from the initial stage to the main stage.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

You should also take into account the fact that sharing your Internet channel with others may be limited by your contract with your ISP.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Therefore, ISPs will try to protect their interests.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The same is likely to be done by record companies that oppose the free distribution of MP3.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In Russia, the majority of FON community access points are located in the Moscow region.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The Israeli company WeFi has created a common social network, with the ability to search for Wi-Fi networks and communicate between users.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The program and the system as a whole were created under the leadership of Yossi Vardi, one of the founders of Mirabilis, and the ICQ protocol.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi in the gaming industry


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Compatible with game consoles and PDAs and allows you to play online games through any access point or point-to-point mode.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

All seventh generation game consoles support IEEE 802.11g Wi-Fi standards.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Non-commercial use of Wi-Fi


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

While commercial services are trying to leverage existing Wi-Fi business models, many groups, communities, cities, and individuals are building free Wi-Fi networks, often using shared peer-to-peer an agreement for networks to be able to interact freely with each other.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Many municipalities are teaming up with local communities to expand free Wi-Fi networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Some groups are building their own Wi-Fi networks based entirely on voluntary assistance and donations.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

For more information, see the Shared Wireless Networks section, where you can also find a list of free Wi-Fi networks located around the world (see also Free Wi Hotspots) -Fi in Moscow).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

OLSR is one of the protocols used to create free networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Some networks use static routing, while others rely entirely on OSPF.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Israel is developing the WiPeer protocol to create free P2P networks based on Wi-Fi.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wireless Leiden has developed its own routing software called LVRouted to combine Wi-Fi networks built on a completely wireless basis.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Most networks are built on open source software, or publish their scheme under an open license.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

(turns any laptop with a Wi-Fi module installed into an open Wi-Fi node).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

You should also pay attention to netsukuku — Development of a worldwide free mesh network.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Some smaller countries and municipalities are already providing free access to Wi-Fi hotspots and community-based Wi-Fi internet access for everyone.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

For example, the Kingdom of Tonga and Estonia, which have a large number of free Wi-Fi hotspots throughout the country.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In Paris, OZoneParis provides unlimited free Internet access to anyone who contributes to the development of the Pervasive Network by providing a roof for installing Wi-Fi equipment.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Unwire Jerusalem is a project to install free Wi-Fi hotspots in major shopping malls in Jerusalem.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Many universities provide free access to the Internet via Wi-Fi for their students, visitors and everyone on campus.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Some commercial organizations, such as Panera Bread, provide free Wi-Fi access to regular customers.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

McDonald's Corporation also provide access to Wi-Fi under the McInternet brand.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

This service was launched at a restaurant in Oak Brook, Illinois; it is also available at many restaurants in London, Moscow.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

However, there is a third subcategory of networks created by communities and organizations, such as universities, where free access is given to community members and those who are not members have access is provided on a paid basis.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Sparknet in Finland is an example of such a service.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Sparknet also supports OpenSparkNet, a project in which people can make their own access points part of the Sparknet network, benefiting from it.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Recently, commercial Wi-Fi providers have been building free Wi-Fi hotspots and hot zones.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

They believe that free Wi-Fi access will attract new customers and investments will return.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Free Wi-Fi internet access


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Regardless of the initial goals (attracting customers, creating additional convenience or pure altruism), the number of free hot spots where you can get access to the most popular global network (Internet) is completely free of charge.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

These can also be large transport hubs (such hot spot zones, for example, are already located at metro stations in various cities around the world, such as: London, Paris, New York, Tokyo, Seoul, Singapore, Hong Kong, Moscow), where you can connect yourself automatically, and catering places where you need to ask for an access card with a password from the staff to connect, and even simply territories of the urban landscape, which are a place of constant crowds of people.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi standards do not provide for encryption of transmitted data on open networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

This means that all data that is transmitted over an open wireless connection can be listened to by attackers using sniffer programs.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Such data may include login/password pairs, bank account numbers, plastic cards, confidential correspondence.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Therefore, when using free hotspots, you should not transfer such data to the Internet.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The first hot zones in the Moscow Metro, covering trains of the Koltsevaya line, were launched jointly with the mobile operator MTS on March 23, 2012.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

For the first months, the Internet was operating in test mode at a speed of 7.2 Mbit/s.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

[17] In 2013, the Moscow Metro held a competition with the support of the Moscow Government for the installation of a Wi-Fi connection at all metro stations.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

[18] [19] The tender was won by CJSC Maxima Telecom and invested 1.8 billion rubles in the creation of a wireless network in the metro.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

[20] This Wi-Fi network is called MT_Free.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

1.2 million people use this network every day.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

At the beginning of 2015, more than 55 million unique users connected to the Wi-Fi network in the metro.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Moscow Metro trains, unlike other countries of the world, where Internet access points are located only at stations or in tunnels, are equipped with an individual Wi-Fi router.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In 2015, Wi-Fi began to appear not only in electric train cars, but also on escalators, crossings and lobbies of metro stations.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

[21] In 2015, hot zones with an Internet session duration of 25 minutes appeared at more than 100 public transport stops in Moscow.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

[22] The connection network is called Mosgortrans_Free.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The internet connection speed is 10 Mbps.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In 2015, more than 70,000 unique users went online at bus stops.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

[23] After the adoption of Federal Law No. 97 of May 5, 2014, in order to connect to Wi-Fi at public transport stops or in the metro, you must be identified using the State Service portal or SMS.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

At the end of 2015, 300 more stops were equipped with wireless Internet. [24] [25]


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

WiFi and software


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

BSD family operating systems (FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD) can work with most adapters since 1998.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Drivers for Atheros, Prism, Harris/Intersil, and Aironet chips (from their respective Wi-Fi device manufacturers) are usually included in BSD OS version 3 onwards.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

OpenBSD 3.7 included more drivers for wireless chips, including RealTek RTL8180L, Ralink RT25x0, Atmel AT76C50x, and Intel 2100 and 2200BG/2225BG/2915ABG.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Thanks to this, it was partially possible to solve the problem of the lack of open wireless chip drivers for OpenBSD.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It is possible that some drivers implemented for other BSDs can be migrated if they have not yet been created.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

NDisulator allows FreeBSD systems running on Intel x86 architecture computers to “wrap” the manufacturer's Microsoft Windows drivers for direct use.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

OS X (formerly Mac OS X).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Apple adapters were supported from Mac OS 9, released in 1999.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Since 2006, all Apple Inc. desktops and laptops


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

(as well as later iPhone phones, iPod Touch players and iPad tablets) come standard with Wi-Fi adapters, Wi-Fi is currently Apple's main transmission solution data, and is fully supported by OS X. The computer adapter can operate as an access point, which allows you to connect Macintosh computers to wireless networks if necessary in the absence of infrastructure.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Darwin and OS X, despite a partial coincidence with BSD, have their own, unique Wi-Fi implementation.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Linux: Since version 2.6, support for some Wi-Fi devices has been introduced directly in the Linux kernel.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Support for Orinoco, Prism, Aironet, Atmel, Ralink chips are included in the main kernel branch, ADMTek and Realtek RTL8180L chips are supported by both manufacturers' closed drivers and open source drivers. written by the community.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Intel Calexico is supported by open drivers available on SourceForge.net.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Atheros is supported through open source projects.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Support for other wireless devices is available with the NDisWrapper open driver, which allows Linux systems running on Intel x86 architecture computers to “wrap” manufacturer drivers for Microsoft Windows for direct use.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

At least one commercial implementation of this idea is known.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

FSF has created, more information can be found on the website.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

There is a fairly large number of Linux-based firmware for wireless routers distributed under the GNU GPL license.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

These include the so-called FreeWrt, OpenWrt, X-WRT, DD-WRT, etc. As a rule, they support much more features than the original firmware.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The necessary services are easily added by installing appropriate packages.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The list of supported equipment is constantly growing.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In the Microsoft Windows family, Wi-Fi support is provided, depending on the version, either through vendor-specific drivers, or through Windows itself.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Earlier versions of Windows, such as Windows 2000 and earlier, do not have built-in configuration and management tools, and this depends on the hardware vendor.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Microsoft Windows XP supports setting up wireless devices.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Although the initial version included rather weak support, it improved significantly with the release of Service Pack 2, and WPA2 support was added with the release of Service Pack 3.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Microsoft Windows Vista has improved Wi-Fi support over Windows XP.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Microsoft Windows 7 supports all modern wireless devices and encryption protocols at the time of its release.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Among other things, Windows 7 has the ability to create virtual Wi-Fi adapters, which theoretically would allow you to connect not to one Wi-Fi network, but to several at once.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In practice, Windows 7 supports the creation of only one virtual adapter, provided that special drivers are written [27].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

This can be useful when using a computer on a local Wi-Fi network and, at the same time, on a Wi-Fi network connected to the Internet.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Multiple access points


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Increasing the number of Wi-Fi access points provides network redundancy, better range, fast roaming support, and increased overall network bandwidth by using more number of channels, or by identifying smaller cells.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

With the exception of the smallest implementations (such as home or small office networks), Wi-Fi implementations have moved to thin access points, with most of the network intelligence being housed in centralized network device, discarding individual access points to the role of “stupid” transceivers.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Outdoor applications can use mesh topologies.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

When multiple access points are deployed, they are often configured with the same SSID and security settings to form an “advanced set of services”.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi client devices typically connect to an access point that can provide the strongest signal in this set of services.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Legal status


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The legal status of Wi-Fi varies from country to country.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In the US, the 2.5 GHz band is allowed to be used without a license, provided that the power does not exceed a certain amount, and such use does not interfere with licensed users.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Russia


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Permission to use frequencies


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In Russia, in accordance with the decisions of the State Commission on Radio Frequencies (SCRF) dated May 7, 2007 No. 07-20-03-001 “On the allocation of radio frequency bands to short-range devices” [28] and dated December 20 2011 № 11-13-07-1 [29], the use of Wi-Fi without obtaining a private permit to use frequencies is possible to organize a network inside buildings, closed warehouses and industrial territories in bands 2400-2483.5 MHz (802.11b and 802.11g standards; channels 1-13) and 5150-5350 MHz (802.11a and 802.11n; channels 34-64).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

To legally use an off-site Wi-Fi network (for example, a radio channel between two neighboring houses), you must obtain permission to use frequencies (both in the 2.4 GHz band and 5 GHz bands) GHz) on the basis of an expert opinion on the possibility of using the declared RES and their electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) with existing and planned RES for use.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

On February 29, 2016, in Moscow, it was decided [30] to use the 57-66 GHz frequency range (channels 1-4) in Russia for IEEE 802.11ad (WiGiG) devices.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The adopted decision amends the decision of the State Commission for Radio Frequency of May 7, 2007 No. 07-20-03-001 “On the allocation of radio frequency bands to short-range devices” [28].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The SCRF solution also allows the use of the new frequency range 5650-5850 MHz (channels 132-165) by IEEE 802.11ac devices (Wi-Fi).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

This will allow you to use a channel up to 160 MHz inside buildings when deploying 802.11ac Wi-Fi networks.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Also, for the bands 5150-5350 MHz and 5650-5850 MHz, the permissible radiation power was doubled.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

It is now 10 mW at 1 MHz.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Radio-electronic means are subject to registration with Roskomnadzor in accordance with the established procedure [32].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In accordance with Decree No. 837 of the Government of the Russian Federation dated October 13, 2011 “On Amendments to Resolution No. 539 of the Government of the Russian Federation dated October 12, 2004” [33] are subject to registration, in particular (from clauses 13, 23, 24 of the annex):


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

User (terminal) transmitting equipment, including a receiving device, short-range IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.11.b, IEEE 802.11.g, IEEE 802.11.n (Wi-Fi) standards, operating in the radio frequency band 2400—2483.5 MHz, with the permissible transmitter radiation power of not more than 100 mW, including built-in or included in other devices;


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

User (terminal) transmitting equipment, including a receiving device, of short-range IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11.n (Wi-Fi) standards, operating in radio frequency bands 5150 — 5350 MHz and 5650-6425 MHz, with a permissible transmitter radiation power of not more than 100 mW, including built-in or part of other devices;


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Short-range devices used indoors in the radio frequency band 5150 — 5250 MHz with a maximum equivalent isotropic radiated transmitter power of not more than 200 mW;


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Short-range devices in indoor wireless data transmission networks in the 2400—2483.5 MHz radio frequency band with maximum equivalent isotropic radiated power transmitter not more than 100 mW when using pseudorandom tuning of the operating frequency.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Responsibility


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Violation of the procedure for the use of electronic means provides for liability under Articles 13.3 and 13.4 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation (Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation) [34].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Thus, in July 2006, several companies in Rostov-on-Don were fined for operating open Wi-Fi networks (hot spots) [35].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The Federal Service for Supervision of Mass Communications, Communications and Protection of Cultural Heritage has issued a new explanation for the use and registration of all devices using Wi-Fi.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Later it turned out that there was a comment by Rossvyazokhrankultury [36], which partially refutes the misunderstandings developed by the online media.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Ukraine


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

According to the legislation of Ukraine, the use of Wi-Fi without permission (Ukrainian: Ukrainian State Radio Frequency Center) is possible only if you use an access point with a standard omnidirectional antenna (<6 dB, signal strength ≤ 100 mW at 2.4 GHz and ≤ 200 mW at 5 GHz) for internal (indoor use) needs of the organization (Decision of the National Communications Regulatory Commission 914 of 2007.09.06) In case of using an external antenna, it is necessary to register the transmitter and obtain a permit for the operation of the electronic means from the DP UDCR.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In addition, for the provision of telecommunication services using WiFi, it is necessary to obtain a license from NKRZI [37].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Belarus


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In the Republic of Belarus, there is a specialized State Commission on Radio Frequencies (SCRF) (Belarusian: Dzyarzhunaya Kamisiya pa radiyofrequencies (DZKRF)).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

On the basis of (in Russian) Wi-Fi equipment does not require registration, provided that its parameters meet the following requirements:


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Broadband wireless access subscriber stations using 2400-2483.5 MHz, 2500-2700 MHz, 5150-5875 MHz radio frequency bands and do not use external antennas (antennas installed outside buildings and structures).


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Broadband wireless access subscriber stations of a public telecommunication network using 3400—3800 MHz, 5470-5875 MHz radio frequency bands [38].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Safety


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

In 2011, the results of an experiment were published to study the effect of Wi-Fi on sperm quality, during which it was found that Wi-Fi negatively affects humans [39] [40].


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

The aim of the experiment was to test the possible effect of a laptop placed on a man's lap on his reproductive system.


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Previously, it was argued that Wi-Fi does not harm human health [41], for example, one of the English professors from the University of Nottingham (Nottingham University) considered the following measures sufficient Wi-Fi precautions:


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

“Some people do hold a laptop on their lap, and in my opinion, we should remind children that when they are on the network (Wi-Fi) for a long time, they should put the laptop on the table, not keep it on knees.”


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

See also


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

WLAN


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wardriving


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

MIMO


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wireless Gigabit Alliance


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Eye-Fi


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi Direct


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) is a standard designed for semi-automatic creation of a wireless home network


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Distributed coordination function


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Notes


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

References


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

(in English)


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

, ComputerPress Magazine, 8'2007


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

, CNews, 20.03.2009


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

, Computerra, 08.12.2006


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

, dlink.ru


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Wi-fi free hotspots in all cities around the world


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Category:Wireless networks


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Category:Networking Standards


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Category:IEEE 802.11


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Category:Smart home


Question: What year did WiFi come in?

WiFi

Category:Automation


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A ride in the modern concept is a formed and coupled train consisting of a group of cars, with one or more operating locomotives or motor cars that drive it, and having set signals (audible and visible) that indicate its head and tail.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, on many (including Russian) railways, each train receives a certain number that makes it possible to distinguish it from other trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Trains also include locomotives without wagons, motor cars and special self-propelled rolling stock (for example, railcars and non-removable handcars) sent to the stretch and having installed signals [1].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The discipline that studies trains and issues related to their movement is called “organization of train traffic”.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Definition of a concept


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Although traditionally the word “train” is associated with railway transport, it appeared much earlier than the first steam locomotives (1804).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Thus, according to Dahl's dictionary, the word “train” comes from the word “trip” and originally meant a number of wagons that follow each other — in this sense, the word has been preserved, in particular, in the phrase” wedding train” [2].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Later, with the development of railway transport, the word “train” began to be applied to it.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the same Dahl dictionary, you can also find the following definition: “A railway train is how much a locomotive carries, or what is linked together, into one.” [2] This definition also includes a group of interlinked between by wagons — a train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The definition given in the Brockhaus and Efron dictionary already stipulates the presence in the traction units:


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Train — crews coupled together to travel by rail.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Usually, P. is made up of a number of cars driven by a locomotive placed in the head.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

As the use of animal-drawn transport decreased, the word “train” gradually lost its original meaning (“a series of wagons”) and became associated exclusively with the railway.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A railway train, a formed and coupled train of cars with one or more operating locomotives or motor cars, having light, etc.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

identification signals [3]


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Finally, the Rules for the Technical Operation of Railways give a similar official definition of the word “train”, but with the following caveat:


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Locomotives without wagons, motor cars, railcars and non-removable handcars sent to the stretch are considered as a train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Thus, in the official concept, not every train can be called a train; in turn, the availability of wagons is not a prerequisite for the train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Similar terms


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Terms that have the word or root “Train” in the name, but do not fall under the modern definition of a train:


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Road train (Road train);


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Propaganda train is a rolling stock designed for propaganda, propaganda and educational work [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

An air train is a multi-car train that uses aerodynamic forces when driving, creating a screen effect [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Armored train — armored rolling stock for combat operations [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Armored train — formation for servicing armored rolling stock;


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Diesel train is a motor-car rolling stock in which diesel is the primary engine [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A toboggan train is a coupled sleigh line for transporting goods in winter;


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Rail-welding train and Rail-grinding train are mobile or stationary enterprises associated with the laying and repair of the upper structure of the track;


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Turbo train is a motor-car rolling stock in which the primary engine is a gas turbine [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Electric installation train is a unit designed for electrical work during the electrification of railways [4];


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Electric train is a motor-wagon rolling stock that receives energy from an external electrical network (contact network, contact rail), or from batteries;


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

An energy installation train is a manufacturing enterprise that builds power transmission lines on railway transport [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

History


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On September 27, 1825, the first Stockton—Darlington public railway was inaugurated.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The first train was driven by the Locomotion steam locomotive, whose name later became a household name and later not only steam locomotives, but also other self-propelled rail carts began to be called locomotives.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On September 15, 1830, the first Liverpool — Manchester railway was opened, on which trains were operated only by locomotive traction, and for the first time the movement of trains itself was ordered by the introduction of the traffic schedule [4] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On October 30 (November 11), 1837, the Tsarskoye Selo Railway was opened, which became the first public railway in the Russian Empire [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The organization of train traffic begins to form, including, in addition to the traffic schedule, an alarm system is also introduced, when trains begin to delimit in space, and the locomotives themselves are equipped signals to warn of the approach.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the second half of the century, the improvement of the rolling stock itself begins, including steam locomotives becoming stronger, which makes it possible to increase the weight and speed of trains, and cars begin to be used metal frames instead of wooden ones.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition, air brakes are being created and are beginning to be introduced, which further increases traffic safety, and the first locomotive speed gauges appear that have the ability to record motion parameters.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The United States and Russia are building the largest railways in the world — the American Transcontinental and Trans-Siberian Railways, respectively.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

By the end of the century, the United States began to introduce an automatic coupler, which allows higher traction forces, and therefore does not limit the further increase in the weight of trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On Russian railways, the coupler has been massively used since the 1930s.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the first quarter of the 20th century, the design of rolling stock continues to improve, including locomotives with five or more driving axles began to operate on load-stressed routes, and in the 1920s years, the industry has been mastering the production of four-axle cars with a higher load capacity.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

But on the railways, in addition to steam traction, electric is gradually gaining popularity, especially in public transport, and in 1924, Russian engineers are testing the first in the world mainline diesel locomotives.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

By the middle of the 20th century, the design of new locomotives continued to develop, while the design of steam locomotives reached its climax in the form of real giants released in the early 1940s - Union Pacific Big Boy, weighing more than five hundred tons.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

But by that time it was already obvious that the design of steam locomotives was outdated, so since the 1950s, their production had been stopped in a number of countries, thus beginning a massive transition to diesel locomotive and electric locomotive traction, which gives a significant increase in the weight and speed of trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Rolling stock


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the classical sense, the train is a chain of interconnected “wagons” — units of rolling stock — moving along the way.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

There are non-self-propelled rolling stock — cars that serve to transport goods and passengers, and self-propelled — locomotives and motor cars that drive the train [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Non-self-propelled rolling stock


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The wagon is the main component of the train, as it is in it that goods and passengers are transported.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The history of the railway car is comparable to the history of all railway transport and dates back to the 18th century, starting with mine trolleys [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Like trolleys, the cars themselves initially had only a couple of axles, but were relatively cheap and easy to produce.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Subsequently, four-axle cars were replaced, the chassis of which consists of two two-axle bogies, which made it possible to significantly reduce the rigid wheelbase and improve the fit of cars in path curves [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The bodies of early cars were built of wood; now the vast majority of cars have all-metal bodies, which increases safety.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

According to their functional purpose, passenger cars and freight cars are distinguished [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Passenger cars differ in their internal layout: open with seats or beds (the latter in the post-Soviet space are known as reserved seats), compartment and sleeping ( of superior comfort).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The passenger car fleet also includes luggage, mail and mail and baggage cars, as well as restaurants [5] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Freight cars are divided into universal, which are designed to transport goods of many types, and specialized ones, which are designed to transport for one or two types of cargo (for example, milk).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

By body type, universal cars are divided into covered cars, gondola cars, platforms and tanks [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Covered wagon — has a closed body and is designed to transport goods that need protection from atmospheric influences and mechanical damage (for example, paper or animals); these included a normal freight car (NTV), which was widespread on Russian/Soviet railways in the 1870s and 1940s.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Specialized types of covered car are a covered car transporter (has a bunk floor), a car for transporting apatite concentrate (has a lifting body) and a car for transporting steel in rolls (has a reinforced frame) [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Another type of covered car is isothermal, which has reinforced body insulation and serves to transport perishable goods (for example, fruits and vegetables) that require a certain microclimate, including temperature and humidity [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Gondola car is a car without a roof, which allows mechanized loading directly into the body; this is especially convenient in the case of bulk cargo.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is designed to transport goods that are not afraid of atmospheric precipitation (for example, coal) [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Its specialized varieties are hopper and dumpcar.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The first has a body in the form of a bunker (can be either open or covered), the floor in the lower part of which is made in the form of one or more funnels, allowing unloading bulk cargo due to gravity, which significantly speeds up the process [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The dump car, also known as a dump car, has a tipping body that rotates in the transverse direction.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It has become widespread in industrial transport, including work in quarries [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The platform, as the name implies, is a platform with small folding sides around the perimeter.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is designed to transport piece, long and bulk cargo that is not afraid of atmospheric influences (for example, ISO containers, piles, cars).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Specialized types of the platform are a container ship (without sides and floor, and the frame is equipped with special stops), an open car transporter (bunk, and sometimes three-tier floor), a timber truck ( end walls are installed, and additional racks are installed instead of side boards), as well as a conveyor (multi-axle car for transporting super-heavy and/or bulky goods) [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Tank — has a body in the form of a horizontally located cylinder [* 1], closed at the edges.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Designed for transportation of liquid, gaseous, caking and dust-like cargoes; universal tanks, as a rule, are designed for transportation of various petroleum products.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Specialized types of tanks are used to transport certain types of cargo, such as bitumen or liquefied gases [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A specialized type of tank car is also a tank car, the body of which consists of several vertical cylinders, ending in the lower part with a funnel, and is also equipped pneumatic discharge devices [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Amtrak Covered Road Wagon


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Deutsche Bahn road gondola car


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Pennsylvania Railroad Coal Hopper


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

VR road platform loaded with sleepers.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Timber truck platforms are visible behind


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

JNR road cistern


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

ČSD road tank car


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Self-propelled rolling stock


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Self-propelled rolling stock is necessary to put the train in motion.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

One of its main types is a locomotive, which is a wagon with an engine installed on it, of which there may be several.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This engine creates torque on the wheels, which, in turn, as a result of the interaction of the wheels with the rails, is converted into a traction force, by transmitting which through the coupling devices the locomotive in the head of the train already drives the entire train (see layout diagram).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

There are autonomous locomotives that are equipped with their own energy source, and non-autonomous ones, the transmission of energy to which comes from the outside - in the form of electricity through wires.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Locomotives are also distinguished by type of service: passenger, cargo, cargo-passenger, shunting and industrial [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, the main type of locomotive was a steam locomotive, the engine of which was a steam engine and the source of energy was a steam boiler.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Being relatively simple in design, the locomotive could be produced at a number of machine-building plants, which contributed to the widespread use of railway transport.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Over the two-century history (some steam locomotives continue to be operated in the 21st century), the design of the locomotive has been constantly modernized in order to increase traction, speed and energy efficiency.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

However, the efficiency of this locomotive was relatively low — less than 10%, so already in the mid-1950s, a number of large countries (USA, USSR, Great Britain) produced steam locomotives has been discontinued [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Modern autonomous locomotives use internal combustion engines as a prime engine — diesel (diesel locomotives) or gas turbine (gas turbine locomotives).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Since such engines can operate in a limited range of rotational speeds, an intermediate gear is required to transfer rotation to the driving wheels - electric or hydraulic.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The electric transmission consists of a generator and electric motors, the hydraulic transmission consists of hydraulic couplings, torque converters and hydraulic pumps.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The hydraulic transmission is lighter and cheaper, but the electric transmission is more reliable and economical.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

On low-power diesel locomotives, mechanical transmission is sometimes used.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Diesel locomotives with electric transmission [5] [5] [5] [5] [6] are most widely used.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The prime mover can be completely removed from the locomotive, and energy can be transferred to the locomotive from the outside through the contact network.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is on this principle that an electric locomotive operates — a non-autonomous locomotive driven by electric motors.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The electric locomotive receives electricity from the contact network through the current collector, which is then transmitted to the traction motors, and they drive the driving axes through the gear train.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The main advantage of an electric locomotive over autonomous locomotives is the practical absence of harmful emissions into the atmosphere (except, of course, emissions from power plants), which made it possible transfer to electric traction all urban rail transport — tram and subway, as well as monorail trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In addition to these types of locomotives, there are also combinations of them: electric diesel locomotive, electric steam locomotive, heat and steam locomotive, and so on [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

№ 60163 “Tornado” — a steam locomotive of the XXI century


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

EMD SD40-2 is the main diesel locomotive of North American roads


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Template:NP4 is the fastest electric locomotive in the world (357 km/h)


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Another type of self-propelled rolling stock is a motor car, which, as the name implies, is a car, but equipped with an engine.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

A motor car, like a locomotive, drives the train, but its space inside the body can be used to transport a payload.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

With relatively low power, motor cars have become widespread in the transportation of small volumes of cargo or the number of passengers, when you can limit yourself to only a few cars, and it is economically irrational to use a locomotive as a traction, as, for example, in suburban and intracity transportation.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

At the same time, it is possible to form small permanent couplings consisting of motor cars and ordinary cars; the latter are called trailer cars.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Such rolling stock is called motor-car and in some reference books it is even referred to as another type, since it occupies an intermediate position between self-propelled and non-self-propelled movable composition.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

As in the case of locomotives, early motor cars used a steam power plant (steam locomotive cars), which in the 20th century was replaced by an internal combustion engine (diesel trains) and electricity ( electric trains) [4] [4] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

With a few exceptions, motor cars are used for passenger transportation, although there are TGV La Poste electric mail trains and British diesel freight trains.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Some cars of motor-car trains are equipped with control cabins; they are called head cars because they can be placed in front.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

But since the cabin takes up usable space inside the body, it is often not installed on intermediate cars, although these cars as a result cannot work separately.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The layout of trailer and motor cars in the motor car train is different, and the head cars can be both trailed and motor cars.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Trailed cars are cheaper than motor cars, but an increase in their number in relation to motor cars reduces acceleration during launch, which is especially important for such modes of transport as the metro, with its large number stops.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In these cases, the train consists only of motor cars [4] [5] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

It is worth mentioning separately freight motor cars, which have become widespread in industrial transport, especially in quarrying.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Railway tracks in quarries often have steep slopes and in this case a sufficiently large traction force is required to take out a train of several dozen loaded cars.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In this case, equipping several of these cars with engines, to which energy comes from the locomotive, makes it possible to increase the total traction force.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This type of transport is called a traction unit [5] [5].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Swiss suburban locomotive


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Australian commuter train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

British diesel cargo train


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Traction unit in Mikhailovsky Mining and Processing Plant quarry


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The train can be driven without transferring traction from the engine to the wheel and further to the rail.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Thus, in a linear motor, electricity is directly converted into translational energy — the train moves due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of the inductor and the metal strip.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

The inductor can be located both in the overpass and on the rolling stock.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

This engine is used on magnetically suspended trains (maglev), as well as in monorail transport.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

[4] In addition, in the twentieth century, experiments were carried out using aircraft engines (propeller, jet engine) for train traction, but they were mainly intended for research interaction of rolling stock and rails at high speeds [7].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Creating trains


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Design and calculation


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Currently, when the weight (mass) of trains is estimated in thousands or even tens of thousands of tons, it is already possible to determine the parameters of the train in advance, including choosing the optimal weight for a given locomotive train, or vice versa, select the necessary locomotives for the composition of a given weight.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Already at the design stage, it is possible to determine the length of the train, the number of cars and locomotives in it and their distribution by composition, as well as the modes of driving the train along various sections of the track.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

In general, it is worth noting that the weight of the train is one of the most important parameters, as it determines the carrying capacity of the sections, that is, how many passengers or goods will be transported between stations for a certain time (most often 1 day).


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Increasing the train weight makes it possible not only to increase this parameter, but also to reduce the cost of transportation.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

At the same time, excessive increase in the weight of the train leads to overload of locomotives and premature failure of their equipment [4] [4] [4] [4].


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

Determining the weight of a train requires a fairly large amount of data, especially track slopes and locomotive parameters.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

For example, the estimated weight of the train for the eight-axle electric locomotive VL80 at a rise of 5 ‰ (0.5%) is about 8,000 tons, and on a rise of 10 ‰ (1%) - 4,100 tons. If necessary, the weight of the train is increased by softening the track profile or increasing the number of locomotives.


Question: When was the first train invented?

Train

But if the steepest ascents of the track are short, then the kinetic energy of the train can be used to pass them, which also allows you to increase weight, although calculations become more complicated.