Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade was ordered to sit behind the XIII Division, cover its left flank and act on the success of the division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, the need for cavalry forces forced the General Staff to provide the forces of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment to the III Corps of the Army of Smyrna, which in turn allocated the II Squadron I. Tsangaridis with a machine-gun platoon of the XIII division, retaining command with all their own forces.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To perform its tasks, the Cavalry Brigade had only the 1st Cavalry Regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Typical operations of this period were the foot battle of the Tsangaridis squadron in Keremets on June 9, the horse attack of the 1st regiment against the Turkish cavalry units that dropped in Bin Tepe on June 10, a foot battle and then Tsangaridis squadron equestrian attack against Turkish infantry on June 11, training on the same day by the 1st Cavalry Regiment of Philadelphia, occupation of the 3m Cavalry Regiment under the direct command of the commander Smyrna Corps of General Dimitris Ioannou, Aksarion June 10 and Kyrkagach, occupied after the foot battle of the squadron G. Giannakopoulos and the horse maneuver of the semi-squadron of the Archipelago division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The latter managed to occupy the city of Soma, where the commander of the Army Corps of Smyrna soon arrived, at the head of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On 12 June, after being ordered to stop the offensive, the 1st Cavalry Regiment was in the Philadelphia region, while the 3rd Cavalry Regiment, with the exception of one squadron in Soma, was ordered to remain in Geleb, where he had arrived at the time of the end of the offensive.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On June 15, the command of the once again formed Cavalry Brigade was taken over by Colonel Panagiotis Nikolaidis, who settled with his headquarters in Aksario.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On June 16, Lieutenant Colonel Evangelos Kousis was appointed commander of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the same day, operations were resumed, the Greek army deployed a front to the north, in order to defeat the Kemalists gathered in the regions of the cities of Adramition (Edremit), Kiresun and Baluk Esser, along the railway roads to the port of Panormos (Bandirma) and occupy these territories.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The operations were personally led by the commander of the Expeditionary Army, General Leonidas Paraskevopoulos.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

According to the order of the Army, Gelebe was appointed the gathering place of the Cavalry Brigade.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, the Brigade's gathering in the specified place was not reached until June 16, and the 1st Squadron of the 1st Cavalry Regiment under the command of V. Ioannidis was transferred to the Smyrna Division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Advancing in front of the division, the squadron reached Echbach on 17 June and took up positions at the surrounding heights in order to cut off the path of the Turkish column retreating to the north.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Here, the squadron was attacked by Turkish cavalry.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek cavalrymen repelled the attack and pursued the enemy.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

As a result, the Turkish infantry moving north panicked, as a result of which Greek cavalrymen hacked down about 200, captured more than a thousand Turkish soldiers and captured a large number of machine guns.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the evening of 18 June, the Brigade's scheduled gathering in the Mentehor area north-west of Baluk Esser was finally reached.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On June 20, the creation of the Brigade headquarters, headed by I. Tsangaridis.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the same day, Lieutenant Colonel Andreas Lagouras took command of the 1st Cavalry Regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On June 25, the Cavalry Brigade, moving from Kremasti to Prusa, came across fortified Turkish positions 10 km west of Prusa.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade began a battle, in which the Archipelago division with its artillery was also involved, which broke the resistance of the Turks and pursued them to the east.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In pursuit of the enemy, the 3rd Cavalry Regiment entered Prus.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The persecution continued 15 km east of the city.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turks threw down their weapons and ran into the fields, where many of them were hacked down by Greek cavalrymen.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

More than 200 Turkish soldiers were taken prisoner.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Until June 28, the Brigade remained in Prus, after which it moved to the 7th kilometer of the Prusa-Mudanya road, where the 1st Cavalry Regiment was ordered to move to Mudanya for shipment by sea to Eastern Thrace, and the headquarters The brigades, together with the 3rd regiment, were ordered to redeploy to the Panormos region [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Eastern Thrace


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Between the operations of the summer of 1920 and March 1921, an episode of the occupation of Eastern Thrace by the Greek army is wedged.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The commander of the Greek army of Thrace was Major General of Cavalry Epaminondas Zimvrakakis, while the Turkish Army of Thrace was commanded by the commander of the I Corps Colonel Jafer Tayar.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The operations began on July 7, 1920, lasted 7 days and ended on July 13.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

During the operation, the Smyrna Division landed in Redestos (Tekirdag) on the Thracian coast of the Sea of Marmara, which was supported by the offensive of the IX Division and the Xanthi Division, which came out of Western Thrace and crossing the Evros River.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The 1st Cavalry Regiment was transported from Mudanya by sea to Alexandroupolis and, located at the Dadya Monastery, crossed Evros 8 km south of Soufli on July 11.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The headquarters of the Cavalry Brigade with the 3rd cavalry regiment (with the exception of its 3rd silt) landed in Redestos on July 9.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

With regard to the participation of cavalry in operations, it should be noted the attack of a platoon of the 1st silt of the 1st Regiment on 11 July in Dar Dera, 6 km north-west of Baba Eski against 25 Turkish horsemen trying to escape to the territory of Bulgaria.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Among them was the commander of the Turkish Thracian army, Jafer Tayar, who was dressed in civilian clothes.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Tayar, unidentified by Greek cavalrymen, fell from his horse during the pursuit and remained unconscious for several hours.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek cavalrymen considered him dead and left him at the crash site.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

When he recovered and began to wander around the village of Bostanli, he was known by Greek peasants, who captured him and handed him over to the Greek army.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The silt of the Greek Thracian army, under the command of Mikhail Kavrakos, also took part in the operations, which, upon completion of the operation, joined the Cavalry Brigade and was transferred to the 3rd Regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After the completion of the operation, in the first half of August, the Cavalry Brigade was transported by sea to Smyrna.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The 1st regiment is located in Paradeisos, the 3rd regiment in the southern vicinity of Smyrna.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In September, as part of the Brigade, an equestrian division of machine guns was formed from two batteries of the 3rd regiment and a machine-gun unit of the 1st regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

During this period, Colonel Nikolaos Spyropoulos took command of the Brigade, under whose command the Brigade moved to the Magnisia (Manisa) - Kasaba region [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The political turmoil of late 1920


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Treaty of Sevres on August 10, 1920 assigned the region of Smyrna to Greece [5] :340.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Nominally, the region remained Turkish, with the prospect of deciding its fate in 5 years, in a referendum of the population.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The agreement was signed by the Sultan, but was not recognized by the Kemalist movement.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After diplomatic and military victories, E.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Venizelos agreed to hold the election confident of his victory [9] :A-187.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The monarchist People's Party conducted an election campaign under the slogan “we will bring our guys home”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Having received the support of the then significant Muslim population, the monarchists won the elections on November 30 [9] :A-188.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The victory of the monarchists dealt a blow to the foreign policy positions of Greece.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Allies said that if the Germanophile King Constantine returned to Greece, they would stop financial assistance [5] :345 and freeze loans [15].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The return of Constantine on December 6/19 [11] :29) freed the Allies from obligations towards Greece.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Y. Churchill, in his work Aftermath (pp. 387—388), wrote: “The return of Constantine terminated all allied ties with Greece and canceled all obligations, except legal ones. We have made a lot of obligations with Venizelos. But with Konstantin, none. Indeed, when the first surprise passed, the feeling of relief became clear in the leadership circles. There was no longer a need to follow the anti-Turkish policy” [11] :30.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Unlike the French-Italian allies, who, having ensured their interests, concluded a separate peace, the government of monarchists could not get out of the war without resolving the issue with the Greek population of Asia Minor.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Kemalists continued the Young Turkish policy of genocide against the indigenous Christian population of Asia Minor and the massacres in Aydin and Bithynia deprived the Greek leadership of doubts about what would happen to the population of Ionia, when the Greek army withdraws from the region [16] :169.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

N. Psirukis wrote that the people gave their vote to the monarchists for their pacifist demagogy, but they preferred to continue the war in absolutely unfavorable conditions - Konstantin announced a military solution to the issue [11] :34.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

January 1921 reconnaissance raid


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Until 1921, the expeditionary army was bound by obligations to the allies and military operations, under their control and with the notification of the Sultan's government, were of limited scope.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

During the same period, the Kemalists increased their forces without recognizing the Peace of Sevres.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In an atmosphere of tense relations with allies, the monarchist government has set itself the goal of forcing the Kemalists to peace by force.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The new command of the expeditionary army decided to carry out a reconnaissance raid outside the zone established by the Treaty of Sevres.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The raid had several goals:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To disperse the Kemalist forces gathered near the Greek zone in the Bilecik — Karakoy — Boz Eyup region.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To explore the possibilities of the newly created regular Turkish divisions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To study the topography of the region in battle to prepare for the future “Spring Offensive”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

For the reconnaissance raid, the new commander of the expeditionary army, General A. Papoulas, considered it sufficient to use one and a half divisions - the Archipelago Division and part of the Smyrna Division, called the Smyrna Division Detachment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The extreme point of Greek advance was the fortified positions on the heights of Kovalja, which were occupied by the 6th Regiment of the Archipelago Division [17]


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Greek command considered the task completed - reconnaissance was carried out, the concentration of Turkish troops was dispersed, the railway was destroyed - and decided to return to its original positions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Due to this decision, an unusual situation arose when the Turks withdrew to the east, and the Greeks to the west, considering the operation completed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The losses on both sides were negligible [18].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But the Kemalists immediately used the withdrawal of Greek units for propaganda purposes - this was the first time in 2 years after the landing of the expeditionary army in Asia Minor, when regular divisions The Kemalists stood in front of the Greek divisions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Kemalists had a huge political interest in presenting the Battle of Inonu as a victory in their (First) Battle of Inonu.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, modern English historian Douglas Dakin devotes only two concise sentences to this bloated military-political propaganda event:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

“In January 1921, the Third Corps (of the Greek Army) carried out reconnaissance operations to Eskisehir, in which it suppressed the resistance of the Turkish forces, but withdrew to Prus according to the orders received. It was too early (for the Greeks) to attack.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In this limited military operation, the Greek command did not consider it necessary to attract its cavalry forces [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Spring Offensive of 1921


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Having received the necessary information, after the January raid, the Greek command decided to launch a larger offensive in March in the same direction - to Eskisehir and Afyonkarhisar in order to defeat the Kemalists and force peace.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

According to the Greek Military Encyclopedia, at the beginning of the operation, the III Corps consisted of 16,000 infantrymen and 1,300 cavalrymen [19].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Kemalists managed to stop the advance of the III Corps on the heights of Avgin at Inonu.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Historians of both the Greek and Turkish General Staffs cite approximately the same figures of losses: Turkish losses killed 681 people, 1369 missing and prisoners [20] [21], Greek losses 707 people were killed, 503 people were missing [21].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But it was not the figures of approximately equal losses that determined the success of the Kemalists under Inonu.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turks legitimately considered this success their victory, as it was the first time since the landing of the Greek army in May 1919, when they managed to stop its continuous advance [22].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Cavalry in Spring Offensive


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Cavalry Brigade, whose command passed from Colonel Rikakis to Colonel Spyropoulos on January 20, 1921, redeployed from Mudanya to Prus.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade included the 1st Cavalry Regiment, under the command of Colonel Georgy Linaras, and the 3rd Regiment, under the command of Colonel Stamatis Staikos


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade was given an artillery battalion, under the command of Colonel Nikolaos Vartis, a mounted artillery battery under the command of Captain Alexander Asimakopoulos and a detachment of saboteurs.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In early February, the Brigade arrived in Prus at the disposal of the III Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade was tasked with attacking the Kemalist forces from the Van region and or bypassing them to cut off their forces and occupy Eskisehir.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The offensive against Eskisehir began on March 10.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade, in the vanguard of the division, acted at 06:30, with the exception of the 1st Squadron of the 1st Regiment, which was transferred to the III Division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 07:00, in the gorge of Kuyun Hissar, the Brigade easily broke the resistance of the Turkish cavalry.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 11:00, the Brigade broke the resistance of one regiment of Turkish cavalry in Yeni Shehir and settled there.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On March 11, the Brigade arrived in Kepeler, bypassing the centers of Turkish defense.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

There, the command of the machine-gun division was taken by I. Tsangaridis, while Colonel Staikos, who had previously been the commander of the 3rd Regiment, took over his duties as Chief of Staff of the Brigade.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Colonel N. Vartis took command of the 3 m cavalry regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The next day, the Brigade occupied Bilecik and continued its offensive, overcoming the resistance of the Turks, until it stopped in front of the fortified Turkish positions in Avgin (Ak Bunar).


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

These events forced the Third Corps to make a correction to the original master plan.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade received an order from the Corps to bypass the Turkish positions in Avgin and at 12:30, dismounting, entered into many hours and fierce battle with mobile units on the Turkish flank.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

And in the following days, the Brigade fought on foot, covering the withdrawal of Greek units, which received orders to stop the offensive and preventing numerous Turkish cavalry from following the retreating units .


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On March 20, Colonel N. Vartis, at the head of the 1st silt of his regiment, attacked Ainegol and dispersed the Turkish cavalry trying to attack the positions of his regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the evening of 22 March, the Brigade returned to Kestel, 10 km east of Prusa, and settled there.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Here, the 1st Squadron of the 1st Regiment and the Horse Artillery Battery were reunited with it.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The headquarters of the Brigade was headed by Lieutenant Colonel Alexandros Papagos (future Marshal and Prime Minister of Greece) [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Great Summer Offensive of 1921


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Failing to achieve its goals in the Spring Offensive, the monarchist government was convinced that the Kemalist army had grown stronger and became combat-ready.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But despite the cessation of material and financial assistance from the allies, it did not abandon the idea of forcing the Kemalists to peace by force.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In pursuit of this goal, the government was forced to mobilize additional forces and organize an offensive by all three army corps that the Asia Minor Army had.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

As a result of the battle from June 27 to July 10, Greek troops defeated the Turks near the Afyonkarahisar-Eskisehir area.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But the victory in the biggest battle of the war turned out to be only tactical, the planned strategic victory did not take place.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Greek army broke the resistance of the Turks, occupied Afyon-Karahisar, Eskisehir and the railway line connecting them.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But the Turks managed to get out of the encirclement and made a strategic withdrawal east across the Sakarya River.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Cavalry in the Great Summer Offensive


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Upon completion of the Spring Offensive and the return of the Cavalry Brigade to Smyrna, the Brigade was commanded by Colonel P. Nikolaidis, who commanded it during the 1920 operations.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade replenished its composition with officers and privates arriving from Greece, and was also reinforced with horses from the stud farm in Smirnensky Burnova.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After receiving replenishments, the Brigade consisted of the following parts:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

1st Cavalry Regiment with 4 silts, one of which had only stunted local horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The regiment was commanded by N.Vassos.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

3rd Cavalry Regiment with 4 silts, commanded by N. Vatris.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

An equestrian division of machine guns, consisting of three batteries, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Georgios Moshonisios.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Horse artillery battery under the command of Alexander Asimakopoulos.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Cavalry detachment of saboteurs, under the command of Lieutenant Tryphon [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

With this composition, the Brigade redeployed to Usak at the end of May.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

According to the plan of the headquarters of the Expeditionary Army, the Cavalry Brigade was supposed to perform together with the II Division on June 29.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade was ordered to avoid contact with the enemy, leaving the task of opening the corridor of the advance of the II division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The actions of the Brigade together with this division were to begin immediately after the breakthrough of the enemy's defense line and pursued two goals:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Bypassing from the left flank and suppressing Turkish positions in Kyuchuk George


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— To deprive the defending Turkish forces of the possibility of retreating to Kutahya and Seydi Gazi.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Odako on the same day, the Turks left Afyon and the task assigned to the Brigade no longer made sense.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On 3 July, while the Brigade was in the Karevren region, Colonel Ziras, commander of the 14th Infantry Regiment also in the region, informed that a new order had been received.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

According to the order, the Brigade and the 14th Infantry Regiment were to move to Ak In, covering the right flank of the I Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, at noon of the same day, a new order was received, according to which the Brigade and Infantry Detachment from the XI Division were to enter positions east of Eskisehir and cut off the retreat route for the Turks from Kutahya to Eskisehir.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At the time of receiving the order, the Turks were already retreating to Eskisehir and their cover units were trying to contain the advancing Greek units.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

A joint decision was made by the command of the Brigade and the Detachment to bypass Uch Seraya and then move to Eskisehir [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the evening of July 4, Greek units came into contact with Turkish units and a fierce battle followed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The attack on Uch Serai, although not victorious, is one of the glorious pages in the history of Greek cavalry.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At dawn on July 5, Turkish patrols engaged in battle with the vanguard of the Infantry Detachment, after which the Turks opened fire along the entire front line.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

With the first light, the bloody battle of Uch Serai began.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The XII group of Kemalist divisions received an order to stop the offensive of the Greek units east of the Turkmen Dag Mountains.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Until 08:00, the outcome of the fight was not clear.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the left flank, fighting on foot, the 3rd Cavalry Regiment continued to advance.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At the same time, the 2nd silt of the 1st regiment, also on foot, covered the infantry on the right flank.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, the right flank of the 14th Infantry Regiment was broken by a Turkish attack and at the same time Turkish cavalry appeared.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In order to avoid the looming danger, the headquarters of the Brigade ordered the squadron of Spyridon Markopoulos to go to the right flank over which there was danger and an attack to stop the offensive of the Turkish cavalry.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Markopoulos arrived at the head of the 3rd silt of the 1st regiment to the position where he defended on foot the 2nd silt, which informed him that there was no Turkish cavalry on the battlefield.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In fact, the entire IV Brigade of Turkish Cavalry was hiding in the neighboring forest.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Markopoulos, believing that the order of the Brigade headquarters should be carried out regardless of the circumstances, ordered the 2nd Ile to also ride horses and led a cavalry attack against the fortified positions of the Turkish infantry.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

As a result of this attack, both Greek silts were defeated.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Markopoulos himself, 3 officers, 50 privates were killed and 80 horses were killed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Immediately after that, the Turks overturned the right flank of the 14th Infantry Regiment and despite the heroic efforts of G. Ziras, the victory of the Turks in this battle was looming.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

A complete defeat was avoided thanks to the tactics proposed by the Chief of Staff of the Brigade, A. Papagos.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The cavalry prepared successive lines of defense, then covering the retreat of infantry to these lines, which slowed down the Turkish offensive.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Ultimately, the heavy losses suffered by the Turks did not allow them to continue the offensive


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After the battle in Uch Serai, the Brigade moved to Ak Bunar.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On July 8, the retreating Turks unexpectedly launched a counteroffensive in the direction of Eskisehir.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

This day was a day of glory for the Greek Cavalry.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The brigade provided for the possibility of a counter-offensive by the enemy and, having received information about the Turkish maneuver, avoided danger.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After that, the Brigade covered the fighting infantry divisions and replenished the naked areas between them, and then attacked the Turks at Ak Bunar.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The attack was attended by squadrons of the 3rd regiment under the command of N. Vartis, I. Tsangaridis and G. Stanotas.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The attack of the Greek cavalrymen continued 4 km beyond the Turkish lines, destroying Turkish columns marching as reinforcements on the battlefield and ensuring Greek victory [23].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

More than 500 Turks were killed by Greek cavalrymen, 100 were taken prisoner.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

It is noteworthy that only one (!) a Greek rider, and he mistakenly from the fire of a Greek machine gun [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After this victory, the Brigade was located north of Ak Bunar.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The condition of the horses did not allow further pursuit of the enemy, which was reported to the command [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Raid to Ankara


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On July 13/26, 1921, a meeting of the headquarters of the expeditionary army was held in Kutahya, chaired by Commander, General A. Papoulas, where the possibility of a further offensive was considered.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Staff officer P. Sarriyanis said that the army should continue the offensive to prevent the regrouping of the Turks and their organization of defense.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, the head of the IV department (logistics), Spyridonos, said that the army had ammunition for two days of fighting and could not cross Sakarya, condemning itself to be left without supplies [11] :64.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The next day, Prime Minister D. Gounaris and the king.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On July 15/28, under the chairmanship of the “sick and silent” King Constantine, the “Grand Military Council” was held.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Papoulas' doubts were broken by the persistence of politicians.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The decision was political.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The government did not aim to occupy the territories east of Sakarya, especially since these deserts were far from the places of compact residence of the Greek population.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Because of this, the operation was named Raid on Ankara (Greek: Epidroma Pros Gagkura).


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The purpose of the Raid was to force the Kemalists to peace or, by pushing them east, to destroy their supply bases and secure the borders provided for by the Peace of Sevres.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

This would enable the government to break the impasse and fulfill its campaign promises [11] :67.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek historians Sarandos Kargakos [24] and D. Fotidis [11] :82 call the campaign against Ankara “the epic of the Greek army”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On July 28/August 10, 9 Infantry Divisions and the Cavalry Brigade entered positions to begin the raid.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

They had to travel 280 km through the waterless desert before approaching the mountains in front of Ankara, where Kemal prepared 3 lines of defense [11] :70.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The crossing of the desert surprised the Turkish command, but did not introduce an element of surprise [11] :73.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Kemalist army consisted of 16 infantry divisions and 3 separate regiments, 4 cavalry divisions and 1 separate brigade.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

3 corps of the Greek army marched simultaneously on August 1/14.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Before their performance, the I Division and all Kemal cavalry remained on the left bank of Sakarya.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After discovering the “incredible course” of the Greeks in the desert, Kemal strengthened his left flank, transferring forces there from the right flank and center.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The passage through the Salt Desert was a challenge for the Greek divisions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Rare wells on their way were poisoned by the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The passage through the waterless and strapless desert was also a test for horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After coming out of the desert, the Greek divisions approached the ridges of treeless mountains, fortified to a depth of 30 km.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

There could be no question of surprise, encirclement or circumvention of the positions of the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To train Ankara, the Greek divisions had to attack 3 defensive lines [11] :80.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In the hope of finishing off an entrenched enemy whose resistance prevented them from returning home, Greek soldiers surpassed themselves.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Having passed a grueling march through the desert, the I Division on August 10/23, without respite and artillery preparation, immediately recaptured the top of Mangal-Dag from the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Kemal was impressed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After replacing the commander of the unit that defended Mangal Dag, he said: “If we are defeated, there will be the grave of Turkey” [11] :82.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

He ordered anyone who retreated without an order to be shot, adding “there is no retreat line, everyone must die in his trench” [11] :83.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Victorious for Greek weapons, but bloody, battles for the heights of Tambour-oglu and “Gemini” [11] :83, the breakthrough of the Turkish defense line by the III Corps on August 11/24 at Sapanca followed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the same day, the headquarters of the expeditionary army informed the corps that there was a “large shortage of ammunition” and that the headquarters “prohibits artillery fire before an infantry attack”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In addition to the lack of transport and the length of communications, this was the result of the activities of the Turkish V Cavalry Group (XIV Division and IV Brigade) of Fakhredin and the Murettep Infantry Division operating in beyond the control of the Greek army in the steppes [11] :84.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 17/30, the headquarters of the expeditionary army informed the corps that it would supply only ammunition, but not food [11] :87.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After the battles for Tambur Oglu and Sapanca, the I and III corps occupied the first line of defense of the Turks and were preparing to break through the second.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The bypass of the left flank of the Turks was entrusted to the II Corps of Prince Andrew.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In front of the corps “towered the impregnable rocks” of Calais Groto, which were attacked on August 13/26.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turks did not expect an attack and left their positions an hour later.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Greek infantry continued the offensive without stopping, occupied the highest peak of Calais Groto and knocked the Turks of the XXIV Division out of the trenches, whose retreat turned into a panic flight.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The IX Division and the Cavalry Brigade tried to bypass Calais Groto on the right, but their vanguard met Fakhredin's cavalry, which managed to defend the left flank of the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek successes worried Kemal, who arrived in this sector issued an order: “All units will defend their positions to the last soldier. The sporadic successes of the enemy are explained by night storms and the inconsistency of our units. We should not doubt that by defending our positions with calm, we will finally stop the enemy.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Kemal later wrote that “there were moments when I thought all was lost” [11] :92.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To the east beyond Calais Groto stood Ulu Dag, the stronghold of the second line of defense of the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On 14/27 August, the Second Corps reported that, due to a shortage of ammunition, it considered the continuation of the offensive problematic.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The headquarters of the expeditionary army insisted, but in conclusion wrote: “We prohibit artillery preparation before an infantry attack.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 18/31, the IX Division occupied three consecutive lines of Turkish trenches south of Karasuleiman.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

This was the last offensive operation of the II Corps in battle.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

August 19/September 1, the Corps was ordered to transfer the IX Division to Sapanca and hold positions with the remaining two divisions [11] :93.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In the north, the VII division approached the railway station Polatly at a distance of 4 km [11] :96.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turks in panic removed ammunition from warehouses, but due to lack of transport, they began to blow them up [11] :97.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Attacks of the XII and I divisions followed on Chal Dag and Ardiz-Dagh on the second line of defense of the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The defending III division of the Caucasus was overwhelmed by panic.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The officers could not stop the flight.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The XII Greek Division rushed into the last battle for Ardiz Dagh on the morning of August 19/September 1.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

A whole battalion of the 176th Turkish regiment, 355 people, surrendered.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Since the beginning of the Raid, this was the first time that an entire Turkish compound was captured [11] :98.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Meanwhile, under pressure from the III Corps, the Turks left Gildiz Doug on the night of August 17.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The X Division, wedged into the location of the Turks, was left without cover, but the XII Division of the I Corps entrenched itself on the slope of Chal Dag and covered its right flank [11] :99.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the same night, the headquarters of the expeditionary army ordered the III Corps to occupy the top of Chal Dag at any cost, but the III and X divisions reported that their soldiers were exhausted.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The III Corps was notified that the I Corps had occupied Ardiz Dag, but stopped the offensive due to the stop of the III Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

A new order to the III Corps to take these positions followed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The next morning, the X Division of the III Corps was entrenched on the slope of Chal Dag, the II Division overturned the XVII Turkish Division and by evening occupied the top of Chal Dag.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After the Greek victories on Ardiz Daga and Chal Dage, Kemal transferred forces from the left flank to the center, realizing that the II Greek Corps, which included the Cavalry Brigade, took up the defense [11] :97.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Greek divisions with losses occupied another “dag” one after another, but the end of the battle was not in sight.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Ammunition and food supplies ran out and were hardly replenished.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But most importantly, outlining the future, Kemal said: “I will defend against Ankara, I will defend in Ankara, I will defend for Ankara.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The expedition army's raid escalated into a protracted campaign, which was not in its plans, but it did not have reserves to continue the offensive.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

By the end of the battle for Chal Doug, Prince George presented General Papoulas's report to Minister of War N. Theotokis.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Papoulas wrote that he had come to the conclusion that the attempt to take Ankara should be stopped.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

He informed that at the beginning of the battle, the Turks had equal forces with the advancing.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But if the losses of the Greek army were irreparable, the Turks were approached by the V and IX divisions from Cilicia and two new divisions, the XVII and XVIII.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The report noted that unlike the Turks, Greek divisions have exhausted supplies and the delivery of new ones is becoming more and more problematic.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In conclusion, Papoulas wrote: “The army remains completely ignorant of the political situation and cannot know if the political dividends expected from the occupation of Ankara are such from a political point of view view, in order to try to occupy (Ankara) at any cost risk the probability of defeat and therefore the failure of the entire Asia Minor issue.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, Prime Minister Gounaris shifted the responsibility of making the decision to the headquarters of the expeditionary army [11] :101.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 26/September 8, the army headquarters informed the corps that the enemy had gathered forces against the III Corps in order to attack its left flank and force the army to retreat through the Salt Desert, where it would be defeated.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The III Corps was ordered to defend “to the last”, while the other two corps were to launch “furious attacks” against the enemy.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Earlier, on August 21/September 3, the headquarters of Prince Andrew's II Corps (as of this date, the V and XIII Divisions and the Cavalry Brigade), expressed in a letter to Papoulas the idea that since the Corps was inactive in Calais Groto, there was It would be better if he moved closer to the Third Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After receiving the last order, the II Corps replied that it considered it impossible and useless and added that the corps would pass to Isri, according to his previous proposal.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Taken aback by the disobedience of the corps, which was due to the impunity of a member of the royal family, the angry General Papoulas ordered him to remain in his positions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Considering the chief of staff of the corps responsible, Papoulas replaced him, appointing P. Nikolaidis, commander of the Cavalry Brigade.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The inaction of the II Corps allowed the Turks to transfer forces from the left flank and use them in their offensive.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

To some extent, the episode with the II Corps later influenced the decision of the headquarters of the expeditionary army to withdraw for Sakarya.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

I and III corps continued the battle.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Kemal's biographer, Armstrong, wrote in the book “The Grey Wolf — Mustafa Kemal” (H.C. Armstrong. “Grey Wolf— Mustafa Kemal: An Intimate Study of a Dictator “): “The Greeks and Turks fought with incredible courage. ... Both fought for their homes” [11] :108.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

For 14 days, the Greeks attacked continuously, but their strength ran out and there were no reserves.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Fevzi - Pasha appreciated the inaction of the II Greek Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

He called Kemal, who “walked around nervously at his bet, cursed others, and hesitated to decide to retreat before it was too late.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The call came at a time when Kemal was ready to order a retreat.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Jacques Benoist-Méchin (Mustapha Kemal — La mort d'un Empire) writes: “If the Greek attack lasted a few more minutes (!) Kemal would have ordered a retreat to avoid catastrophe” [11] :109.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Fevzi reported that the attacks of the Greeks have weakened and that they are probably preparing to withdraw.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Alexander Zhevakhov also describes these moments: “Kemal is irritated, clearly nervous;... The Greeks, after three days of fierce fighting, captured the dominant mountain Chal Dag. Kemal cannot hide his despair and does not even try to do so. Should we continue to resist or is it better to retreat?”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

He writes that “Fevzi and his call changed everything” [25].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Kemal was inspired and on the night of August 26 decided to attack in the northern section and throw all reserves into battle to block the enemy's retreat.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

A distracting offensive was planned against the I Greek Corps, while the main one was planned on the left flank of the Greek army, against the III Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

If successful, the Greek divisions had only one way to retreat — through the desert.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Kemal threw into battle his corps formed for the offensive, consisting of both forces transferred from the left flank of the Turkish army, opposing the inactive II Corps, and reserve units, and even the security section of the Grand National Assembly.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The headquarters of the expeditionary army realized the danger in a timely manner, as follows from its order of August 26/September 5 [11] :110.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turkish offensive began on August 28/September 10 at the junction between the I Division of the I of the Greek Corps and the V Division, which was previously part of the II Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turkish attack was stopped and two Greek divisions launched a counterattack.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turks retreated, their retreat turned into flight [11] :111.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But after the victorious outcome of the battle, the I Division was left without ammunition.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At noon of the same day, the II Corps was ordered to leave their positions and throw west, according to a maneuver that the Corps wanted to perform without permission days earlier.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

D. Fotiadis explains the change in the decision of the headquarters by the fact that the far left flank of the Greek defense was broken.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Here, the Turks occupied Dua Tepe by noon, forcing the defenders to retreat.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 13:00 on August 28/September 10, the headquarters of the expeditionary army gave a double-read order to the III Corps to reoccupy Dua Tepe and, at the same time, provide a bridge for the withdrawal from the east to the west bank of Sakarya [11 ] :112.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the morning of August 29/September 11, the headquarters of the expeditionary army decided to stop the struggle east of Sakarya, believing that it had become aimless.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In a letter to the Prime Minister, General Papoulas wrote that the army could not stay longer east of Sakarya and asked for replenishment to control the new front line and communications.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

By undertaking the Raid, the government of the monarchists expected that the occupation of Ankara would allow demobilization to begin and satisfy public opinion.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, the army returned for Sakarya without achieving objective goals and asked for replenishment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Although the headquarters decided to withdraw in the morning of August 29/September 11, the I and III corps were ordered to withdraw only by night and continued to fight all day.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After occupying Dua Tepe, the Turks advanced to Kara Dagu.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The III Corps ordered the III Division to provide all its forces to the VII Division, which took the entire blow of the Turkish offensive.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

80 soldiers of one of the companies of this division held back the onslaught of an entire Turkish division, the LVII Infantry, until the 2/39th Regiment of the III Division came to their aid.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The fight continued without a break all night.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At midnight, the Turks gained a foothold on the slope of Karadag.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The situation here became critical, the Turks continuously transferred reinforcements here, leaving only 4 divisions against the I Greek Corps.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 7 am on the last day of the battle, August 29, the VII Division attacked Dua Tepe, approached the top but was stopped 600 meters from it by Turkish artillery fire [11] :112.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In its latest attack on 2/39, the regiment not only forced the Turks to retreat, but also captured 124 Turkish soldiers.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 11:30, the X Division entered the battle, but was stopped by Turkish artillery fire.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 17:30, the 9th Greek Division entered one of the bloodiest battles of the battle.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The companies were left without officers, the wounded were taken out of the battlefield only at nightfall [11] :114.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Fotiadis writes that this time “the Turks did not pass” and the victory was for Greek weapons.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But “thousands of young Greek men fell with fame in these treeless mountains and gorges”, where they “left their bones silent witnesses to an unfulfilled dream that nurtured New Greece” [11] :114.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At 20:45, the army headquarters ordered all three corps to withdraw and indicated 7 floating bridges to cross to the west bank of Sakarya.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The First Corps left Chal Dag at 01:00 on August 30 so silently that the Turks realized only at dawn that there were no Greeks in front of their positions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Also, in perfect order and without pressure from the Turks, on the night of August 30-31, the entire expeditionary army moved to the west bank of Sakarya [11] :114.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Naturally, the Turks considered the withdrawal of the Greek army from Ankara their victory and the Grand National Assembly granted Kemal the title of “gazi”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the other hand, the fact that the Battle of Sakarya consisted of a continuous series of battles in which the Greek army won, that the withdrawal was carried out in order, and the Turks were exhausted and could not pursue the enemy, left room for manipulation by the Greek government.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The monarchist government also positioned itself victorious, emphasizing that during the offensives of 1921 and the Raid on Ankara, it doubled the territory awarded to Greece Peace of Sevres.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

D. Fotiadis writes: “We won tactically, we lost strategically” [11] :115.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Summing up the battle, he writes that the crossing of the Salt Desert, the victorious battles at Tamburoglu, Sapanca, Chal Dag, Ardiz Dag, Calais Groto, Dua Tepe and other heights are heroic pages in history of the Greek army.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In the battle for Sakarya, the Greek army lost 3,782 people killed and 376 missing.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, “all these sacrifices were in vain”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In conclusion, Fotiadis writes that the winner in the war is not the one who won the most victories, but the one who won the last victory.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

And Kemal got it a year later.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek cavalry in a raid on Ankara


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Upon receiving an order from the headquarters of the Asia Minor Army, the Cavalry Brigade redeployed north of Eskisehir, to the Seydi Gazi region.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Due to losses suffered in previous operations, its number decreased to 550 sabers.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The condition of aged and exhausted horses made it impossible to perform large and prolonged operations.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In a report to the Army headquarters, the Brigade informed that the condition of the horses was such that it could not undertake operations lasting more than fifteen days.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In addition, many horses remained unsavvy, due to the banal reason for the lack of horseshoes.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The composition and command of the Brigade remained the same, except for the command of the Cavalry Division of Machine Guns, which was headed by Vasilios Ioannidis.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 1, 1921, the Brigade launched a reconnaissance operation with the simultaneous task, if possible, of occupying intact bridges on the Sakarya River.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, these bridges have already been destroyed by the Turks.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On the first day of the operation, the Brigade threw back the XIV Cavalry Division of the Turks, which maneuvered on the east bank of the river.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 3, the Brigade met with the Turkish Cavalry Corps, under the command of Fakhredin, near the Ak Chair River.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The Turkish corps included the II, III and XIV cavalry divisions, as well as a separate 4th separate cavalry brigade.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Turkish cavalrymen were ordered to cover the II Corps of the Kemalists, as well as to be in constant contact with the advancing Greek army.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Since August 4, the Greek Cavalry Brigade, as part of the II Corps, took part in a raid on Ankara through the Salt Desert.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Before the raid was curtailed, the Brigade continuously clashed with multiple Turkish cavalry forces and forced the Turkish cavalry to retreat on three occasions.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, due to the mountainous terrain, the activities of the Brigade were auxiliary - the victories of the expeditionary army to capture heights before Ankara were the exclusive merit of the Greek infantry, with limited artillery assistance due to the lack of ammunition.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 28, Brigade Commander P. Nikolaidis, headed the headquarters of the II Corps, the Brigade was commanded by N. Waris.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In turn, Argirios Sotiropoulos took command of the 3 m cavalry regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On August 29, the Brigade, by order, began to withdraw to the right bank of Sakarya [3].


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The last year of the Asia Minor campaign


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

After the Battle of Ankara, where victory was close [11] :357, the expeditionary army of General A. Papoulasa, having exhausted material resources and not having material and human reserves, in order retreated back, beyond Sakarya, establishing a line of defense from Nicomedia to Afyonkarahisar.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The government of monarchists, without resolving the issue with the Greek population of the region, did not dare to evacuate the army from Asia Minor.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The front froze for a year.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The new front line formed an arc of 800 km from north to south.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

From Afyonkarahisar and west, to Usak, the front ran parallel to the railway, the only supply line for the main forces of the Greek army [11] :159.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The army command was aware of the real situation and A. Papoulas on September 8/21 informed the government that after nine years of continuous wars, an end to the campaign and a political way out of the impasse is required [11] :158.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The government was aware of the threat, but positioning itself as a winner, could not retreat and resorted to sophisms.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Speaking in Parliament, Prime Minister D. Gounaris stated that the Treaty of Sevres awarded us 16,000 square kilometers, while now we control 100,000 square kilometers [11] :158.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

General A. Mazarakis writes that it was a tragic mistake that after withdrawing from Ankara, the army took a passive defense position, abandoning the operational initiative.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

This gave the Turks freedom to act where they wanted, with whatever forces they wanted, in any one place on this weak front.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

“Without exception, all military and political analysts believe that the reason for the breakthrough was the lack of forces for the front with a length of 800 km.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Even where the density was higher, there were unprotected areas between the divisions of 15-30 km [11] :158.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The army continued to hold the front of “colossal length, in relation to the available forces”, which according to A. Mazarakis, in addition to political mistakes, was the main cause of the subsequent catastrophe [11] :159.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Without hiding his differences with the government, General Papoulas resigned [11] :169.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Instead, the commander of the Asia Minor Army was appointed a relative of the new Prime Minister Stratos “unbalanced” [11] :169 G. Hatzianestis, previously commander of the IV Corps of Eastern Thrace, who had not taken part in hostilities since 1920.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Historians' assessments of the new commander are reduced to the phrase “there could be no worse choice” [11] :169.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Contemporaries and historians testify that General Hatzianestis was an “unbalanced” person.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

George Horton, US Consul in Smyrna, knew him personally and confirms that he was “mentally unstable” [14] :115.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

David Walder in “The Chanak affair” questions the military abilities of Kemal, who managed to defeat the Greek army only when “its commander was a man who thought he had glass legs”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Summarizing these testimonies, D. Fotiadis writes that they should be considered as hyperbole, “otherwise we will have to admit that the commander of the Asia Minor Army was half-crazy.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

He attaches more importance to A. Mazarakis, that the commander of the Asia Minor Army was an officer who was “unfit to command even a division in peacetime” [11] :10.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At the time of Hatzianestis's arrival on May 23, 1922, the Asia Minor Army consisted of the “Northern” (III Corps) and the “Southern Group” (I and II Corps).


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Hatzianestis considered that this structure reduced his power and decided to violate it.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

I Corps (I, IV, V and XII divisions) and II Corps (II, VII, IX and XIII divisions) came under his personal command, which weakened the Southern Group, which in the event of a crisis had to coordinate the actions of these two corps with headquarters in Smyrna, 420 km from the front [11] :170.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The second step was his “crazy idea” to occupy Constantinople with the forces of two divisions, as blackmail the allies and Kemal [11] :171.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The government and Hatzianestis considered this not only possible, but also the only step they had to take.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek troops were only 60 km from Constantinople [11] :171.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

As General Spyridonos writes in his memoirs, upon arrival in Asia Minor, Hatzianestis was exclusively engaged in this idea.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Decisions on the Constantinople operation were made at the Council of Ministers in Piraeus.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

When asked by ministers whether it is possible to transfer units from Asia Minor to Thrace without consequences, Hatzianestis replied: “Without any danger.”


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Fotiadis writes that the answer becomes “incomprehensible to reason”, when all the forces of the Asia Minor Army were not enough to hold a front of such a length.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At a time when Kemal was gathering all his forces for the offensive, Hatzianestis decided to transfer 21,000 soldiers from Asia Minor to Thrace, exposing the already dense front line.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Horton writes that only because of this decision to “send the color of the army to threaten Constantinople at a time when these units were urgently needed at the front, Hatzianestis deserved to be sent to a psychiatric institution” [14] :115.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Observing diplomatic tact with the allies, the government of the monarchists informed of its decision and asked them to instruct their units not to interfere with the occupation of the city [5] :352.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The blackmail failed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

On July 15/28, the Allies announced the inviolability of the status of the Ottoman capital and informed that they had instructed their units to stop the advance of the Greek army to Constantinople [11] :173.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At the same time, Lloyd George, in his anti-Turkish speech in the House of Commons on July 22/August 4, accused the allies that while they prevent the Greeks from occupying Constantinople and waging the war as they see fit, Turks are getting weapons from Europe.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Lloyd George's speech worried Kemal, who feared that Britain might abandon the policy of neutrality and he decided to launch his offensive [5] :353.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Greek cavalry before the “Great Offensive” of the Kemalists


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

Upon returning from the raid on Ankara, the condition of the horses of the Cavalry Brigade was terrible.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In some squadrons, no more than 15 cavalrymen remained on horseback, the rest led their horses on foot.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The losses in horses, due to illness and deprivation, were huge and the reorganization of the Brigade faced enormous difficulties.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In Eskisehir, P. Nikolaidis.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The rest provided to the horses led to some improvement in their condition.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

But the supply of feed remained problematic and did not ensure the return of the Brigade to combat readiness.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

It was decided to send the most exhausted horses for treatment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

From the rest, the following units were formed:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— 1st Cavalry Regiment


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— 3rd battery of the Machine Gun Division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Horse artillery battery.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The rest of the units, that is, the 3rd Cavalry Regiment, the 2nd and 3rd batteries, the detachment of saboteurs, were left without horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

With this organization, by the end of September 1921, the Brigade had the following forces:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

-A cavalry of 330 sabers and 4 machine guns.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

-A 360-man foot formation with 8 machine guns.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

-Mounted machine gun batteries with a force of only 4 machine guns.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In anticipation of the formation of the Cavalry Division, the command and headquarters of the Brigade, the 1st Cavalry Regiment and a detachment of saboteurs moved to Smyrna.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The rest of the units formed the so-called. “Cavalry Division Detachment”, under the command of N. Watris, who was tasked with covering unprotected areas of the Southern Group.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In early December, the Horse Machine Gun Division, along with foot machine gun batteries, redeployed to Manisa, and the Cavalry Division Detachment remained with only the 3 m Cavalry Regiment and the 3rd Machine-Gun Regiment batteries.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

By order of the Asia Minor Army of November 16, 1921, the Brigade was transformed into the “Cavalry Division”.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The new division included:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Staff and silt


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Three cavalry regiments


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— The cavalry division of machine guns


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Cavalry artillery battalion


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Ammunition transportation division


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— A squad of saboteurs


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Telegraph squad


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Mountain Operating (Surgical) Unit


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Disciplinary Unit (Military Police)


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The command of the division was entrusted to Major General of Cavalry Andreas Kalinskis, who had previously been the commander of the IX Division.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The division headquarters was headed by A. Papagos, 1st division G. Stanotas and A. Yatridis, 2nd Division P. Nikolopoulos, 3rd division A. Chrysochou, Logistics Major K. Parisis, Serbetis Medical Service.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The personnel of the division were supplemented by veterans cavalrymen who served in different parts of the Asia Minor Army and conscription recruits of 1922.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The training of the latter was entrusted to the camp created by order of the army.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The division was replenished and supplemented with horses by supplies from Ireland and the mobilization of stunted local horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The division was formed and trained in the Smyrna region and in April 1922 moved to Usak.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

There, on July 6, Commander A Kalinskis presented battle banners to the regiments of the Division at official ceremonies and on behalf of the king.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

From April to August, and in conditions of relative calm at the front, the Division carried out a number of minor operations, such as the occupation of the Sochia-New Ephesus region after it was abandoned by the Italians, and the suppression mutiny by the inhabitants of the Emet region.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

In June, the 4th Cavalry Regiment was formed.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

At the beginning of August, the Division included:


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— 1st Cavalry Regiment, under the command of N. Vassos.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The regiment consisted of 4 silts with Irish horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

However, the II silt was sent to Thrace


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— 2nd Cavalry Regiment, under the command of A. Roussis.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The regiment consisted of 3 silts with Irish horses, and one foot silt due to the lack of cavalry equipment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— 3rd Cavalry Regiment, under the command of A. Stavropoulos.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The regiment consisted of 4 silts with stunted Asia Minor horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

One of the silts was directed to strengthen the front in the Kyuchuk Kayali section.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— The 4th Cavalry Regiment remained on foot, due to the lack of equipment for horses.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Cavalry division of machine guns, under the command of V. Ioannidis.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

It consisted of 3 batteries with old horses of the 3rd regiment.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Cavalry artillery battalion, under the command of Major S. Vrasidas.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

The division consisted of only two batteries - the horse battery of the former Cavalry Brigade and one battery of field artillery, which was renamed the equestrian battery.


Question: Was the massacre in the Iznik-Izmit region directed against Muslims?

Greek cavalry in Asia Minor

— Engineering sludge, which was ultimately not formed, due to a lack of personnel.