Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The program for the creation of the Ryazansky federal tourism cluster includes a large-scale reconstruction of the territory of the Ryazan Kremlin, the construction of yacht clubs, hotel complexes near Ryazan, resort areas and recreation areas.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city is planned to be connected with the historical center of the principality of Staraya Ryazan, where a museum and tourist complex will be built.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is surrounded by a whole network of architectural, cultural, natural and archaeological sites that attract connoisseurs of alternative and industrial tourism.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The region has 103.5 hectares of specially protected natural areas, 848 cultural sites and 2,335 monuments of archaeological heritage, as well as 255 monuments of history and culture.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The Ryazan Metropolis is engaged in the development of pilgrimage tours, which carries out this activity year-round.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

A developed network of hotels, recreation centers, sanatoriums and campsites in various price segments allows tourists to visit the sights of the Ryazan region without daily arrival in Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Agriculture


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is one of the few cities in Russia that carry out agricultural activities within the city and the nearest suburban area.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The extensive flood of the Oka and small rivers creates rich soil for the subsequent growth of forage grasses and cereals.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

K. G. Paustovsky during his rest and work near Ryazan noted:


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, cattle pastures are located on the flood meadows of Ryazan, and various crops are cultivated.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

A particularly large amount of arable land is located on the left bank of the Oka River.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The Government of the Ryazan Region, as part of the work on the creation of the Ryazansky tourism cluster, plans to adopt a special program that develops ecological economy and rural tourism.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of its directions will be the construction of an agricultural center on the border of Ryazan near Polyany, designed to show the potential of Russia, the region and the city in this sector of the economy.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

It is planned that the created center will demonstrate the achievements of the national economy, hold agricultural seminars and exhibitions for both specialists and ordinary citizens.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Transportation


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The Ryazan transport hub includes an extensive network of urban public transport, a suburban network of bus and rail routes.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city is crossed by the M-5 Ural highway, railway lines to the south and to the center of the country, providing passenger and cargo transit.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city is served by 2 airfields, 2 railway and 2 bus stations, 2 river ports, and many small railway stations.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

City transport


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan has a permanent network of bus and trolleybus routes operating on the principle of combining electronic and traditional fare payments, passengers can pay both in cash and electronic tickets [29].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Road transport


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is connected with the cities of Russia by two bus stations serving the northern and southern route directions.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The M-5 Ural federal highway goes around the city along the Southern Ring Road, and Severnaya passes parallel to it.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Currently, Ryazan is developing a plan for the construction of a new backup of the Southern Ring Road, which runs at a considerable distance from the existing highway.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city is also a key route of the Big Ryazan Ring, connecting all district centers of the region into a single network.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Suburban traffic daily delivers residents of the Ryazan agglomeration to work in the city and back.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Rail transport


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

A major railway junction was formed in Ryazan at the end of the 19th century, during the Russian railway revolution.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of the first roads built at that time in Russia was the Moscow-Ryazan Railway.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

A little later, the Ryazan-Uralskaya line joined it.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Currently, Ryazan serves federal routes to the Urals, the Caspian Sea and the south of the country, as well as the international highway to Central Asia.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

There are two railway stations on these lines — Ryazan I and Ryazan II.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Routes of long-distance passenger trains departing from Kazansky Railway Station pass through Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Suburban electric trains connect Ryazan with Moscow, Kolomna, Sasov and Ryazhsky.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Three times a day, the Sergey Yesenin luxury express train departs from Ryazan I station to Kazansky railway station in Moscow.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

An interesting feature of the Ryazan-Moscow line is its left-hand traffic.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

From the end of the 19th century until the beginning of the 21st century, Ryazan and Vladimir were connected by a narrow-gauge railway described by K. G. Paustovsky in his numerous stories.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the 80s of the XX century, it could not withstand competition with road transport, passenger and then freight traffic on it was closed.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

River transport


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Mini|200x200pcs|Wharf on the Trubezh River.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Borkovskaya and Trubezhny river ports serve the city's water routes.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Until the middle of the 20th century, waterways were the main transport connecting district centers and small villages of the region with Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, cargo transportation takes up most of the work of river transport.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

During the spring flood of the Oka, from April to early June, water buses operate in Ryazan, connecting villages completely cut off by water from the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Tourist routes are served by sightseeing trams departing from the Kremlin Wharf.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is also one of the cruise centers of the Oksky and Volga river routes, a stop for the popular river cruise Moscow Around the World.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Cruise ships dock at the River Station located in the Prioksky Forest Park.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Air traffic


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is served by two airfields: northern Diaghilevo and southern Turlatovo.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The first of them is a military center, on which the only air refueling group in Russia is based, as well as a regiment of strategic bombers Tu-95 and an aviation center for combat training.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Turlatovo is currently under reconstruction, after which air taxis and the city training center for small aircraft will be served at the airport.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In accordance with the master plan of the Ryazan Region, one of the mothballed airfields in the city of Protasovo is waiting for reconstruction to the international level [30].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Not far from the city, at the Dubrovichi military test site, there is also the Gagarin test air base of the same name.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Bike highways


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The system of urban bicycle highways began to take shape in the city in the early 2010s.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Currently, the first highway with a total length of about 5 km is being built in Ryazan, which will connect the Kultury Park with the Prioksky Forest Park through Lybedsky Boulevard and the Kremlin.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

On August 1, 2014, the first stage of this cycle route was opened [31].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Construction from the project to its implementation is carried out by the civil public organization Ryazan Regional Cycling Movement with the support of the city authorities [23].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

According to Vyacheslav Makarov, the chief architect of the city, the Department of Urban Planning and Architecture has prepared a project for the construction of three more highways.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of them will be agglomeration, connecting Ryazan with Solotcha through the territory of the Ryazan District [24].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In addition, a network of park-and-ride bicycle parks will be built in the city, specifically for changing from a car or urban transport to a bicycle one.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Education


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The first secular numeral school, which still exists today, was opened in the city in 1722 by personal decree of Peter I.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Currently, Ryazan has many universities and colleges built in Soviet times, both civil and military.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Many of them are international, with part of the program taught in foreign languages.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Some universities have third-age universities, weekend universities and cultural centers of foreign countries.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Higher education institutions


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The oldest university in the city, Ryazan State University, was opened in 1915 as a women's teachers' institute and in 1985 was named after S. A. Yesenin.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan Radio Engineering, Agrotechnological, Medical Universities were opened in Soviet times.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Guards Higher Airborne Command School is a military educational institution of the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The Academy of Law and Management of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia is a higher educational institution in the system of educational institutions of the Federal Penitentiary Service that trains officers for criminal executive system.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

All of them are the basis of the Ryazan educational and scientific system.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Because of them, Ryazan is often called the “city of military and students”.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Many universities have departments at city and regional enterprises, which allows students to acquire knowledge in practice.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In particular, the departments of the Medical University are located in almost all highly specialized healthcare institutions in Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The dense development of the city and the abundance of architectural monuments around which university buildings are located have led to the fact that the campuses and buildings of many educational institutions are scattered throughout the urban area.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Recreation centers, practices and military training grounds are located around the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Many higher institutions have opened branches in Ryazan, such as the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, the Moscow Polytechnic University, the Moscow State Institute of Culture and others [32].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Specialized secondary schools


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The transformation of Ryazan into a large industrial center led to the need to create a complex of technical educational institutions that could provide the city's enterprises with qualified personnel.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

During the construction of the largest factories, technical schools were also built for them.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, this allows graduates of secondary educational institutions to sign up for the trade union of an industrial enterprise upon admission and take practical classes at the plant.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In addition, many colleges and technical schools of the city are combined into a complex with universities, where students can receive higher education under a simplified scheme.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

School and early childhood education


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since the mid-2000s, registration in preschool children's institutions in Ryazan has been carried out via the Internet, avoiding queues.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the city center there are so-called “microgardens” located in the buildings of office centers and on the first line of multi-storey buildings.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

This approach makes it possible to create additional groups without the construction of large complexes, for which there are fewer and fewer places in the central part of Ryazan every year.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Children's temporary stay groups allow parents to keep their child in the kindergarten for a certain period of time, paying only for a monthly subscription and not registering for years in advance.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Science


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The scientific sphere has traditionally been one of the main fundamental spheres of the city's economy.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The strategic directions of scientific work in Ryazan are medicine, electronics and the agro-industrial complex.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Educational complexes operate in each of their three areas — associations of research institutes, universities, colleges, technical schools and colleges, which makes it possible to prepare all the necessary range of qualified personnel.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In addition, Ryazan is one of the scientific centers of the defense industry.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Design bureaus that carry out state orders for the Ministry of Defense of Russia are concentrated in the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Military training centers and training grounds located near Ryazan provide an opportunity to see the practical application of new military technologies.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Culture and art


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Museums


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The main museum complex of the city, and at the same time one of the oldest historical museums in the country, is the Ryazan Kremlin Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

This federal complex includes not only the protected area of the Kremlin Hill, but also the settlement in Staraya Ryazan, the remains of the fortress in Novy Olgov and the historical territory of Glebov Gorodishche, located outside the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan's rich historical and cultural heritage is also represented by many other museums.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Among them is the State Art Museum named after A.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Galostin, the museum-estate of Academician Pavlov, museums of the history of the youth movement, the ancient repository, the memorial house-museum of Ivan Zhalostin and others.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Many schools and universities in the city have their own museums, and the building of the City Administration houses the Museum of the City Administration of the city of Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city also has military complexes that demonstrate the history of the development of the country's defense capability.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Among them is the only state museum in the country of the history of airborne troops and military vehicles.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Near Ryazan is the S. A. Yesenin, museums of horse breeding and beekeeping at relevant experienced institutes.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In 2015, a gingerbread museum was opened in Ryazan [33].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Theaters


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The first theater in Ryazan was built in 1787 with the assistance of Gavriil Derzhavin and was originally called the Opera House.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The theatrical life of the city took place at the forefront of the cultural life of the whole country — premieres in Ryazan theaters even before the revolution took place at the same time as the capital's theaters.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, the oldest theater in the city is called the Ryazan State Drama Theater and is located on the square of the same name.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In addition to it, the city has the Theater on Sobornaya, the State Puppet Theater, the Concert Hall.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

S. Yesenin, musical theater and circus.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is represented at international competitions not only by troupes of state theaters, but also by small student and experimental groups.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Every year, the city holds several theater festivals, the largest of which are Ryazan Screenings, On the Threshold of Youth, and Theatrical Syndrome.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Library


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The oldest and largest library in the city is the State Universal Library named after A.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Gorky is one of the leading libraries in the country, a member of the UNESCO Association.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The institution's fund has more than a million book copies, which are duplicated in electronic format.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Recording and catalogs of the institution are available via the Internet.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city also has a central city library named after M.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

S. Yesenin, Children and Youth Library named after A.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

K. G. Paustovsky, scientific libraries of higher educational institutions, a specialized library for the blind and a branch network in the districts of the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Every week, a mobile library is sent from the city to the region, allowing residents of small villages and villages to access modern books.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan libraries hold their own promotions, excursions and conferences, clubs and foreign cultural centers operate at institutions.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since 2010, the Presidential Library has also been operating in the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Cinemas


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The theatrical life of Ryazan, as well as around the world, began at the beginning of the 20th century, when the city received two cinemas at once, located in the city's noble assembly and gymnasium No. 2.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Among the first films released in Ryazan was the legendary film “The Arrival of the Train”.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In 1904, the first Electric Theater was opened on Pravolybedskaya Street, followed by several “illusions”.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Thus, at the dawn of the film era, several film complexes operated in Ryazan at once.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of these places is the famous Daryaly cinema, which Sergey Yesenin often liked to visit.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, the city has a dozen cinemas, most of which belong to the class of multiplexes that support 3D format.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

An IMAX hall has been built in the Kinomax cinema.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Rental networks are represented by KinoLux, Kronverk-Cinema, 5 Stars, Kinomax.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In addition to them, there are also multiplex cinemas “Malina” and “Oktyabr”.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city also has a network of full-immersive movie attractions (the so-called 7D cinemas).


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In addition, there is an arthouse cinema and several city film clubs.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since the early 1990s, Ryazan has been holding its own film festival “Okraina”, which shows author's films, as well as documentaries and historical films.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Galleries and exhibition centers


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Exhibition activities in the city are carried out not only in stationary galleries and exhibition centers — many shopping and entertainment complexes have their own cultural and exhibition points.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Every month, new exhibitions are opened at more than a dozen venues.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The largest of them are the exhibition center of the library.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Gorky, art gallery “Viktor Ivanov and Ryazanskaya Land”, gallery of the Ryazan Union of Artists, gallery-club “42”, gallery without a sign.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Art and photo clubs have been operating in the city since the 80s of the XX century.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In one of these training centers, the Meshchera photo studio, it is planned to open the Ryazan House of Photography in memory of researcher photographer E.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

N. Kashirin, Honored Worker of Culture of Russia and Honorary Citizen of Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Clubs


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Club activity in its modern sense began to open in Ryazan at the very beginning of the 1990s.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of the historical representatives is the Planetarium art club, which presents its stage mainly to groups of heavy and alternative directions.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In 2016, the art club was closed due to financial problems.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, the club and entertainment life of the city is represented by many establishments of various sizes: from huge clubs to small themed apartments.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan has a number of its own dance schools.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

They make it possible to hold the Black Cat All-Russian Contemporary Dance Festival annually, for 31 years in a row, which brings together many participants from all over Russia and neighboring countries.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city also houses the headquarters of the Interregional Ryazan League of the International KVN Union.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

City festivals


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The Department of Culture and Art of the city of Ryazan pays special attention to festivals and events held both in concert halls and in open air format all year round.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The theme of the event varies from festivities to music and history festivals.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Military personnel representing airborne troops often take part in the events.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Also, in addition to cultural ones, sports festivals and relay races are held annually.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Prefectures of urban districts hold street and yard holidays.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of the streets of the city, Moskovskoye Shosse, holds the holiday on the same day as Ryazansky Prospekt in Moscow.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

From May 2 to May 7, 2005, Ryazan hosted the Fourth Youth Delphic Games of Russia, in which 1,496 people from 58 constituent entities of the Russian Federation took part.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In total, more than 800,000 people competed in the qualifying rounds.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Applications for participation in the Games were submitted by official delegations from 79 regions of Russia, with a total number of more than 10,000 applicants.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

For more than 20 years, Ryazan has been hosting the interregional competition-festival of children's creativity “Beginning”, which is held with the support of the Ryazan City Palace of Children's Creativity (Palace pioneers).


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Architecture and landmarks


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The Ryazan Kremlin is the central core of the city, the architectural dominant of its historical part and the central pearl of the Ryazan region.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Founded in 1095 on a high hill at the confluence of the Trubezh and Lybid rivers, the Kremlin acquired its modern appearance by the beginning of the 20th century, when the last construction on its territory was completed.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Next to it is the Cathedral Park, the complex of the Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery, and the Prioksky Forest Park.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Sightseeing river buses depart from the Kremlin Wharf every day during the navigation period.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

There is a network of monasteries in the city and next to it, some of which — Holy Trinity, Solotchinsky and Poschupovsky Monasteries — are among the oldest in Russia.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Architectural appearance


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The architectural appearance of modern Ryazan is due to its historical past.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan belongs to the segmental-radial type of cities.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Unlike Old Ryazan and Moscow, the city did not form a ring structure, this was prevented by the Oka floodplain, which annually floods the suburban territory for kilometers.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

This also explains the fact that the Ryazan Kremlin is still located not in the central, but in the north-eastern part of the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Born on a hill between rivers, the city has acquired a fortified prison and settlements outside the city walls.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The main direction of growth was southern and western — it was in these areas that the main transport arteries of Ryazan were subsequently formed.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Until the middle of the 20th century, the city developed on the right bank of the Oka River, but then, with the laying of the Prioksky Forest Park and the inclusion of the resort village of Solotcha within the city limits, Ryazan crossed the Oka River and settled on its left bank.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The historical center of Ryazan during the era of Catherine II underwent a complete redevelopment and received European urban planning features of that time — regular parallel streets with squares in the endings and a clear positioning to the cardinal points.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The squares were dominated by churches, cathedrals or other city institutions.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the 19th century, the city outgrew the borders established by Catherine II — its formation continued again in the southern and western directions.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Soviet urban planning plans only strengthened these vectors.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The entire central part of the city (part of the Soviet District) is built up mainly with historical buildings, but recently there has been a tendency to reduce historical sites and monuments architecture [34].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the district grid of streets, you can still see the old Catherine plan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Saltykov-Shchedrin, Uritsky, Sadovaya streets are a rare example of Russian urban wooden architecture, but under the pressure of multi-storey buildings, wooden architecture is gradually being lost [35 ] [36].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the Zheleznodorozhny District, you can trace the features of Soviet architecture with the transition from Stalinist pseudo-classicism to Khrushchev's buildings.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Moskovsky and Oktyabrsky districts mainly consist of modern districts.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

As of December 2017, the average number of storeys of apartment buildings under construction reached 19.7 floors in the Ryazan Region, according to this indicator, the region is second only to Moscow [37].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Monuments


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Main article: List of monuments in Ryazan


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Development plans


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Modern construction is carried out both en masse on the outskirts and point-by-point in the center.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city is growing in the east, southeast, west and south-west directions.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The southern direction is occupied by large industrial enterprises, so the construction of housing in it is carried out at a sufficient distance from the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the north-west, Ryazan is gradually absorbing Rybnoye, from the north there is construction of low-rise and individual houses.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Mass construction is prohibited in Solotcha.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the eastern direction of the city, a vast Novoposadsky District is being built, and a satellite city Vyshgorod is being designed.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The modern urban planning and strategic plan involves the development of not only the urban, but also the suburban territory of Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city will develop as the central point of the Ryazan agglomeration, creating conditions for the mass construction of residential buildings in the Ryazan District.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

These new microdistricts will be connected to each other by transport arteries, and the territories between them will be filled with agricultural and recreational land.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The implementation of the first stage of the new urban development plan is expected to begin in 2013, when the socio-economic justification and plan will be discussed by the Ryazan Regional Duma and the Regional Government expanding the boundaries of the city [38].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

According to Vitaly Artyomov, Mayor of Ryazan, it is planned to annex the Ryazan District and Rybnoye to Ryazan [39].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Healthcare


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

There are 32 municipal healthcare institutions in Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

One of the largest medical universities in Russia, Ryazan State University named after Academician Pavlov, has departments and representative offices in all highly specialized medical hospitals and dispensaries of the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Thanks to this, university students have the opportunity to undergo pre-qualification training in practice, and patients of medical institutions receive modern medical care thanks to the scientific achievements of the university.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since 2010, the Ryazan Region has adopted a programme for the construction of specially equipped sites for air ambulance, primarily medical helicopters of the Ministry of Emergency Situations and the Center for Disaster Medicine.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The total number of such sites in the Ryazan Region should reach 16.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In Ryazan, they will be located in the largest city hospital complexes, thus minimizing the delivery of patients in critical situations to highly qualified specialist care.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

For the same purpose, class “A” medical posts are being built on federal highways, which make it possible to provide medical assistance to those involved in traffic accidents in the shortest possible time, and, if necessary, deliver patients by air to Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Near the city there is a network of sanatoriums and children's camps that conduct medical wellness procedures for the population.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Many of them are located in the resort area of Solotcha.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In 2011, under the project for the construction of high-tech medical centers, as part of the priority national project “Health”, the regional clinical perinatal center was commissioned [40].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

From March 1, 2011 to December 1, 2014, 10,766 children were born at the center.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Physical education and sports


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

There are many sports facilities in Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The largest of them are the Central Sports Complex, the Olympic Ice Palace, the Olympiets, Lokomotiv, Khimik and Sokol stadiums, the Chaika, Burevestnik, Spartak, Aquamed, Radiovolna pools, Yunost, Rodnost Krai, Kometa, NITI Arena sports complexes and many other facilities.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

There are several horse bases with racetracks, go-karting, racing and ski tracks near the city.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The construction of an archery and crossbow stadium, a federal center for rhythmic gymnastics, and a yacht club is underway.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city has several indoor water parks.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since 2010, Ryazan has adopted a programme to install outdoor exercise equipment.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

These new generation sports grounds allow you to practice physical education for free with the support of professional trainers.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan is the center for many sports clubs.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Among them are Ryazan Football Club, Ryazan-VDV women's football club, Eleks-Favorit futsal club, Ryazan basketball, hockey and volleyball clubs; karate sports federations, aikido, sambo, archery and crossbow shooting, figure skating.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Mass media


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Tv


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The city has been broadcasting regularly since the 1950s.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan became the first city in the Soviet Union to receive a signal from Central Television from Moscow.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Today, the Ryazan Television and Radio Broadcasting Center provides confident reception of the main TV channels throughout the city and the region.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The first and main Ryazan television company remains the state television and radio company Oka, which competed with the Ekho TV and Radio Company in the 1990s.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since the beginning of the 21st century, a number of new companies have begun broadcasting in the city: Krai Ryazansky, the Gorodskoy TV channel and the cable channel network of the Gorod TV company.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Since December 19, 2013, the first digital multiplex has begun broadcasting in Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

On December 30, the second multiplex was launched.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Press


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The press in Ryazan is represented by many regional and federal publications.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The largest of them [41] are: Komsomolskaya Pravda. Ryazan”, “Arguments and Facts. Ryazan”, “Argumenty Nedeli”, “Novaya Gazeta”, “Meshcherskaya Storona”, “Moskovsky Komsomolets”, “Molodyozhnaya Sreda”, “Vechernyaya Ryazan”, “Oblastnaya Ryazanskaya Gazeta” (since 2012), “Ryazanskiye Vedomosti”, “Yarmarka”,” City Panorama”, “Pro City”, “Hometown” (2008 [42] —2012), “Priokskaya Pravda” and others.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Connectivity


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

phone


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The main share of the local telephone market belongs to Rostelecom, which, in addition to fixed telephone services, also provides Internet access services under the Domolink trademark.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Other MTS, MTT and Sotcom companies, in addition to telephony, also provide Internet access services.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Internet


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

More than a dozen companies provide access to the worldwide network.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Among them are Rostelecom, Transtelecom, MTS, Enlink, WestCall, Dom.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

ru, ER-Telecom, Yota and others.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan was one of the first cities fully covered by WiMAX technology, built on the basis of cooperation with Siemens in 2004.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

At the moment, the city also has wireless access using CDMA, EVDO, UMTS (3G) and LTE (4G) technologies.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Free Wi-Fi hotspots are available in many shopping centers, educational institutions, squares and public transport salons.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

TTK also provides Internet access through an electrical outlet.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Mobile connection


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In the city, mobile communication is provided by all federal operators: MTS, Beeline, MegaFon and Tele2.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Yota has also been operating since the end of 2015.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Famous people


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Many famous people were natives of Ryazan.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Among them are Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina, mother of Peter the Great, the first Russian Nobel laureate I. P. Pavlov, founder of cosmonautics Tsiolkovsky, biologist and breeder Michurin, mathematician A. A. Markov, the creators of the strategic nuclear shield of Russia, brothers Vladimir and Alexey Utkin, poets Sergey Yesenin and Yakov Polonsky, actors Vladimir Balashov, Nikolai Vekov, Erast Garin, Alexander Fatyushin, Lyubov Tolkalina, and many others.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Alexander Solzhenitsyn lived and worked in Ryazan for more than 12 years, from June 1957 to mid-November 1969.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Solzhenitsyn was a teacher of physics and astronomy at Ryazan Secondary School No. 2 named after Krupskaya on Revolyutsii Street, 7 (now Sobornaya Street).


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

On September 1, 1994, a memorial plaque was unveiled on the facade of the school with the text: “From 1957 to 1962, Russian writer and Nobel Prize winner Alexander Isaevich Solzhenitsyn taught in this building.”


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The School History Museum has a stand dedicated to the writer [43].


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The first Russian Nobel laureate Ivan PavlovosCosmonautics founder Konstantin TsiolkovskyPoet of the silver age of Russian literature - Sergei YeseninPeople's Artist Erast GarinSoviet writer Konstantin Paustovsky


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Honorary citizens of Ryazan


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Honorary Citizen of Ryazan is the highest municipal award of the city awarded by the Ryazan City Duma to citizens of the Russian Federation and other states in order to recognize outstanding services to Ryazan , encouraging personal activities aimed at the benefit of the city, ensuring its well - being and prosperity.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Currently, 57 citizens of Ryazan hold the honorary title.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

They include public figures, doctors and teachers, design engineers and teachers, home front workers and artists, scientists and artists, builders, writers, athletes and cosmonauts.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Some of them have twice the honorary title, while at the same time being an honorary citizen of Ryazan and the Ryazan Region.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Some, for example, Nadezhda Nikolaevna Chumakova, have been awarded multiple times with the highest municipal awards of cities in Russia and foreign countries.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

External relations


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ryazan officially has 8 sister cities, and several cities with which permanent partnerships have been established.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

The first cities with which Ryazan established friendly relations were Bulgarian Lovech and Slovak Bratislava.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

A hotel was named after Lovech, and a street in the center of Ryazan was named after Bratislava.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

In memory of the twinned relations, a series of commemorative monuments have been installed in Ryazan, the main of which is a sign on Pochtovaya Street, on the plates of which are engraved with the names of cities and distances to new streets have been named after them, as well as in honor of partner cities.


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Sister cities


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Lovech, Bulgaria, since 1964


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Munster, Germany, since 1989


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Bressuire, France, since 1997


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Xuzhou, China, since 1998


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Alessandria, Italy, since 2006


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Ostrow Mazowiecka, Poland, since 2008


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

New Athos, Abkhazia, since 2008 [44]


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Brest, Belorussia, since 2014 [45]


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Partner cities


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Krusevac, Serbia, since 2000


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Omis, Croatia


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Yerevan, Armenia, since 2015


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Genoa, Italy, since 2016


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Notes


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

References


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Cities in Ryazan Oblast


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Cities on the Oka


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Renamed settlements in Russia


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Populated places in Russia that minted coins


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Cities of Ancient Rus


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:District centers of Ryazan Oblast


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Cities established in the 11th century


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Regional centers of Russia


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Capitals of historical states


Question: How far is Ryazan from Moscow?

Ryazan

Category:Cities from the List of Russian Cities Far and Near


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

The Niue language is a Niuean language, one of the Polynesian languages.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

It is official on the island of Niue.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

The total number of speakers is about 8,000 people.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

The traditional name is ko e vagahau Niuą.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Niuean is closest to Tongan, with which it forms the Tongan group of Polynesian languages, more remotely Maori, Samoan and Hawaiian.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Alphabet


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

The Niuean alphabet consists of 17 letters, the names of which are as follows: ā, ą, ō, ū, fā, gā, hā, kā, lā, mō, nū, pī, tī, vī, rō, sā.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

It should be noted that the letters rō, sā are at the end of the alphabet and are borrowed letters.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Niue vowels are either long or short.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

In the letter, longitude is indicated by a special diacritic — macron (but there are exceptions).


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Phonology


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

anteraveragepostlongshortlongshortlonglonglongshorthighaveraging


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Short vowels are not indicated in writing by Macron: mitaki (good), ufi (yams).


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Long vowels in writing are indicated by a macron: laā (sun), ō (go).


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Notes


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

References


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Literature


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Polinskaya, M. S. Niue language.


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

M.: “Eastern literature”, 1995


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Category:Niue languages


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Category:New Zealand languages


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Category:Cook Islands languages


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Category:Tongan languages


Question: What is the official language on Niue Island?

Niue language

Category:Polynesian languages


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins (proteins, polypeptides [1]) are high molecular weight organic substances consisting of alpha-amino acids chained by a peptide bond.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In living organisms, the amino acid composition of proteins is determined by the genetic code, in most cases, 20 standard amino acids are used in the synthesis.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Many combinations of them create protein molecules with a wide variety of properties.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In addition, amino acid residues in the protein are often subjected to post-translational modifications that can occur both before the protein begins to perform its function and during its “work” in a cage.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Often in living organisms, several molecules of different proteins form complex complexes, for example, a photosynthetic complex.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The functions of proteins in cells of living organisms are more diverse than those of other biopolymers — polysaccharides and DNA.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Thus, enzyme proteins catalyze the course of biochemical reactions and play an important role in metabolism.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Some proteins perform a structural or mechanical function, forming a cytoskeleton that supports the shape of cells.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins also play a key role in cell signaling systems, in the immune response, and in the cell cycle.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins are an important part of animal and human nutrition (the main sources are meat, poultry, fish, milk, nuts, legumes, cereals; to a lesser extent: vegetables, fruits, berries and mushrooms), since their bodies do not all essential amino acids can be synthesized and some must be supplied with protein foods.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

During digestion, enzymes break down consumed proteins into amino acids that are used to biosynthesize the body's own proteins or undergo further breakdown for energy.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Determining the amino acid sequence of the first protein, insulin, by protein sequencing won Frederick Sanger the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The first three-dimensional structures of hemoglobin and myoglobin proteins were obtained by X-ray diffraction, respectively, by Max Perutz and John Kendrew in the late 1950s [2] [3], for which in 1962 They won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Study history


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

For the first time, protein was obtained (in the form of gluten) in 1728 by Italian Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari from wheat flour.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins were isolated into a separate class of biological molecules in the 18th century as a result of the work of the French chemist Antoine de Fourcroix and other scientists, who noted the property of proteins to coagulate ( denature) under the influence of heat or acids.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

At that time, proteins such as albumin (“egg white”), fibrin (blood protein) and gluten from wheat grain were studied.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

At the beginning of the 19th century, some information on the elementary composition of proteins was already obtained, and it was known that amino acids were formed during protein hydrolysis.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Some of these amino acids (e.g. glycine and leucine) have already been characterized.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Dutch chemist Gerrit Mulder, based on the analysis of the chemical composition of proteins, hypothesized that almost all proteins have a similar empirical formula.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In 1836, Mulder proposed the first model of the chemical structure of proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Based on the theory of radicals, after several refinements, he came to the conclusion that the minimum structural unit of the protein has the following composition: C40H62N10O12.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

He called this unit “protein” (Pr) (from Greek: protos is the first, primary), and the theory - “protein theory” [4].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The term “protein” itself was proposed by the Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius [5].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

According to Mulder, each protein consists of several protein units, sulfur and phosphorus.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

For example, he suggested writing the fibrin formula as 10prSP.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Mulder also studied the products of protein destruction - amino acids and for one of them (leucine) determined the molecular weight of 131 daltons with a small fraction of error.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

As new data on proteins accumulated, protein theory began to be criticized, but despite this, it was still considered generally accepted until the late 1850s.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

By the end of the 19th century, most of the amino acids that make up proteins had been studied.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In the late 1880s, Russian scientist A. ME.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Danilevsky noted the existence of peptide groups (CO-NH) in the protein molecule [6] [7].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In 1894, German physiologist Albrecht Kossel put forward a theory according to which amino acids are the main structural elements of proteins [8].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

At the beginning of the 20th century, German chemist Emil Fischer experimentally proved that proteins consist of amino acid residues connected by peptide bonds.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

He also performed the first analysis of the amino acid sequence of the protein and explained the phenomenon of proteolysis.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

However, the central role of proteins in organisms was not recognized until 1926, when the American chemist James Sumner (later Nobel Prize winner in chemistry) showed that the urease enzyme is protein [9].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The difficulty of isolating pure proteins made it difficult to study them.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Therefore, the first studies were carried out using those polypeptides that could easily be purified in large quantities, that is, blood proteins, chicken eggs, various toxins, and digestive/metabolic enzymes released after slaughtering livestock.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In the late 1950s, Armour Hot Dog Co.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

was able to clear a kilogram of bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A, which has become an experimental object for many studies.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The idea that the secondary structure of proteins is the result of the formation of hydrogen bonds between amino acid residues was expressed by William Astbury in 1933, but Linus Pauling is considered the first scientist who was able to successfully predict the secondary structure of proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Later, Walter Caseman, based on the work of Kai Linnerström-Lang, made a significant contribution to understanding the laws of formation of the tertiary structure of proteins and the role of hydrophobic interactions in this process.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Frederick Sanger developed a protein sequencing method, by which he determined the amino acid sequence of two insulin chains by 1955 [10] [11] [12], demonstrating that proteins are linear polymers of amino acids, and not branched (as in some sugars) chains, colloids, or cyclols.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The first protein whose amino acid sequence was established by Soviet/Russian scientists was aspartate aminotransferase in 1972 [13] [14].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The first spatial structures of proteins obtained by X-ray diffraction (X-ray diffraction analysis) became known in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and structures discovered with using nuclear magnetic resonance in the 1980s.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In 2012, the Protein Data Bank contained about 87,000 protein structures [15].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In the 21st century, protein research has moved to a qualitatively new level, when not only individual purified proteins are studied, but also the simultaneous change in the number and post-translational modifications a large number of proteins from individual cells, tissues, or entire organisms.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

This area of biochemistry is called proteomics.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

With the help of bioinformatics methods, it became possible not only to process data from X-ray diffraction analysis, but also to predict the structure of the protein based on its amino acid sequence.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Currently, cryoelectron microscopy of large protein complexes and the prediction of the spatial structures of protein domains using computer programs are approaching atomic accuracy [16].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Properties


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Size


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Protein size can be measured in the number of amino acid residues or in daltons (molecular weight), but due to the relatively large size of the molecule, the protein mass is expressed in derivative units — kilodaltons (kDa).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Yeast proteins, on average, consist of 466 amino acid residues and have a molecular weight of 53 kDa.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The largest currently known protein, titin, is a component of muscle sarcomers; the molecular weight of its various variants (isoforms) varies from 3,000 to 3,700 kDa.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Human soleus titin (Latin: soleus) consists of 38,138 amino acids [17].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Methods such as gel filtration, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometric analysis, sedimentation analysis and others are used to determine the molecular weight of proteins [18].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Physico-chemical properties


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Amphoteric


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins have the property of amphotericity, that is, depending on the conditions, they exhibit both acidic and basic properties.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins contain several types of chemical groups capable of ionization in an aqueous solution: carboxyl residues of the side chains of acidic amino acids (aspartic and glutamic acids) and nitrogen-containing groups of the side chains of the main amino acids (primarily the ε-amino group of lysine and the amidine residue CNH (NH2) of arginine, to a lesser extent, the imidazole residue of histidine).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Each protein is characterized by an isoelectric point (pI) - the acidity of the medium (pH), at which the total electrical charge of the molecules of this protein is zero and, accordingly, they do not move to electric field (for example, during electrophoresis).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

At the isoelectric point, protein hydration and solubility are minimal.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The pI value depends on the ratio of acidic and basic amino acid residues in the protein: proteins containing many acidic amino acid residues have isoelectric points in the acidic region (such proteins are called acidic), and proteins containing more basic residues are alkaline (basic proteins).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The PI value of this protein can also vary depending on the ionic strength and the type of buffer solution in which it is located, since neutral salts affect the degree of ionization of chemical groups squirrel.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The pI of a protein can be determined, for example, from the titration curve or by isoelectrofocusing [18].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In general, the PI of a protein depends on the function it performs: the isoelectric point of most proteins in vertebral tissues lies in the range from 5.5 to 7.0, but in some cases the values lie in extreme areas: for example, for pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme of strongly acidic gastric juice pI ~ 1 [19], and for salmin, salmon milk protamine protein, a feature of which is a high content arginine, — pI ~ 12.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins that bind to nucleic acids through electrostatic interaction with phosphate groups are often the main proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Histones and protamines are examples of such proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Solubility


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins vary in their water solubility.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Water-soluble proteins are called albumin, and these include blood and milk proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Insoluble, or scleroproteins, include, for example, keratin (the protein that makes up hair, mammalian hair, bird feathers, etc.) and fibroin, which is part of silk and web [20].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The solubility of a protein is determined not only by its structure, but by external factors, such as the nature of the solvent, ionic strength and pH of the solution [18].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins are also divided into hydrophilic (water-soluble) and hydrophobic (water repellent).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Hydrophilic includes most proteins of the cytoplasm, nucleus and intercellular substance, including insoluble keratin and fibroin.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Hydrophobic proteins include most proteins that make up biological membranes — integral membrane proteins that interact with hydrophobic membrane lipids [21] (in these proteins, like as a rule, there are hydrophilic sites).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Denaturation


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Protein denaturation refers to any changes in its biological activity and/or physico-chemical properties associated with the loss of quaternary, tertiary or secondary structure (see the section “Structure squirrel”).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

As a rule, proteins are quite stable under conditions (temperature, pH, etc.) under which they function normally in the body [9].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

A drastic change in these conditions leads to protein denaturation.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Depending on the nature of the denaturing agent, mechanical (strong mixing or shaking), physical (heating, cooling, irradiation, sonication) and chemical (acids) are isolated and alkalis, surfactants, urea) denaturation [18].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Protein denaturation can be complete or partial, reversible or irreversible.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The most famous case of irreversible protein denaturation in everyday life is the preparation of a chicken egg, when, under the influence of high temperature, the water-soluble transparent ovalbumin protein becomes dense, insoluble and opaque.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Denaturation is in some cases reversible, as in the case of precipitation of water-soluble proteins using ammonium salts (salting out method), and this method is used as a method for their purification [22].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Structure


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Protein molecules are linear polymers consisting of α-L-amino acid residues (which are monomers), proteins can also include modified amino acid residues and components of non-amino acid nature.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

One- or three-letter abbreviations are used to designate amino acids in the scientific literature.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Although at first glance it may seem that the use of “only” 20 types of amino acids in most proteins limits the variety of protein structures, in fact, the number of options is difficult overestimate: for a chain of 5 amino acid residues, it is already more than 3 million, and a chain of 100 amino acid residues (a small protein) can be presented in more than 10,130 variants.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins with a length of 2 to several dozen amino acid residues are often called peptides, with a greater degree of polymerization, proteins, although this division is very conditional.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

When protein is formed as a result of the interaction of the α-carboxyl group (-COOH) of one amino acid with the α-amino group (-NH2) of another amino acid, peptide bonds are formed.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The ends of the protein are called the N- and C-end, depending on which of the terminal amino acid residue groups is free: -NH2 or -COOH, respectively.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

When protein is synthesized on the ribosome, the first (N-terminal) amino acid residue is usually the methionine residue, and subsequent residues are attached to the C-end of the previous one.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Organization levels


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

K. Lindström-Lang proposed to distinguish 4 levels of structural organization of proteins: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Although this division is somewhat outdated, it continues to be used [4].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues) of a polypeptide is determined by the structure of its gene and genetic code, and structures of higher orders are formed during folding squirrel [23].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Although the spatial structure of a protein as a whole is determined by its amino acid sequence, it is quite labile and can depend on external conditions, so it is more correct to talk about preferred or most energetically advantageous protein conformation [4].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Primary structure


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The primary structure is a sequence of amino acid residues in a polypeptide chain.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The primary structure of the protein is usually described using one-letter or three-letter designations for amino acid residues.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Important features of the primary structure are conservative motives — stable combinations of amino acid residues that perform a certain function and are found in many proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Conservative motives persist during the evolution of species, and they often predict the function of an unknown protein [24].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

By the degree of homology (similarity) of amino acid sequences of proteins of different organisms, it is possible to estimate the evolutionary distance between the taxa to which these organisms belong.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The primary structure of a protein can be determined by protein sequencing methods or by the primary structure of its mRNA using the genetic code table.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Secondary structure


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The secondary structure is local ordering of a fragment of a polypeptide chain stabilized by hydrogen bonds.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The following are the most common types of protein secondary structure [23]:


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

α-spirals are dense coils around the long axis of the molecule.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

One turn is 3.6 amino acid residues, the helix pitch is 0.54 nm [25] (0.15 nm per amino acid residue).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The spiral is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between H and O peptide groups spaced 4 links from each other.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Although the α-helix can be either left-twisted or right-twisted, the right-twisted one prevails in proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The spiral disrupts the electrostatic interactions of glutamic acid, lysine, arginine.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Close to each other residues of asparagine, serine, threonine and leucine can sterically interfere with the formation of a spiral, proline residues cause chain bending and also disrupt the α-helix;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

β-sheets (folded layers) are several zigzag polypeptide chains in which hydrogen bonds are formed between relatively distant ones (0.34 nm per amino acid residue [26]) amino acids in the primary structure or different protein chains (and not closely located, as is the case in the α-helix).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

These chains are usually directed with their N-ends in opposite directions (antiparallel orientation) or to one side (parallel β-structure).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

It is also possible to have a mixed β-structure consisting of parallel and antiparallel β-structures [27].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

For the formation of β-sheets, the small size of the lateral groups of amino acids is important, usually glycine and alanine predominate;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

π-spirals;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

disordered fragments.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Tertiary structure


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The tertiary structure is the spatial structure of a polypeptide chain.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Structurally, it consists of elements of the secondary structure stabilized by various types of interactions, in which hydrophobic interactions play an important role.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The following take part in stabilizing the tertiary structure:


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

covalent bonds (disulfide bridges between two cysteine residues);


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

ion bonds between oppositely charged side groups of amino acid residues;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

hydrogen bonds;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

hydrophobic interactions.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

When interacting with surrounding water molecules, the protein molecule collapses so that the non-polar side groups of amino acids are isolated from the aqueous solution; on the surface of the molecule there are polar hydrophilic side groups.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Studies of the principles of protein stacking have shown that it is convenient to distinguish another level between the level of the secondary structure and the atomic spatial structure — the laying motif (architecture, structural motive).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The laying motif is determined by the mutual arrangement of the elements of the secondary structure (α-spirals and β-strands) within the protein domain - a compact globule that can exist either on its own or be part of a larger protein along with other domains.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Let us consider, for example, one of the characteristic motifs of protein structure.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The globular protein shown in the figure on the right, triosophosphate isomerase, has a stacking motif called an α/β-cylinder: 8 parallel β-strands form a β-cylinder inside another cylinder, composed of 8 α-spirals.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

This motif is found in about 10% of proteins [28].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

It is known that styling motifs are quite conservative and occur in proteins that have neither functional nor evolutionary connections.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Determining stacking motives underlies the physical or rational classification of proteins (such as CATH or SCOP) [28].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

To determine the spatial structure of the protein, methods of X-ray diffraction analysis, nuclear magnetic resonance and some types of microscopy are used.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Quaternary structure


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The quaternary structure (or subunit, domain) is the mutual arrangement of several polypeptide chains as part of a single protein complex.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Protein molecules that make up a protein with a quaternary structure are formed separately on ribosomes and only after the synthesis is completed form a common supramolecular structure.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The protein with a quaternary structure may include both identical and different polypeptide chains.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The same types of interactions take part in the stabilization of the quaternary structure as in the stabilization of the tertiary structure.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Supramolecular protein complexes can consist of dozens of molecules.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Classification by type of structure


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

According to the general type of structure, proteins can be divided into three groups:


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Fibrillar proteins form polymers, their structure is usually highly regular and is supported mainly by interactions between different chains.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

They form microfilaments, microtubules, fibrils, and support the structure of cells and tissues.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Fibrillar proteins include keratin and collagen.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Globular proteins are water-soluble, the general shape of the molecule is more or less spherical.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Membrane proteins — have domains crossing the cell membrane, but parts of them protrude from the membrane into the intercellular environment and cytoplasm of the cell.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Membrane proteins perform the function of receptors, that is, they transmit signals, and also provide transmembrane transport of various substances.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Transporter proteins are specific, each of them passes only certain molecules or a certain type of signal through the membrane.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Simple and complex proteins


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In addition to peptide chains, many proteins also include non-amino acid groups, and according to this criterion, proteins are divided into two large groups — simple and complex proteins (proteins).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Simple proteins consist only of polypeptide chains, complex proteins also contain non-amino acid, or prosthetic, groups.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Depending on the chemical nature of prosthetic groups, the following classes are distinguished among complex proteins [20]:


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Glycoproteins containing covalently bound carbohydrate residues as a prosthetic group; glycoproteins containing mucopolysaccharide residues belong to the proteoglycan subclass.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Hydroxyl groups of serine or threonine are usually involved in the formation of a bond with carbohydrate residues.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Most extracellular proteins, in particular immunoglobulins, belong to glycoproteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In proteoglycans, the carbohydrate part is ~ 95% of the total mass of the protein molecule, they are the main component of the intercellular matrix;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Lipoproteins containing non-covalently bound lipids as a prosthetic part.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Lipoproteins formed by apolipoprotein proteins and their binding lipids are used to transport lipids in the blood;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Metalloproteins containing non-heme coordinated bound metal ions.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Metalloproteins include proteins that perform depositing and transport functions (for example, iron-containing ferritin and transferrin) and enzymes (for example, zinc-containing carbonic anhydrase and various superoxide dismutases containing ions of copper, manganese, iron and other metals in active centers);


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Nucleoproteins containing non-covalently bound DNA or RNA.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Nucleoproteins include chromatin, which makes up chromosomes;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Phosphoproteins containing covalently bound phosphoric acid residues as a prosthetic group.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Hydroxyl groups of serine, threonine and tyrosine participate in the formation of an ester bond with phosphate.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Phosphoprotein, in particular, is milk casein [29];


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Chromoproteins containing colored prosthetic groups of various chemical nature.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

These include many proteins with a metal-containing porphyrin prosthetic group that perform various functions: hemoproteins (proteins containing heme as a prosthetic group, for example, hemoglobin and cytochromes), chlorophylls, flavoproteids with a flavin group, etc.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Protein biophysics


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The physical properties of the protein in the cell, taking into account the aqueous membrane, are very complex.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The hypothesis about the protein as an ordered “crystal-like system” — “aperiodic crystal” [30] [31] — is supported by X-ray diffraction analysis data (up to a resolution of 1 angstrom) [32] , high packing density [33], cooperatives of the denaturation process [34] and other facts [35].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Another hypothesis, the liquid properties of proteins in the processes of intraglobular movements (a model of limited hopping or continuous diffusion), are supported by scattering experiments neutrons [36], Mössbauer spectroscopy [37] [38].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Synthesis


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Biosynthesis


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Universal method: ribosomal synthesis


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins are synthesized by living organisms from amino acids based on information encoded in genes.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Each protein consists of a unique sequence of amino acid residues, which is determined by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding this protein.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The genetic code is a method for translating the nucleotide sequence of DNA (via RNA) into the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

This code determines the correspondence between the three-nucleotide regions of RNA, called codons, and certain amino acids that are included in the protein: for example, the AUG nucleotide sequence corresponds to methionine.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Since DNA consists of four types of nucleotides, the total number of possible codons is 64; and since proteins use 20 amino acids, many amino acids are determined by more than one codon.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Three codons are insignificant: they serve as signals to stop the synthesis of the polypeptide chain and are called terminator codons, or stop codons [39].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Genes encoding proteins are first transcribed into a messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotide sequence by RNA polymerase enzymes.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In the vast majority of cases, proteins of living organisms are synthesized on ribosomes, multicomponent molecular machines present in the cytoplasm of cells.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The process of synthesis of a polypeptide chain by a ribosome on an mRNA matrix is called translation [39].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Ribosomal protein synthesis is fundamentally the same in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but differs in some details.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Thus, prokaryote mRNA can be read by ribosomes into the amino acid sequence of proteins immediately after transcription or even before its completion [40].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In eukaryotes, the primary transcript must first undergo a series of modifications and move to the cytoplasm (to the site of ribosome localization) before translation can begin.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The rate of protein synthesis is higher in prokaryotes and can reach 20 amino acids per second [41].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Even before translation begins, aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzymes specifically attach amino acids to their corresponding transport RNA (tRNA).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The tRNA site, called an anticodon, can complement the mRNA codon, thereby ensuring the inclusion of the amino acid residue attached to the tRNA in the polypeptide chain in according to the genetic code.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

During the initial stage of translation, initiation, the initiator (usually methionine) codon is recognized by the small subunit of the ribosome, to which it is attached using protein initiation factors aminoacylated methionine tRNA.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

After recognizing the starting codon, a large subunit joins the small subunit of the ribosome, and the second stage of translation begins — elongation.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

At each step of the ribosome from the 5'- to the 3'-end of mRNA, one codon is read by forming hydrogen bonds between it and the complementary anticodon of transport RNA, to which it is attached corresponding amino acid residue.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The formation of a peptide bond between the last amino acid residue of the growing peptide and the amino acid residue attached to tRNA is catalyzed by ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which forms peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

This center positions nitrogen and carbon atoms in a position favorable for the reaction to take place.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The third and last stage of translation, termination, occurs when the ribosome reaches the stop codon, after which the termination protein factors hydrolyze the bond between the last tRNA and the polypeptide chain, by stopping its synthesis.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In ribosomes, proteins are always synthesized from the N- to C-terminus [39].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Neribosomal synthesis


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In lower fungi and some bacteria, an additional (non-ribosomal, or multienzyme) method of biosynthesis of peptides is known, as a rule, of small and unusual structure.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The synthesis of these peptides, usually secondary metabolites, is carried out by a high-molecular protein complex, NRS synthase, without the direct participation of ribosomes.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

NRS synthase usually consists of several domains or individual proteins that select amino acids, form a peptide bond, and release the synthesized peptide.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Together, these domains make up a module.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Each module ensures the inclusion of one amino acid in the synthesized peptide.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Thus, NRS synthases can consist of one or more modules.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Sometimes these complexes include a domain capable of isomerizing L-amino acids (normal form) into D-form [42] [43].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Chemical synthesis


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Short proteins can be synthesized chemically using organic synthesis methods, for example, chemical ligation [44].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Most often, chemical synthesis of the peptide occurs in the direction from the C-end to the N-end, as opposed to biosynthesis on ribosomes.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Short immunogenic peptides (epitopes) are obtained by chemical synthesis, which are then injected into animals in order to obtain specific antibodies or hybrids.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In addition, this method is also used to produce inhibitors of certain enzymes [45].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Chemical synthesis makes it possible to introduce amino acid residues into proteins that are not found in ordinary proteins, for example, those to the side chains of which fluorescent tags are attached.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Chemical methods of protein synthesis have a number of limitations: they are ineffective with a protein length of more than 300 amino acid residues, artificially synthesized proteins may have an irregular tertiary structure and they do not have typical post - broadcast modifications (see below).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Post-broadcast modification


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

After translation is completed, most proteins undergo further chemical modifications, called post-translational modifications [46].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

More than two hundred variants of post-translational protein modifications are known [47].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Post-translational modifications can regulate the duration of proteins in the cell, their enzymatic activity and interactions with other proteins.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In some cases, post-translational modifications are a mandatory stage in protein maturation, otherwise it is functionally inactive.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

For example, when insulin and some other hormones mature, limited proteolysis of the polypeptide chain is required, and glycosylation is required when plasma membrane proteins mature.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Post-broadcast modifications can be either widespread or rare, up to unique ones.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

An example of a universal modification is ubiquitination (the attachment of a chain of several molecules of the short ubiquitin protein to a protein), which serves as a signal for the breakdown of this protein by the proteasome [48].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Another common modification is glycosylation — it is believed that about half of human proteins are glycosylated [49].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Rare modifications include tyrosination/detirosination and polyglycylation of tubulin [50].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

The same protein can undergo numerous modifications.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Thus, histones (proteins that make up chromatin in eukaryotes) can undergo more than 150 different modifications under different conditions [51].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Post-broadcast modifications are divided into:


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

modifications to the main chain;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

cleavage of N-terminal methionine residue;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

limited proteolysis — removal of a protein fragment that can occur at the ends (cleavage of signal sequences) or, in some cases, in the middle of the molecule (insulin maturation);


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

attachment of various chemical groups to free amino- and carboxyl groups (N-acylation, myristoylation, etc. );


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

amino acid side chain modifications;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

addition or cleavage of small chemical groups (glycosylation, phosphorylation, etc. );


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

addition of lipids and hydrocarbons;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

change of standard amino acid residues to non-standard ones (citrulline formation);


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

formation of disulfide bridges between cysteine residues;


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

addition of small proteins (sumoilization and ubiquitination).


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Lifecycle


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Intracellular transport and sorting


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell must be transported to different cell organoids: nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (EPR), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, etc.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

, and some proteins must enter the extracellular environment [52].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

To enter a certain part of the cell, the protein must have a specific label.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

In most cases, this label is part of the amino acid sequence of the protein itself (the leader peptide, or protein signal sequence), but in some cases the label is oligosaccharides post-translationally attached to the protein [53].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins are transported to EPR as they are synthesized, since ribosomes that synthesize proteins with a signal sequence for EPR “sit” on special proteins on its outer membrane [54].


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

From the EPR to the Golgi apparatus, and from there to the lysosomes and to the outer membrane or into the extracellular environment, proteins enter by vesicular transport.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins that have a nuclear localization signal enter the nucleus through nuclear pores.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Proteins with appropriate signal sequences enter mitochondria and chloroplasts through specific protein pores, translocators with the participation of chaperones.


Question: Who first discovered the protein molecule?

Proteins

Structural maintenance and degradation