Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Philo, commenting on Scripture, often imposes on the Torah, contrary to its obvious meaning, a platonic interpretation.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Thus, he talks about God's double creation of the world.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In his opinion, first a intelligible world of ideas was created and only then a real, sensually perceived world was created.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

When explaining any biblical plot or image, Philo proceeded from the idea that the Torah is based on a description of the ascent of the soul from the bodily and earthly to the contemplation of the heavenly and divine, and in the end, to contemplation of God.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In this regard, Philo proposes the etymology of the name “Israel” (English - Israel).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In his opinion, the ethnonym Israel should be interpreted as “seeing God” [19].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Philo of Alexandria had a significant impact on the development of Christian philosophy in general, and on the development of patristics in particular.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The significance of Philo of the Jews for patristic thought was determined primarily by his role as an intermediary between the biblical and philosophical tradition.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Due to the proximity of many of Philo's thoughts to Christian teaching, a legend arose that he was a secret Christian [20].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Interestingly, Philo's works were not known to Jewish philosophers of the Middle Ages, who could only experience indirect, indirect influence of his ideas.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It was only in the 16th century, thanks to Azaria de Rossi, that Philo's works regained fame among Jews.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Apocrypha and pseudo-epigraphs


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Hellenistic period witnessed the emergence, both in and outside Judea, of extensive Jewish literature, close in style and content to biblical writings.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Among the works related to the Tanakh in their themes or motives, but are not included in the Jewish canon, it is customary to distinguish two groups — apocrypha and pseudo-epigraphs [21].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Apocrypha are mostly anonymous works of a historical, narrative and didactic nature, and pseudo-epigraphs are books of visions and revelations attributed to biblical patriarchs, kings, heroes and prophets.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the Jewish tradition, both apocrypha and pseudo-epigaphs are commonly called “external books” (Hebrew: spharim chitsoniim).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Most apocrypha and pseudo-epigraphs have undoubted historiographic significance.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In addition, some of them are valuable not only for their historical or religious content, but also for their philosophical content.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Book of Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach, is one of the most famous apocrypha, whose authority is recognized by both Jewish and Christian theologians.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the Vatican Code, the book is called “The Wisdom of Sirach” (Greek: Sophia Sirah), in Alexandria and Sinai it is called “The Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach” (Greek: Sophia Isou Sirah).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

There are also three versions of the Hebrew title of the book: “The Book of Ben Syra” (“The Book of Ben Syra”), “The Wisdom of Ben Syra” (“The Wisdom of Ben Syra”).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the Catholic world, the book is also known as Latin: Ecclesiasticus [22].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The author of “Wisdom...” is considered to be Joshua Ben-Sira (full name - Shimon ben Yeoshua ben Eleazar ben Syrah).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The book was written approximately between 195 and 170 BC.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

in Hebrew and translated into Greek by the author's grandson in Alexandria ca.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

132 BC


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The structure of the book distinguishes three parts [23]: moralizing (chapters 1-42); glorifying the Wisdom of God in nature (chapters 42-43); historiosophical (chapters 43-51).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

One of the central places in the book is occupied by the philosophical and theological doctrine of the Wisdom of God, which even before any creation came out of the mouth of the Most High and is His Word.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

“Before a century from the beginning, He produced me,” Wisdom says of itself, “and I will not die forever” (Ser 24:10).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The wisdom of the Supreme manifests itself both in nature and in society.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It “covered the earth like a cloud,” writes Ben Syrah, “went around the circle of heaven and walked in the depths of the abyss; in the waves of the sea and throughout the earth and in every nation and tribe had... possession” (Ser. 24:5-6).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

However, God's Wisdom finds its highest expression in the Book of Law.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Torah of Moses (Greek: nomon on eteilato imin Mūsus) has absorbed divine Wisdom in all its incomprehensibility so that even “the first man has not achieved full knowledge of it, does not explore it either, and the latter, for her thoughts are fuller than the sea, and its intentions are deeper than the great abyss” (Ser 24:30-31).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It is impossible to achieve the Wisdom of the Supreme only in a rational way, since the abilities of the human mind are limited.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Ben Syrah warns: “Do not look for a difficult measure for you, and whatever is beyond your strength, do not test it. Think about what you are commanded; for you do not need what is hidden” (Ser 3:21-22).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

These words of Ben Sira are referred to by the Talmud (Hagiga 13a), midrashi (Bereishit Raba, VII), and Maimonides in the treatise “Guide of the Confused” (Chapter 32), speaking about the limits of human cognitive capabilities [24].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Fear of God (Greek: fopos kurio) is the only and true way to gain Wisdom, “for Wisdom and Knowledge are fear of the Lord” (Sire 1:27).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Book of Wisdom of Solomon.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to the EEE, Solomon's Book of Wisdom is one of the apocrypha.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Some researchers refer it to pseudo-epigraphs [25].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Apparently, the book was written in Greek in Alexandria by an anonymous author (the so-called Pseudo-Solomon) during the reign of Emperor Gaius Caligula (37 — 41 AD) [26].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Greek title of the book is Sophia Salomontos (Sophia Salomontos).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The book was addressed primarily to Jews of Alexandria who had mastered Hellenic education.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Nevertheless, the content of the first (apologetic) part of the book suggests that Pseudo-Solomon also meant a pagan audience.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The first five chapters of Solomon's Wisdom are directed against the ideas of skeptics and the vulgar modification of epicureism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Pseudo-Solomon objects to skeptics who believe that the world is full of evil, suffering and injustice due to the indifference and connivance of the Creator.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The author of the book offers his own version of theodicy: “God did not create death,” he writes, “and does not rejoice at the death of the living, for He created everything for being... Lie causes death: the wicked attracted it with their hands , and words” (Prem. 1:13-16).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Thus, Pseudo-Solomon justifies God by saying that the Creator is absolute being and good; evil and nothingness (death) stem from the wickedness and foolishness of man.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The author of the Book of Wisdom condemns people who are full of skepticism and prefer earthly pleasures instead of eternity.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to the sage, the world is not limited to this vale of sorrow, and anyone who follows the ways of God can gain the fullness of eternity.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Chapters 6-9 make up the second part of the book and are devoted to the Wisdom of God.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It is nothing more than a Divine power that manifests itself and reveals itself in the universe.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The human mind is a reflection of the highest Wisdom.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The author calls divine Wisdom the “artist of everything” (Greek: η panton teknitis — he panton technitis) (Prem. 7:13-16).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He also calls it “the pure mirror of Divine energy” (Greek: esoptron akelidoton tis tu tu tu eonergeis — esopton akelidoton tes tu theu energeyas) (Prem. 7:26) or even “the all-healing Logos” ( Greek: logos o panta imenos — logos ho panta chiomenos) (Prem. 16:12).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The last part of the book is predominantly historiosophical, where Pseudo-Solomon sets out the traditional biblical view of history, interpreting it as a single path of the human race, as a drama relationships between people and God [27].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Fourth Book of the Maccabees is an apocrypha written according to one version in the 1st century BC. e.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

in Alexandria [28], according to another in the 1st century AD.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

in Antioch, Syria [29].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The EEE describes this apocrypha as a philosophical sermon dedicated to the struggle of the pious mind with affects.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Researchers do not agree on the authorship of the book.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Even in the days of early patristics, some church fathers attributed the authorship of this apocrypha to the great Jewish historian Josephus Flavius.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

However, today most scholars strongly deny the fact that the book belongs to his pen [30].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the Fourth Book of the Maccabees, two semantic parts can be distinguished: the first is a philosophical introduction, the second is the story of the martyrdom of Elder Eleazar, as well as the seven brothers and their mother.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the philosophical introduction, the author raises the main question of his book, then dividing it into four sub-questions: “So we ask: are passions held back by judgment? - he writes. - And we consider: what is prudence? And what is passion? And how many types of passions? And are they all held back by judgment?” (4 Macc. 1:13-14) [31].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The very formulation of these questions testifies to the influence of stoicism; the author draws answers to them from the Jewish tradition, enriching abstract philosophical provisions with examples from the lives of biblical heroes.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It should be noted that the intertwining of Greek philosophy and traditional Jewish motifs is characteristic of the entire Fourth Book of the Maccabees as a whole.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Thus, the author presents the commandments of the Torah as the most perfect principles of stoic self-curbing and self-education.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Thus, the place of the Stoic is taken by a person who fears God and follows His commandments; true heroism is interpreted as the victory of reason over affects, thanks to which man acquires the ability to endure suffering courageously.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

An example of such heroism is the martyrdom of countless victims of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Medieval Jewish philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

General characteristics of Jewish philosophy of the Middle Ages


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy in the Middle Ages developed in parallel with Christian and Islamic philosophy, and here the starting points are Neoplatonism and Aristotelism [32].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Medieval Jewish philosophy developed rapidly at the beginning of the 10th century against the background of a general cultural revival in the Muslim East and continued to develop in the countries of Islam - in North Africa, Spain and Egypt are about 300 years old.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Jews of this period spoke, read and wrote Arabic and thus could take part in the creation of a common culture of their era.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Most of the works of Jewish philosophy of this time were written in Judeo-Arabic.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

By the end of the 12th century, Jewish communities in the world of Islam had fallen into decline; at the same time, more favorable conditions for the development of philosophical thought began to develop in Christian countries (Christian Spain, southern France and Italy).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy of this period was also largely based on sources related to the Islamic philosophical tradition, but some Jewish philosophers were also influenced by the Christian scholastics.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The main representatives of medieval Jewish philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Saadia ben Yosef (882—942) was the first major Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages, the founder of Jewish rationalist philosophy.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Under the influence of mutazilites, he tried to create Jewish kalam, using the concepts of the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His main philosophical work is Kitab al-amanat wa-l-i'tikadat (The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, Hebrew title Sefer Emunot ve Deot).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Isaac Israeli (c. 855-955) was the founder of Neoplatonism in Jewish philosophy.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Of his philosophical works, most of which have been translated from Arabic into Hebrew and Latin, the most famous is Kitab al-Hudud (The Book of Definitions, the Hebrew name Sefer ha-gwulim).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Shlomo ben Yehuda ibn Gabirol (c. 1021-c. 1058), Latinized name - Avitsebron.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He is the most significant representative of Neoplatonism in philosophy.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Ibn Gabirol's philosophical teachings are set out in Mekor Haim (Source of Life), Tikun Midot Hafesh (Improvement of Moral Qualities) and in the philosophical poem Keter Malchut (Royal Crown).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Arabic original of Mekor Haim has not been preserved, but its full translation into Latin (“Fons vital”) has been preserved, which was widespread in Christian scholastic circles.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Its author, known in these circles as Avitsebron or Avemtsebrol, was mistaken for a Muslim or Christian Arab.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Bahja ibn Pakuda (second half of the 11th century) was a Jewish moralist philosopher.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The main work of Ibn Pakuda is the treatise Kitab al-Hidaya ila Faraid al-Kulub (Book of Instructions on the Duties of the Heart, Hebrew name Hovot Alevavot) written in Arabic around 1080.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

This treatise reflects the influences of different areas of philosophy and mysticism: Neoplatonism, Kalam, Sufism and others.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Bahja willingly quotes both Jewish and Muslim sources.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham Ben-hya (1065—1136), the Latinized name is Savasorda.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham bar Hiya was the first to write philosophical writings in Hebrew.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His philosophical ideas, reflecting the influence of Neoplatonism and aristotelism, are set out in Hegyon ha-nefesh ha-atsuwa (Reflections on a Saddened Soul) and the messianic treatise Megilat ha-megale Redeemer Scroll”).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Joseph ben Yaakov ibn Tzaddik (died 1149) is the author of Sefer ha-olam ha-katan (The Book of the Microcosm), an eclectic Neoplatonic work with traces of the influence of aristotelism and kalam, apparently written as a textbook for beginners in the study of philosophy.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Moshe ben Yaakov ibn Ezra (c. 1055—c. 1135) is the author of al-Makala bi-l-hadiqa fi ma'na-l-majaz wa-l-hakiq (Paradise Treatise on the Meaning of Hidden and True Meaning), partially translated into Hebrew under the name “Agurat ha-bosem” - “Incense Ridge”).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra (1092 or 1093—1167) was an outstanding Jewish philosopher and poet.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His philosophical statements are scattered among the many commentaries on the Bible, and their meaning is often disguised by a deliberately mysterious form of presentation.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham ibn Ezra was heavily influenced by Neoplatonism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His writings often reveal pantheistic motives — the identification or excessive rapprochement of God and His creation.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Yehuda haLevi (Halevi) (c. 1075—1141) was one of the greatest Jewish poets of the Middle Ages, was the author of the philosophical work Kitab al-Hijaja v-ad-dalil fi nasr al-din al-Zalil (The Book evidence and arguments in defense of humiliated faith”), better known as “Sefer ha-kuzari” (“The Book of Khazar”).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham ben David ha-Levi ibn Daud (c. 1110—ca. 1180).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham ben David was the first Jewish aristotelic, author of Al-Aqida al-Rafiya (Sublime Faith, translated into Hebrew as Ha-emuna ha-nisaa in 1161.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Ibn Daud's work reflects Ibn Sina's influence.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Asserting the identity of the essence of Judaism and philosophy, Ibn Daud begins by explaining the metaphysical concepts of aristotelism, and then quotes Bible verses that, in his opinion, contain a hint of these concepts.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Using these concepts, Ibn Daud examines topics such as the existence of God, His unity, Divine attributes, God's actions (including creation), prophecy, and allegorical interpretation of terms, that liken God to created beings.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Moshe ben Maimon (1135—1204), Latinized name - Maimonides, acronym - Rambam, in the Russian tradition Moses Maimonides or Moses of Egypt is the largest representative of aristotelism in medieval Jewish philosophy and, in general, the most important Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Maimonides highly appreciated Aristotle, whose works he read in Arabic translation.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Maimonides saw the purpose of his own works as “harmonizing the Torah with true science”, that is, with the teachings of Aristotle [33].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

If Philo of Alexandria interpreted in the light of Platonism, Maimonides attracted aristotelism to exegesis.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

One of the main philosophical works of Maimonides is the Guide to the Confused (Arab. Dalalat al-khairin, heb.” More newuhim”) [34].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Hillel ben Samuel (c. 1220—1295) was one of the first Jewish philosophers in Italy, who translated the Neoplatonic Book of Reasons from Latin into Hebrew and wrote Tagmulei ha-nefesh Soul rewards”).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Knowing Latin, he could use the views of Christian scholastics, including Thomas Aquinas.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His views are a mixture of Neoplatonism and aristotelism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Levi ben Abraham ben Haim (1240—1250 —?) — rationalist philosopher, caused a strong rebuff and intra-Jewish controversy with his book “The Circlet of Mercy”, in particular allegorism in the approach to Scripture.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Levi ben Gershom (1288—1344), Latinized name - Lev Gersonides, acronym - Ralbag - the largest Jewish aristotelic after Maimonides.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The main work is Sefer Milhamot Ha-Sham (The Book of the Wars of the Lord).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He was also an outstanding astronomer and made an important contribution to mathematics.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Moshe Narboni (1300? —1362?) is an aristotelic, commentator of Maimonides and Arab philosophers, as well as a doctor and author of a treatise on medicine.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He affirmed the constant flow of the World from God, as well as the ability of a person to join Active Intelligence.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Hasdai ben Abraham Creskas (1340—1410) or Don Creskas is a significant critic of aristotelism in Jewish philosophy.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Hasdai Creskas was one of the first Europeans to criticize Aristotle.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In his philosophy, he opposed Maimonides and Gersonides [35].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to his understanding of Judaism, keeping the commandments and love of God are preferred over the intellectual virtues of man.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The main work is “Or Adonai” (“The Light of the Lord”).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Jewish Renaissance philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

After Kreskas, medieval Jewish philosophy began to decline.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It loses its former originality and becomes more eclectic in its content.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Most philosophers take more orthodox positions.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Nevertheless, some Jewish thinkers did try to express in their works the trends of a new era — the Renaissance.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Yitzhak ben Yehuda Abravanel (1437—1508) (in the Spanish tradition of Don Abrabanel) was one of the first Jewish scholars whose philosophical writings reflected the influence of the concepts of Renaissance humanism [36].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The eldest son of Yitzhak Abravanel Yehuda ben Yitzhak Abravanel (c. 1460— after 1523), also known as Leone Ebreo or Leo Hebreus, was close in his philosophical views to the ideas of the famous Italian humanist Pico della Mirandola.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to some reports, it was Pico della Mirandole who dedicated his unpreserved work on heavenly harmony to young Yehuda Abravanel.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His main work, written in Italian, is called Dialogues about Love (circa 1535).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In this work, Yehuda Abravanel appears as one of the greatest Neoplatonic philosophers of the Renaissance.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The purpose of love, according to Abravanel, is the pleasure gained by a lover in merging with the object of love, which is the embodiment of good and beautiful.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The highest manifestation of love is the merging of all things with God as the embodiment of supreme goodness and supreme beauty.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Mutual love between the world and the Creator creates a “love circle”.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

All the elements of the universe come together in this circle.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

As a Neoplatonic, Abravanel at the same time tries to reconcile his panentheistic and, to some extent, hedonistic views with the spirit of Judaism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The Jewish philosopher Eliyahu ben Moshe Abba Delmedigo (c. 1460—1497) was influenced by Christian Platonism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He wrote several philosophical works, including Bhinat ha-dat (The Study of Religion).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

This work is based on a treatise by the Arab philosopher and physician Ibn Rushd, which examines the relationship of philosophy to religion.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Eliyahu Delmedigo also contributed to the development of European philosophy, introducing Italian Renaissance scientists to the teachings of both Ibn Rushd and Maimonides.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

A famous scientist and philosopher was also a descendant of Eliyahu Delmedigo Joseph Shlomo Delmedigo (1591—1655), also known as Joseph Shlomo (Solomon) Rofe (Physician), acronym Yashar (Yashar).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

As a student of Galileo, Joseph Delmedigo was the first Jewish thinker to support the heliocentric system of Copernicus.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He also denied the differences between the earthly and celestial worlds.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Joseph Delmedigo criticized the Aristotelian doctrine of form, believing that the idea of material substance and its qualities is sufficient to explain the world.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He also rejected the Aristotelian doctrine of the disembodied engines of the spheres.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Following Plato, he recognized the soul as a substance that connects to the body.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Joseph Delmedig's most famous work is called Eilim, which presents a detailed apology for the Copernican coup in astronomy, and attempts to combine the Copernicus heliocentric system with traditional Jewish cosmology.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy in modern times


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Prerequisites for the emergence of Jewish philosophy of modern times


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The ideas of the Enlightenment, which originated in England in the second half of the 17th century and became widespread in Europe in the 18th century, were also picked up by Jewish thinkers.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the XVI-XVII centuries, Western European Jewry formed a stratum of wealthy and authoritative members of the community, who, due to their wealth and extensive commercial ties, find themselves in close contact with the elite of Christian society.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Increasingly, Jews are becoming major suppliers of goods for the European court, coins, bankers and even diplomats.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Wealthy members of the Jewish community are beginning to be burdened by their vague legal status; some of them convert to Christianity in order to enter the civil service, get officer rank in the army, to settle in a city where entry for Jews was restricted.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It is in modern times that a small part of the advanced Jewish youth have the opportunity to receive not only traditional religious, but also European secular education.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Many of them were not ready to abandon the Jewish faith so easily, and the humiliated situation of their fellow tribesmen made them feel heartache and seek a philosophical solution to the contradiction between the dynamic the reality of bourgeois Europe and the conservative Jewish way of life based on the Torah.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Thus, ideas gradually began to arise that there is only one way to stay with your people in the current conditions — to modernize the Jewish people, in accordance with the requirements of a new social reality.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

These views are called “Haskala” (Hebrew: education) [37].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Some representatives of modern Jewish philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza (1632—1677) was the first Jewish philosopher of modern times, an outstanding European philosopher of the Enlightenment.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Despite the fact that the pantheistic system set out in Spinoza's main work Ethics contradicts traditional Jewish beliefs, according to some researchers [38], there are good reasons to include Spinoza among Jewish philosophers [39].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

First, Spinoza's ideas were influenced by medieval Jewish thinkers, especially Maimonides and Creskas, as well as Kabbalah.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Secondly, Jewish philosophers of modern times themselves discussed his ideas, advocating both for and against them.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Thirdly, biblical criticism, which began with Spinoza, became one of the foundations of the liberal interpretation of Judaism, which was joined by many Jewish philosophers of the Enlightenment.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In addition, Spinoza made a significant contribution to the development of Jewish philology, writing Jewish Grammar (1677).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Moses Mendelssohn (1729—1786), whose real name was Moshe ben Menachem Mendel [40], is considered the brightest philosophical figure of the Jewish Enlightenment.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In 1763, Mendelssohn's work “On Reliability in Metaphysical Knowledge” bypassed the work of Kant himself at the Royal Academy of Sciences, who from that moment became its regular addressee [41].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Mendelssohn presented his views on religion and Judaism in Jerusalem (1783), written under the influence of Spinoza's Theological and Political Treatise.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Like Spinoza, Mendelssohn advocated the separation of church and state.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In the philosopher's view, religion is nothing more than a religion of reason in the spirit of the Enlightenment.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Religion consists of rational and moral truths that are available to all people.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Judaism, according to Mendelssohn, is not a religion given in revelation, but legislation given in revelation.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

To the extent that it is a religion, Judaism coincides with the religion of reason.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Solomon Maimon (1751—1800), real name Shlomo Heyman, is one of the most gifted Jewish philosophers of the Enlightenment.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His Essay on Transcendental Philosophy (German: “Versuch über die Transzendentalphilosophie”), in which he criticized Kant's understanding of the object and Kant's ethics.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

On the recommendation of Kant himself, who admired the reasoning of his critic, this work was published in 1790.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In subsequent works, Solomon Maimon developed the ideas of Kant's philosophy and, in particular, compiled an extensive commentary on his favorite work by Moses Maimonides, More Nevuhim, where he analyzed this a work in the spirit of Kant's system of knowledge.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In many ways, these works of Maimon preserved his name in the history of philosophy as an intermediate link between the systems of Kant and Fichte [41].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Nachman Krokhmal (1785—1840), acronym Ranak, is a philosopher, historian, one of the founders of Judaica.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Krokhmal's views were formed under the influence of Maimonides and Abraham Ibn Ezra, as well as German philosophers Kant, Schelling and, in particular, Hegel.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Krokhmal's main work, More Nevuhey Hazman (Mentor of the Hesitant of Our Time, 1851).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Solomon Formstecher (1808-1889) was a philosopher, leader of the reformist movement in Judaism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In his extensive systematic work Religion of Spirit (1841), written largely under the influence of Schelling's ideas, Formschteher tried to provide a theoretical justification for the movements for emancipation and reform of Judaism .


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He considers Judaism primarily as an idea, the value of which is discovered in the course of the gradual progressive development of mankind, that is, in the process of increasing the level of moral consciousness.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Moritz (Moshe) Latzarus (1824-1903) was a philosopher and psychologist, the founder of the so-called psychology of peoples.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Latzarus' most significant work on Jewish issues is Ethics of Judaism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to the concept of Latzarus, the essence of the Jewish soul is firmly preserved in its independence mainly in the moral field, and the essence of Judaism is the sanctification of life, that is, spiritualization of all everyday acts by elevating them to the highest moral law, the source of which lies in the very being of God, and not in the act of will and command.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Modern Jewish philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Neo-Kantianism and Judaism


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Hermann Kogen (1842—1918), the founder of the Marburg School of Neo-Kantianism, presented his views on Judaism in his book The Religion of Reason According to Jewish Sources (1919).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Cohen saw Judaism as a religion of reason, or rather, practical reason in the Kant sense, but he tried to introduce into this concept those aspects of religious life that are more personal in nature .


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

God for Cohen (in the early period) is not a metaphysical substance, but an idea that bridges the gap between morality and nature.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

While Cohen in his earlier works calls God an idea, in later works he identifies God with being.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Being and becoming, God and the world are always different, but there is a relationship between them that Cohen calls “correlation.”


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The world can't exist without God, but God doesn't make sense without peace either.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Man is God's partner in creation.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In his latest book, Cohen uses these ideas to interpret Jewish beliefs and religious practices, combining the idea of ethical monotheism with the personal aspect of religion.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

One of Herman Kogen's students was Matvey Kagan (1889-1937), a Jewish philosopher from Russia [42].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

A prominent student of Kogen was Ernst Casirer.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The poet Boris Pasternak also studied with Cohen, and according to Pasternak's memoirs, Cassirer invited him to Berlin for further studies in philosophy.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Leo Beck wrote the book “The Focus of Judaism” as a response to “The Focus of Christianity” by A. von Garnack.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In it, he revealed the essence of Jewry on the basis of neo-Kantianism, arguing with existentialism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He was also a prominent Jewish public figure and survivor of the Holocaust.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Jewish existentialism and philosophy of dialogue


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Lev Isaakovich Shestov (1866-1938), real name Yehuda Leib Shvartsman, is a philosopher of the anti-rationalist, existentialist direction.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

God, according to Shestov, cannot be connected with the idea of the logos, since the Deity is on the other side of reason and morality [43].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In this regard, he contrasted the philosophy of Athens with the philosophy of Jerusalem.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to Shestov, any rationalism and logocentrism are alien to the philosophy of Jerusalem.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Franz Rosenzweig (1886—1929) was an existentialist philosopher.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Disillusioned with Hegel's rationalism, Rosenzweig turned to the existence of a particular individual and religious faith in search of the meaning of life.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In The Star of Salvation (1921), Franz Rosenzweig formulated a “new thinking” that combines philosophy with theology and which does not come from abstract concepts, but from suffering, anxiety and the longing of a particular person.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Therefore, in his opinion, every Jew should comply only with the provisions of the religious Law that he can do in this particular existential situation [44].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Martin (Mordecai) Buber (1878—1965) was the most famous Jewish existentialist philosopher.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Buber created a kind of existentialism — a dialogical philosophy, the most complete presentation of which is his book “Me and You” (1923).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to Buber, a person can relate to the world in two ways, these relationships are defined by “primary words”: “I am You” and “I am It”.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The relationship “I am You” is a relationship between two subjects (persons), it is characterized by reciprocity.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The “I am It” relationship is the relationship between a subject (person) and an object (thing), where the subject dominates and uses an object.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

God is the eternal “You” for man.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

A genuine dialogue between God and man can only take place in the community.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to Buber, creating such a community is the central task of Judaism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In some respects, the famous philosopher of the 20th century Emmanuel Levinas (1905—1995) can be considered a follower of Buber, in whose work a considerable place is paid to Jewish problems.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Leo Strauss is classified as existentialism with reservations.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The religious philosophy of 20th century Judaism


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham Itzhak HaCohen Cook (1865—1925) was a rabbi and philosopher, author of the philosophical concept of religious Zionism, according to which the creation of the State of Israel is the beginning of messianic deliverance.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He developed a kind of mystical philosophy in numerous works, the main of which is Orot ha-Kodesh (Fires of Holiness, 1964).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In his writings, he developed the idea of the immanent presence of God in all creation (and God is not identical to the created one).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Abraham Cook wrote about the unity and harmony of the whole reality.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Cook came up with the idea that individual and cosmic repentance is a means to bring man and the world closer to God.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Joseph Dov ha-Levi Soloveichik (1903—1993) was the largest religious authority of the 20th century.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

He presented his theological and philosophical position in Ish HaHalaha (The Man of Halakha, 1944), A Lonely Believer (1965) and others.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Soloveichik's thought is focused on analyzing the situation of man in the world.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

A person is considered as a passive and active principle, cause and effect, object and subject at the same time.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Living in harmony with Halakha, a person becomes the master of his own life.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

His life is sanctified, man and God enter into intimate, personal communication.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to Soloveichik, only compliance with Halakha's instructions brings a person closer to God.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Soloveichik emphasizes that Halakha does not recognize as sacred anything that would not be consecrated by man.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Eliezer Berkovich (1908—1992) - famous philosopher, author of such books as “God, Man and History”, “Faith after the Holocaust”.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Berkovich created an original concept of the philosophy of the history of the Jewish people.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

(1916—2003) — worked on the tasks of Jews after the Holocaust, which he himself experienced.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Modern Israeli philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Yeshayahu Leibovich (1903—1994) - Israeli philosopher, author of Judaism, the Jewish People and the State of Israel (1975), which at one time had a great resonance and caused great controversy among the Jewish scientists.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Gershom (Gerhard) Scholem (1897—1982) was an Israeli philosopher, author of Jews and Judaism in Crisis (1976).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Judaism, according to Sholem, includes “religious concepts” (creation, revelation, deliverance) and “moral concepts” (love for God, fear of God, humility, holiness).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

These “moral concepts” are the basis of the Torah's prescriptions and form religious ethics.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Scholem opposes secularism, for the preservation of religious ethics; the goal of Zionism, according to Scholem, should be to turn Jews into a “holy people”.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Nathan Rotenstreich (1914—1993) was an Israeli philosopher who devoted a number of books to the problems of modern Jewry: Al-HaKiyum ha-yehudi ba-zman ha-ze (On Jewish Being Now, 1972), Iyunim ba-tsionut ba-zman ha-ze (Studies of Modern Zionism, 1977), Iyunim ba-mahashava ha-yehudit ba-zman ha-ze (Studies of Modern Jewish Thought, 1978).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

At the heart of Rothenstreich's interests is his desire to understand the relationship between Jewish tradition and modern Jewish existence.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Eliezer Schweid (b. 1929) is an Israeli philosopher who has expressed in his numerous articles and books the crisis of Jewish identity experienced by many natives of Israel.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Eliezer Schweid is the author of such famous books as Ha-Yehudi ha-boded ve ha-yahadut (Judaism and a Lonely Jew, 1974), Bein Orthodoxy le Humanism Date (Orthodoxy and Religious Humanism, 1977) Democratia ve halaha” (Democracy and Halakha, 1978).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Yuval Steinitz (b. 1958) is a professional philosopher and author of several books.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

According to Plato's state ideal, he moved into politics and currently holds the post of Minister of Finance (2010).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Humanist Judaism


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

The founder of the humanistic or secular Judaism movement is the philosopher Sherwin Theodore Vine (1928—2007).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Vine expressed the doctrine of humanistic Judaism in his program book “The New Way in Judaism. Being Jewish, believing in reason and self-esteem” (1985).


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In this book, he proposes to abandon the religious content of Judaism.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

In return, Vine offers a non-religious, humanistic alternative.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

It offers a radically new way to be Jewish, a new (secular) content of Jewish national holidays, ceremonies and rituals, a new (secular) attitude towards mixed marriages and conversion to Judaism [45].


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Vine's concept has attracted sharp criticism from many Jewish scholars and philosophers.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

See also


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Cosmology in Judaism


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Notes


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

References


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

on the Mahanaim website.


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy


Question: When did Jewish philosophy originate?

Jewish philosophy

Category:Jewish philosophy


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 is a Soviet single-sided four-axle motor tram car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The abbreviation “LM” in the designation means “Leningrad Motor”.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The first prototype of the LM-49 car was built at the Leningrad Car Repair Plant (VARZ) in 1949, so subsequent serial trams of this type received the index 49 in their designation.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Usually, the LM-49 was paired with non-motorized trailer cars LP - 49, which was the LM - 49 hull with minor design changes due to the absence of traction motors, their control equipment and the driver's cab.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

From a technical point of view, the design of the LM-49 combined both progressive (for example, a load-bearing body) and conservative (direct control system) solutions.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

VARZ has been producing cars of this type since 1949, production of the LM-49 was completed in 1960, when it was replaced on assembly lines by a more modern model LM-57, and LP-49 trailer cars were produced up to and including 1968.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

LM-49 and LP-49 operated in Leningrad, Gorky, Minsk, Magnitogorsk and Novokuznetsk both as single motor cars and as part of trains from one motor and one trailer car from 1949 to 1987 year.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In their service, these cars were durable and reliable, but difficult to drive.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Since the late 1970s, the management of Soviet tram facilities began to exclude the LM-49 and LP-49 from the rolling stock fleet as obsolete equipment, despite their still good condition.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Almost all of the decommissioned cars were cut into metal, and only three LM-49 and one LP-49 have survived as museum exhibits or monuments to the present day.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The history of creation


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Prerequisites


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

After the end of the Great Patriotic War, the Leningrad tram industry was in dire need of replenishing its rolling stock.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

A significant part of the pre-war cars were destroyed or damaged during the siege of Leningrad due to air raids and artillery shelling.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The repair of the surviving units of rolling stock was the first step towards the restoration of the tram facilities.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Of some damaged four-axle cars of the LM/LP-33 series, only the frame with bogies has been preserved, while their wooden bodies were completely destroyed.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Newly manufactured all-metal bodies were installed on these undercarriages at VARZ; the resulting trams received the designation LM-47 for motor cars and LP-47 for trailer cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

However, the number of chassis from the LM/LP-33 suitable for such alteration was limited, and the management of the Leningrad tram raised the issue of developing a new type of rolling stock.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Practice has also shown that the combination of the new all-metal body with the LM/LP-33 chassis was not very successful - the LM/LP-47 came out heavy and low-speed.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Development


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Therefore, in 1948, a group of designers of the Leningrad VARZ under the leadership of G. AND. Romanova, T. A. Sevastyanova, G. A. Titkova and V. S. Strizhakova began developing a new tram car that would meet the requirements put forward by time for new rolling stock.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[1] The priority requirements were:


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

maximum possible capacity;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

providing more convenient entry and exit of passengers than in pre-war trams;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

wagon durability;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

simplification of the design to save metal and the possibility of building more cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The last two requirements are mutually conflicting, and the designers had to make a certain compromise between durability and lightening the weight of the car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 1]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The design team managed to solve the problem very successfully thanks to the concept of the load-bearing body of the car, which was new for the Soviet tram industry of that time.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

All previous types of mass-produced tram cars were either a frame structure, when a wooden body was placed on a massive steel frame made of normal rolled products, or with a supporting frame and side walls.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In the first case, all mechanical loads were perceived only by the frame, which was therefore very massive.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The structure with the supporting frame and side walls was more progressive, but also required a significant amount of metal, since the roof and extremities did not participate in the process of perceiving mechanical loads.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 used all the advantages of the third concept — the load-bearing body (body) of the car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Its body was a welded structure made of profiles of various shapes, forming the entire frame of the car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Neither the frame, nor the platforms, nor the walls had an independent value in the perception of loads, all loads were perceived by the skeleton as a whole.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 2] Thanks to this design, heavy normal steel was used in much smaller quantities than on other types of cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This made it possible to reduce the weight of the entire car to 19.5 tons compared to the pre-war tram of the same class LM-33 weighing 21.3 tons. [R 1] The durability of the structure was ensured by careful finishing of load-bearing and other metal structures — they were covered with aluminum varnish to protect against corrosion, and in particularly critical places chromed.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 3]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The capacity of the new tram car was solved by adopting the maximum possible dimensions of a four-axle car with two bogies for a gauge of 1524 mm (60 inches) — the length of the LM-49 is 15 m and the width — 2.55 m. [R 1] For the convenience of entry and exit of passengers, for the first time in the world tram industry (according to the developers), sliding double-leaf doors were used on the model of metro cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This required some effort in the development of the body skeleton — it was necessary to provide pockets for the door leaves without losing the strength properties of the frame in the places of the door portals.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 4]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The task was complicated by the fact that the load-bearing body was designed for the first time and the designers did not have empirical calculation formulas for structural strength, which were previously the main design tools frame cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Therefore, the first car built was subjected to electrotensometric tests for the strength of the load-bearing elements of the hull.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

They showed a sufficient margin of safety and, thus, provided developers with the necessary experimental data.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This made it possible to develop subsequent cars no longer blindly, but based on the experience gained during the construction of the LM-49.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 1]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Part of the electrical equipment and the design of the bogies were borrowed from the pre-war four-axle tram car LM-33. [2]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Another step forward in 1950 was the abandonment of axial suspension of traction engines and the transition to their independent suspension in order to reduce unsprung masses and shock loads on engines.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Prior to that, some of the LM-49s built were equipped with an old structure with support-axial suspension, when the rotor of the traction engine was rigidly connected to the axis of the car's wheelset by means of a gear train.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 5]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Questions about passenger comfort during the trip and the convenience of the driver were largely left for the future.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Despite the use of rubberized wheels and an indirect electric current control system through traction engines in the design of the pre-war experimental train LM/LP-36, the serial LM/LP-49 still outdated non-rubberized one-piece wheel centers with bandages pressed on them and a direct electric current control system were used.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[2] As a result, the smooth ride (thanks to the double-suspended trolleys) was accompanied by significant noise, and the driver had to work with the heavy handle of the direct control controller traction engines.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Production


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Serial production of the LM-49 began in 1949 after successful testing of the prototype and continued until 1960.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In 1958, VARZ began production of a new model of the tram car, the LM-57; however, it managed to completely replace the LM-49 only two years later, after the elimination of the “childhood diseases” of the new design and debugging the technological process of serial production.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[4] Production of LP-49 trailer cars also stopped in 1960, but it was resumed in 1965 and continued until 1968.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[5] The resumption of production of trailers was due to two reasons:


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

in 1949-1960, much more motor cars of the 1949 model were produced than trailed ones;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

the new LM-57 cars could not be operated as part of a multi-unit (CME) tram train.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

On routes with a large passenger traffic, single cars could not cope with transportation, so there was a gradual completion of the previously produced motor LM-49 with trailer LP-49.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In 1968, VARZ developed a new model of the LM-68 tram car capable of operating according to the CME, and this actually completed the era of production in the USSR of “classic” tram trains as part of motor and several trailer cars, since 1969, the production of trailer cars both at VARZ and at the Ust-Katavsk Carriage Works has been completed (Riga Wagon Plant did not mass-produce them at all).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

LP-49 became the last mass-produced four-axle trailer car (excluding alterations and improvisations of individual tram facilities in the USSR), its production was completed in the same 1968 in favor new LM-68 [1]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

A total of 400 LM-49s and 375 LP-49s were produced. [6]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Work in cities of the USSR


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Most of the LM/LP-49 produced operated in Leningrad, but cars of this type were the first Leningrad trams that VARZ began to make for other cities.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Since 1958, LM/LP-49 has been supplied to Gorky, Novokuznetsk and Magnitogorsk.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

One LM-49 motor car was presented to Minsk residents in 1959.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In 1965, all Novokuznetsk LM/LP-49 were transferred to Gorky.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the LM/LP-49 began to be decommissioned, although their condition fully allowed further work.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

However, the leadership of the Ministry of Zhilkomkhoz of the USSR insisted on updating the rolling stock to more modern models, and this was the reason for the write-off and destruction of many types of exceptionally durable cars Stalinist era buildings.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Leningrad


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In Leningrad, the LM/LP-49 received inventory numbers from 3601 to 3999, and odd numbers were intended for motor cars, and even numbers were intended for trailer cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The odd subrange 37xx and 38xx was used only for twin-engine single LM-49, and even numbers were not assigned from it.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In 1956, all odd numbers were used, and the numbering continued from 3001.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The last assigned inventory numbers were 3173 for LM-49 and 3168 for LP-49.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In general, the rolling stock fleet of the Leningrad tram facilities consisted of 287 units of the LM-49 type and 268 units of the LP-49 type.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM/LP-49 has been operating since 1949 on almost all Leningrad lines and were in all fleets, in March 1983, the last LM-49 was suspended from working with passengers; newer LP-49 trailer cars for some time they worked as part of trains where the motor cars were LM-68 or LM-68M (interestingly, the trams of the “sixty-eighth” series were not originally designed for this role).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Trains from the motor car LM-68 or LM-68M and the trailer LP-49 received the nickname “dinosaurs” among the people.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In mid-1984, the last LP-49 in Leningrad was suspended from working with passengers.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

After finishing work with passengers, a small part of Leningrad LM/LP-49 cars were converted into service cars — tower cars for servicing the contact network, tractors for the VPRS-500 ptericht machine.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The rest of the cars, which were not converted into service cars and not left as museum exhibits, were overwhelmingly cut into metal.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In Leningrad, some of the cars were buried in a local ash dump (“tram cemetery”).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[3] Later, one LM/LP-49 service train was restored to its original state for museum purposes.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Gorky


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The rapid expansion of the city in the mid-1950s required the appropriate development of public transport.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The greatest difficulties arose in the Avtozavodsky district, where trains from the pre-war KM/KP as part of a motor and two trailer cars could not cope with passenger traffic.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In these circumstances, the leadership of the city and the Gorky Tram and Trolleybus Department (GTTU) found monetary and material resources for the construction of new unscheduled LM/LP-49 at VARZ even without directives of the Ministry of Zhilkomkhoz.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[3] [7]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Thus, in 1958, the first 19 trains of this type were delivered to Sormovo Depot No. 2.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

As planned, they worked on routes 4, 8, 11, 12, 16 and 17, which connected the Avtozavodsky district with other parts of the city.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The exact inventory numbers are not known, the first LM-49 and LP-49 received numbers 650 and 453, respectively, and the cars delivered later were numbered in an ascending sequence from these numbers.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In 1965, Minzhilkomkhoz ordered the transfer to Gorky of 12 used LM-49 from Leningrad and all seven LM/LP-49 trains from Novokuznetsk.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[8] In the same year, a new depot No. 3 was opened in the Avtozavodsky District and the partial transfer of rolling stock from Depot No. 2 began there in order to reduce very long zero flights in terms of mileage and time.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Since 1967, there were 20 LM/LP-49 trains in depot No. 2, and 43 LM-49 and 37 LP-49 in depot No. 3.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Later, all cars of these types were finally transferred to depot No. 3. [3]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

After the renumbering of the rolling stock in 1970, all the LM-49 that existed at that time received numbers from 3701 to 3761, and the LP-49 - from 3801 to 3846.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In total, after the transfer from Novokuznetsk, the rolling stock fleet in Gorky consisted of 67 LM-49 and 46 LP-49. [3]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In Gorky, the cars of the LM/LP-49 series were removed from the lines even earlier than Leningrad, in 1975-1980, and cut into metal, and, according to the memoirs of a number of leaders of the Gorky tram trolleybus department of that time (in particular, the long-term head of the GTTU Yu. M. Kossogo), this was done for the supply of Czechoslovak Tatras T3. [3] In the city on the Volga, the LM/LP-49 was not used as service cars, but one train was specially left for the future museum electric vehicles.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Other cities


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Further deliveries of LM/LP-49 followed to the Ural and Siberian centers of the Soviet metallurgical industry Magnitogorsk and Novokuznetsk.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Similar to the situation in Gorky, large passenger traffic from employees of metallurgical enterprises required appropriate vehicles for their transportation.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

After the transfer to Gorky, there were no more LM/LP-49 left in Novokuznetsk, and in Magnitogorsk they operated the longest compared to other cities - the last trains of this brand left the lines in 1987.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[1] They were not converted into service cars there, but at least two hulls with brewed glass were used as sheds.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[3] Routes, depot affiliation and inventory numbers of LM/LP-49 in these cities have not yet been published in print and Internet sources of information.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

There was also a practice before and now exists when several real cars were listed under one inventory number (replacements instead of worn out, burnt, damaged).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

All this makes it difficult to accurately understand the distribution of wagons by city.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The only LM-49 in Minsk (it was presented to the city by Leningrad in honor of the 40th anniversary of the founding of the BSSR in 1959) worked for about 20 years until its resource was completely exhausted and after its resignation was installed as a monument in the tram depot.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Now its salon houses the museum of labor glory of the Minsk tram depot.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Design description


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

housing


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 body was a fully welded skeleton made of profiles of various thicknesses and sections, covered with 2 mm steel sheets.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In general, the body was assembled using a whole range of different technologies: the skin was not welded, but riveted to the supporting structures of the hull skeleton, and the roof of the hull was made of sheet piles and was covered with tarpaulin.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The last two solutions served to improve the safety of roof works: the tarpaulin reduced the likelihood of slipping and, together with the boards, served as a dielectric mat when carelessly touching the contact live wires.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 3] [R 6]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

From the inside, the hull was lined with lacquered oak plywood, to counteract corrosion and improve the aesthetic perception of passengers, a number of metal parts (handrails, handles, window elements) chrome plated.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 7] [R 8] The boardwalk floor was laid on the profiles of the frame component of the skeleton and covered with a quick-change rack coating.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Under this coating, hatches and technological holes were made in the floor for access to trolleys and a number of other units and assemblies.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 9]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Initially, the seats were rigid, made of slats, but during major repairs they were often replaced with soft sofa-type seats, as in Nizhny Novgorod museum car No. 687.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

From the outside, the body was painted with pentaphthalum enamels in red and cream colors, one of the possible options for this coloring is presented at the Nizhny Novgorod museum LM-49 (although in Gorky the forty-ninth trams the series wore a yellow-red color, more traditional for Soviet cities).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The high-quality material of the frame and skin, as well as their careful treatment against corrosion, ensured the strength, reliability and long service life of the body as a whole.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 3]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The body of the LP-49 trailer car was almost identical to the engine car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The differences were in the missing driver's cab, and therefore the bulkhead separating it from the cabin, fewer hatches in the floor and another shape of the frontal tip — the trailer car did not have the need for spotlights and a route indicator window.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 10] The LP-49 was coupled to the motor car by means of a simple coupling standardized in the USSR, the connections of pneumatic and electrical systems were carried out by cables separate from this coupling and hoses.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 had 34 seats and 165 standing places with a set maximum load rate of 8 people per 1 square meter of free floor space.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Due to the absence of a cabin, the LP-49 trailer car had a slightly larger capacity — 35 and 170 seats and stands, respectively.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[9] There was only one longitudinal handrail for standing passengers, on the left side of the ceiling.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Both cars, both the engine LM-49 and the trailed LP-49, were equipped with a small conductor cabin near the middle door.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Trolleys


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 was equipped with two identical trolleys with double suspension.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Their design was a slightly improved version of the bogies of the LM-33 motor car and had many interchangeable parts with them.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

From a technical point of view, the cart consisted of the following parts:


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

a kingpin that connected the bogie and the car body;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

a massive frame with two balancers to which wheelsets were attached;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

parts of the primary and secondary suspension stages;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

brake mechanisms (pads and rods);


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

two traction motors.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 11]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Both wheelsets were rigidly attached to the ends of the U-shaped balancers by means of axle box bearing units, in turn, the balancers were connected to the bogie frame by means of several coil springs.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This is the first stage of suspension, called in the technical literature the overhead screw.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Its purpose was to mitigate shock loads both on the car body and on the traction motors installed on the bogie frame.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 5]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The longitudinal middle beam of the trolley frame was at the same time the so-called lower cradle bar.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

It, together with other underlying components of the trolley (balancers, coil springs, wheelsets), was suspended from the upper cradle bar of the trolley on parts resembling a pendulum, and an elastic element between them elliptical leaf springs served.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This design was the second stage of suspension, respectively called the central cradle on elliptical springs, its purpose was to mitigate the effects arising when driving along irregularities of the rail track of transverse and vertical forces on the car body.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

A kingpin was passed between the upper cradle bar and the kingpin beam of the frame component of the supporting body, which connected the trolley with the car body and served as its axis of rotation.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 12]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

For LM-49 motor cars, the wheelset axles had a ground section in their middle part, where the gear wheel was installed.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In the case of DTI-60 traction motors with axial suspension, it was the only part of transmitting torque from the motor armature to the wheelset; their axes were strictly parallel and are tightly connected to each other.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The DTI-60 engines were loosely attached to the bogie frame on coil springs to allow the balancers with wheelsets to move relative to the bogie frame.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In this case, only half of the engine mass was sprung, and the shock loads from driving along the irregularities of the track directly affected the engines, destroying their parts and reducing their life service.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

For trolleys with high-speed engines of the DK-255 brand, each engine was rigidly attached to the bogie frame and was completely sprung, and the torque from its armature was transmitted to the wheelset by propeller shaft and gearbox, which allow non-parallelism and small mutual movements of their axes.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This more complex technical solution made it possible to use less massive electric motors and reduce shock loads on them, which had a beneficial effect on their service life.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 5] [R 13]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The bogies of the LP-49 trailer car differed from the bogies of the LM-49 motor car only in the absence of engines and corresponding parts associated with them.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In particular, the axles of the wheelsets were not ground, since the gearbox gear did not need to fit on them.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 14]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The trolleys were equipped with a mechanical shoe and bandage brake with double drive.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Under normal conditions, the main drive was a direct-acting pneumatic one, and in an emergency case, a car driver or jig could actuate the brake mechanism by means of manual columns brakes that were installed at their workstations.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The handbrake column consisted of a large steering wheel, chain and gear drives to the brake pad rods and a pawl to prevent its spontaneous unwinding and loosening braking force.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The handbrake was also routinely used as a parking brake when there was no pressure in the pneumatic system.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 5] [R 15]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In general, the design of the trolleys was assessed as quite successful and reliable.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Pneumatic equipment


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

LM/LP-49 type cars had a rich set of pneumatic equipment.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

It included a compressor driven by an auxiliary electric motor, an air filter for cleaning the outside air, tanks for its storage, an electropneumatic pressure regulator in the system, a mechanical emergency bleed valve in case of failure of the pressure regulator, the main line, valves, flexible connecting rubber hoses and a variety of devices consuming compressed air.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The latter included:


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

door opening/closing mechanism;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

direct brake drive;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

sandbox drive;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

a device for lifting and lowering a pantograph type current collector with an auxiliary pump in the absence of pressure in the system;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

device for lifting and lowering the safety net;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

windshield wipers;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

outdoor alarm bell (duplicated by electric and manual calls).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 16]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The trailer car did not have a compressor and safety devices against excess pressure in the pneumatic system, compressed air entered its main line through an intercar flexible hose from the motor car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In the event of an emergency rupture of the train (and therefore the inter-car hose), a safety valve came into effect, which cut off the broken hose from the trailer car line and turned on the pneumatic actuator car brakes.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 17]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The pneumatic equipment was mainly controlled by the driver, but the conductors of the motor and trailer car also had pneumatic cranes for opening doors and emergency Brakes that are independent of similar devices in the driver's cab.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 18]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Electrical equipment


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 type car receives electrical energy from a single-wire DC contact network with a voltage of 600 volts by means of a pantograph type current collector (in Gorky, pantographs were replaced with the LM-49 with rope pantographs).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The second conductor in the “traction substation — tram car” circuit is the rail track.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 19]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

All electrical equipment of a motor car is divided into main and auxiliary circuits.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Mixed-excitation traction motors, starting braking resistances, as well as the driver's controller of the direct control system are parts of the main electrical circuit of the car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 19]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

By means of the controller, the car driver stepwise regulates the current in the armature windings and the excitation of the motors and thereby controls the acceleration and speed of the steady movement of the car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

If it is necessary to slow down or stop, the motors and resistances are switched on in a special way, ensuring its electrodynamic braking.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Even in an emergency case of voltage loss in the LM-49 contact network, it can be braked electrodynamically up to 5-10 km/h (at lower speeds, the electrodynamic brake is “depleted” in terminology electric transport and ceases to operate).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

For the final stop of the wagon, an air or hand brake must be used.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 19]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Consumers of electricity in auxiliary circuits are:


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

external and internal lighting with incandescent lamps, some LM-49s were also equipped with a searchlight for working on out-of-town departure lines;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

compressor electric drive;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

heating of the passenger compartment and cabin of the car driver;


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

a bell, as well as a phonic alarm from the conductor to the driver, installed on part of the cars.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 20]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

All these circuits received electrical energy directly from the high-voltage (600 volts) contact network; many low-voltage consumers of the same type as incandescent lamps were connected in series to ensure a nominal voltage drop across each of them.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Single low-voltage devices, like an electric bell, were connected via limiting (ballast) resistances.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Initially, the LM-49 did not have direction indicators, brake lights and a loudspeaker device for announcing stops; all this was installed later and was also connected to the on-board network via restrictive resistances.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 21]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LP-49 trailer car did not have a main chain and, compared to the engine LM-49, was equipped with only part of the auxiliary chain devices.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Electrical energy for them was supplied through a flexible cable of the intercar connection.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

All control of electrical circuits was concentrated in the cabin of the car driver, the conductors could only activate ringing or phonic alarms.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 21]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Modifications


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 was produced in three versions that did not have official designations:


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

LM-49 with four DTI-60 traction motors with support-axial suspension, controlled by a controller of the DK-7B type with 8 starting and 6 braking positions.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

LM-49 with two DTI-60 traction engines with support-axial suspension (installed on the 1st and 4th wheelsets of the car), controlled by an MT-1A controller with 8 starting and 6 braking positions.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

This modification was intended only for single operation without a trailer car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

During operation, almost all cars of this version were brought to a four-engine modification as new trailer cars were ready for them.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM-49 with four high-speed traction engines DK-255A or DK-255B with independent suspension, torque from them was transmitted to the wheelsets by means of propeller shafts and a gearbox.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The engines were controlled by an MT-22 type controller with 12 starting and 5 braking positions.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The production of this modification began in 1950.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

[R 22] [1]


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

During production, a number of other, less important changes were made to the design of the LM/LP-49.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Thus, since 1953, roller bearings have been used in axle boxes, since 1958, the design of the windows has been unified with the new LM-57 car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In Leningrad, single LM/LP-49 trains underwent a more significant modernization: one train was experimentally equipped with rubberized wheels, the other with large side windows and a glazed roof , as well as an automatic rheostat - contactor control system was installed on one LM-49 motor car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Project evaluation


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

From a technical point of view, the LM-49 and LP-49 tram cars represented a big step forward in the Soviet tram industry.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

For the first time in the USSR, they implemented the idea of a load-bearing body, the design of sliding leaf doors on a tram car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

They were also among the first to receive independent suspension of high-speed traction motors, which makes it possible to reduce unsprung masses in the design of the car and, consequently, destructive the impact of the wagon on the track [R 2] [R 4].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

On the other hand, all innovations concerned mainly the mechanical components and components of the car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In terms of its equipment, the LM/LP-49 remained at the level of the 1930s - the abundant use of pneumatics, an uneconomical direct control system in terms of power consumption, which requires confident and honed skills, as well as physical endurance from the driver when working with it [3].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In foreign models of tram cars at that time, an indirect control system was actively used, when all switching of power circuits was carried out either by a relay circuit or by a servomotor.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

It saved the driver from hard work with the controller handle and allowed him to gain speed more optimally in terms of power consumption.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Also at that time, a gradual abandonment of pneumatics in favor of electrical or electromechanical devices (brake actuators, door opening mechanisms, etc.) had already begun to be observed.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

A good example of such progressive cars was PCC-like trams, which have become widespread in the United States and a number of other countries.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Some ideas were implemented in the USSR on the prototype LM/LP-36 and small-scale M-38 cars, but even after the war, taking into account the breakthrough in the technological sphere caused by it, serial Soviet trams and the farms operating them were not yet ready for such improvements (during the war, the M-38 was put on a joke due to complex maintenance, and the LM/LP-36 train lost its indirect control systems and rubberized wheels in favor of traditional technical solutions).


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Therefore, the conservatism of developers was quite appropriate [2].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

At that time, no special attention was paid to the comfort of passengers, the main requirement was the high carrying capacity of rolling stock units.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Nevertheless, this circumstance played a role in improving the comfort of the trip — the LM/LP-49, due to its dimensions, was the most spacious four-axle Soviet car, and there was a stampede in it less often than in pre-war trams (especially two-axle ones) and modern MTV-82 [3].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Questions about rubberized wheels and low-noise bogies were left for the future, and Leningrad designers returned to them when developing the LM-57 car.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In the foreign tram industry, very similar technical solutions as that of the LM-49 were implemented in the very progressive German Langer Essener cars (“long Essen”) for its time, which the company Waggon-Fabrik AG, Uerdingen produced in 1933-1938 for Essen.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The desire to get maximum passenger capacity with the same layout of a two-bogie four-axle car and minimum weight led to almost the same characteristics: both the LM-49 and the Langer Essener were large-capacity cars for their conditions (German: Großraumwagen) with a light load-bearing body and even sliding doors of the same type.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

But much later in the time of creation, the LM-49 still did not have the rest of the progressive technical solutions of its German counterpart — a fully automatic indirect control system and ability to work as part of a train according to the system of many units [10].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Thus, the Soviet tram industry represented by the LM-49 took a big step forward, but had not yet reached the standards that were generally modern at that time.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

According to some former employees of the Nizhny Novgorod tram, the LM-49 was the most reliable of all types of rolling stock they had a chance to drive.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Compared to the “same age” of the MTV-82, it had a more comfortable cabin, but, like all cars with a direct control system when working with a controller handle, nicknamed the “coffee grinder”, it required wagon strength and endurance.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The most disturbing repair service unit of the LM-49 was the compressor, and in harsh winters condensate in the main air line sometimes froze, which led to problems with brakes and door drives.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In general, passengers, car drivers and repairmen assessed the car positively, especially in comparison with pre-war cars still common in the 1950s [3].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Where to see


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

Three LM-49 and one LP-49 have survived to this day in almost unchanged form in St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Minsk.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

In St. Petersburg, the LM/LP-49 running train remains under inventory No. 3691+3990; in November 1997, it was restored to running condition, after which it took its place in the museum tram exposition [2] [11].


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The LM/LP-49 train was also preserved in Nizhny Novgorod, but by the 100th anniversary of the Nizhny Novgorod tram in 1996, only motor car No. 687 was repaired.


Question: When was the first LM-49 built?

LM-49

The trailer car was scrapped for metal in 1997.