Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Of these, 300,406 (51.5%) people were white, the rest belonged to other races [19].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Of these, the vast majority (83.7%) were poor.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The island's agricultural development was hampered by a lack of roads, primitive tools and natural disasters such as hurricanes and droughts.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The economy also suffered from high tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish royal authorities.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On September 23, 1868, an independence uprising known as “El Grito de Lares” broke out in Lares (Spanish: Lares), which was soon suppressed.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The leaders of this rebellion, Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis (Spanish: Segundo Ruiz Belvis), are considered the fathers of the Puerto Rican nation in present-day Puerto Rico.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Later, there was a political independence movement led by Roman Baldorioti de Castro (Spanish: Román Baldorioty de Castro), and at the end of the century, a movement led by Luis Muñoz Rivera ( Spanish: Luis Muñoz Rivera).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1897, Muñoz Rivera and his associates went to the liberal Spanish government for autonomy for Cuba and Puerto Rico.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The following year, 1898, an autonomous government was declared for a short period of time.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Charter of Autonomy was accountable to the governor of the island, appointed by Spain.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Governor had the power to annul any decision of the local authority and participated in parliamentary elections.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The period of American rule


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish-American War, American troops invaded Puerto Rico, landing in the municipality of Guanica (Spanish: Guánica).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

As a result of the war, Spain was forced to cede Puerto Rico, as well as Cuba, the Philippines and Guam under the Treaty of Paris of 1898. [


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico entered the twentieth century under the military administration of the United States, including a governor appointed by the President of the United States.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On April 12, 1900, the Foraker Act was passed, which established that a bicameral Congress was created on the island (the lower House of Representatives was elected and the upper House, the Executive Council, was appointed to (6 Americans and 5 Puerto Ricans) [21].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Tariffs on trade in goods between the US and Puerto Rico were also abolished and the maximum private land ownership was limited to 500 acres [22].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1917, Puerto Rico residents were granted US citizenship under the Johnes-Shafroth Act, and this status is still valid today.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Since World War I, many Puerto Ricans have served in the U.S. Army.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Natural disasters and the Great Depression worsened life on the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Some politicians, such as Pedro Albizu Campos, leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, advocated independence for the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

He was subsequently arrested twice and imprisoned for subversive activities against the American administration on the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[23] Puerto Rico's first democratically elected governor, Luis Muñoz Marín, also initially advocated independence for the Territory, but saw a serious economic downturn accompanied by an increase in crime and popular discontent, chose the status of an associated territory as an intermediate stage on the road to independence.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

During the reign of the Roosevelt-Truman administrations, the nature of the internal management of the territory changed as a result of a compromise between various political forces.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The change culminated in the appointment in 1946 by President Harry Truman of the first Puerto Rican born Governor, Jesús T. Pinero (Spanish: Jesús Toribio Piñero Jiménez).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1947, Americans gave Puerto Rico the right to choose its own governor.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1948, in a democratic election, Luis Muñoz Marín was elected Governor of Puerto Rico, who remained in office for 16 years, until 1964.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Since then, a large number of immigrants from the island have moved to the mainland of the United States in search of a better life.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Whereas in 1945, about 13,000 Puerto Ricans lived in New York City, by 1955 their number was about 700,000, and by the mid-1960s their number had exceeded a million.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On 1 November 1950, Puerto Rican separatists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Truman.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The consequence of this incident was Truman's consent to hold a referendum on the island on Puerto Rico's own constitution.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[24] As a result of the approved Constitution on July 25, 1952, Puerto Rico received its current status as an associated territory.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[25] [26] In the 1950s, the island experienced rapid growth in industrial production, which made it possible to transform Puerto Rico's economy from an agricultural to an industrialized one.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Since the 1960s, the Puerto Rican independence movement has risen again, which even went into armed struggle under the leadership of Filiberto Ojeda Ríos.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Currently, Puerto Rico has become a major tourist center with a developed pharmaceutical and manufacturing structure.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The political status is still not fully determined, which is why various plebiscites have been held on the island in recent years.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In a referendum held simultaneously with the US presidential election on November 6, 2012, 54% of Puerto Ricans voted for a change in the island's relationship with the United States, almost 2/3 of those who took part in voting, supported the idea of joining the United States as the 51st state [27].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Geography


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico consists of Puerto Rico's main island and many smaller islands and reefs, including Isla de Mona, Vieques, Culebra, Desecheo and Caja de Muertos de Muertos).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Of the last five islands, only Vieques and Culebra are inhabited throughout the year.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Only employees of the Puerto Rican Ministry of National Resources live on Mona Island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The main island is 170 km long and 60 km wide, mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the northern and southern parts.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The main mountain range of the island is called “La Cordillera Central”, which means “central range”, and also houses Puerto Rico's highest point, Mount Cerro de Punta, 1338 m above the level seas.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Another important peak, the mountain, 1065 m above sea level, is located in the Caribbean National Forest in the municipality of Sierra de Luquillo.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The island's capital, San Juan, is located on the north coast of the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico is located in the tropics.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The climate of Puerto Rico is maritime tropical, mild, with slight seasonal temperature fluctuations: in the southern part the temperature is slightly higher than in the northern part, and in the central mountainous part it is always cooler than the rest of the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The average annual temperature is +28° C.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Atlantic hurricane season runs between June and November.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico has seventeen lakes, none of which are natural [28], and more than fifty rivers, most of which flow from the main mountain range.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the northern part of the island, the rivers are wider and fuller than in the southern part.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Rio Camay National Cave Park is a karst area in northeastern Puerto Rico.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

This area is famous for its completely surreal limestone formations and is considered to be one of the best places in the world for speleology.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

More than 200 caves have been discovered in this region, some of them have a colossal internal volume, and the Kamai River is one of the largest underground rivers in the world.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Flora and fauna


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

According to 1998 data, Puerto Rico's flora included 239 endemic plant species, 16 endemic bird species and 39 endemic amphibian and reptile species [29].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Rico frogs that live here, known as “coca” (Eleutherdactylus coqui), are a favorite symbol of the island, although their presence can only be felt by sound and few tourists can see them — the largest “coca” is no more than 5 centimeters in length.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

These small creatures manage to make such loud sounds of “ko-kii” (where their name comes from) that even a small colony of “croaking” frogs can stun a person.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Locals even have their own term for this — “hellish chanting”.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Caribbean National Forest National Park (an area of about 11,000 hectares), also known as “El Yunque” (El Yunque), is the main habitat for these frogs.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

El Yunque is one of the few rainforests in the Caribbean, and Puerto Rico in particular, that has survived to this day [30].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The forest landscapes are decorated with picturesque waterfalls.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

This is the real kingdom of ferns.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The forests of El Yunque are home to endangered species such as coca and the Puerto Rican Amazon.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

About 225 species of trees, 100 species of ferns and about 50 species of orchids grow here.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Due to the huge diversity of flora, El Yunque received the status of a biosphere reserve under the auspices of the United Nations.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

A few hours from El Yunque is another biosphere reserve, Guanica, which belongs to the dry rainforest.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

This reserve also contains species that are unique to Puerto Rico.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Up to 750 plant species can be found here, seven of which are on the verge of extinction.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Of great value to Puerto Rico are mangroves and coral reefs that have hardly been damaged by poachers.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Geology


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The geological structure of the island consists of volcanic and igneous rocks formed in the period between the Cretaceous period and the Eocene era of the Paleogene period, covered from above with later rocks of the Oligocene era, and even later carbonates and sedimentary rocks.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The oldest rocks are estimated to be around 190 million years old (Jurassic period) and are located in the municipality of Sierra Bermeja in the southwestern part of the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

These rocks may be parts of the oceanic crust, and appear to have come from the Pacific Ocean.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico is located on the border of the Caribbean and North American plates and is currently tectonically deforming under the influence of these plates.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

This transformation can cause earthquakes and tsunamis, which, together with landslides, pose the greatest geological hazard on the island and the northeast Caribbean Sea.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The last major earthquake in Puerto Rico occurred on October 11, 1918, estimated at approximately 7.5 on the Richter scale.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The epicenter of the earthquake was located at the bottom of the sea off the coast of the municipality of Aguadilla (Aguadilla), which caused a tsunami.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Puerto Rico Trench, located 120 km north of the island, is the largest and deepest ocean depression in the Atlantic Ocean.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

It is located on the border between the Caribbean and North American plates.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The length of the trough is 1754 km, the width is about 97 km, the greatest depth is 8380 m.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Demographics


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

It is sometimes said that Puerto Rico has a European (Spanish) majority, an almost extinct population of American Indians, a population of mixed races, Africans, and a small Asian minority.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Genetic analysis showed that, on average, the population of Puerto Rico is 61% European, 27% African and 11% Indian [31].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

More recent mitochondrial DNA analysis from 800 people found American Indian mtDNA in 61.1% of the population, African mtDNA in 26.4% of the population, and white mtDNA in 12.5% of Puerto Ricans.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

During the 1800s, hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, Chinese and Portuguese, along with a large number of immigrants from Spain, the Canary Islands and other Spanish colonies in South America, moved to Puerto Rico.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

After a decree of 1815 that allowed foreigners to settle in Puerto Rico, thousands of immigrants from all over Europe arrived in the country.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Mass immigration in the 19th century led to an increase in the island's population from 155,000 in 1800 to almost a million at the end of the century.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The census conducted by Royal Decree of 30 September 1858 gives the following picture of the population at that time: a white population of 300,430, a free population of color - 341,015, slaves — 41,736, undefined — 127 people.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Later, Puerto Rico became a permanent home for more than 100,000 immigrants, not only from Spain, but also from Latin America.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Immigrants from Argentina, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Colombia and Venezuela entered the country.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The wide variety of surnames also gives an idea of different origins.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Emigration from the country has also become an integral part of Puerto Rico's recent history.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

After the end of World War II, due to poverty, cheap air tickets, and support from the island government, waves of emigration moved to the United States, especially New York, Chicago, Boston, Orlando, Tampa and Hartford.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Emigration continued even after the economy improved and the birth rate fell.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

It continues at the present time, and together with the fall in the birth rate, in the next 20 years can lead to a rapid aging of the population and its decrease.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 2000, a census took place in which Puerto Ricans were asked what race they considered themselves to be.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

95.8% named only one race: 80.5% identified themselves as white, 8% black, and 0.4% described themselves as Indian [33].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Languages


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The official languages in Puerto Rico are Spanish and English.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Spanish is the main language in public institutions, although English is a compulsory subject from primary school to the second year of the institute.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

According to 2006 data, approximately 3,860,120 people use Spanish as their main language and 82,000 use English.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Although a relatively small proportion of islanders consider English their main language, most people in larger cities speak both languages, or at least understand English and uses it under certain circumstances.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1991, the island's Governor, Rafael Hernández Colón, signed a law declaring Spanish the only official language of Puerto Rico's public institutions.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Although many politicians supported this decision, supporters of joining the United States as a state saw it as a threat to their aspirations.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The law also welcomed the population of Puerto Rico, as a result of receiving the prestigious Prince of Asturias Prize for Literature (Spanish: Premio Principe de Asturias) in 1991, awarded annually for his contribution to Spanish-language literature.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1993, the new governor, Pedro Rosselló, signed another law, restoring English state status.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

This was seen by many as a step towards rapprochement with the United States.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Religion


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Roman Catholic Church has historically dominated the island's religious communities, although followers of various Protestant communities have emerged with the transition to US sovereignty.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Protestantism was persecuted during Spanish rule.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

For example, the first non-Catholic Anglican Church of St.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Trinity in Ponce rang its bells only in 1898, with the landing of American troops on the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Protestants are represented by Pentecostals (including the Assembly of God movement), Baptists, Methodists, Adventists, etc.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Jehovah's Witnesses accounted for 1.6% of the population in 2011 (0.7% were publishers).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

There is also a small Jewish community in and around San Juan, representing all branches of Judaism.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 2007, there were about 1,462 Muslims in Puerto Rico, which is about 0.2% of the island's population [34] [35].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In total, there are eight mosques that are located throughout the island, most Muslims live in Rio Piedras [36] [37].


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Thanks to several supporters, the Taino religious rites were reopened.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Administrative divisions


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico is divided into 78 municipalities, which in turn are divided into districts and those into sectors (Mona Island is part of the municipality of Mayagüez) Each municipality has its mayor, who is elected for a term of four years.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The first municipality (formerly known as “the city”), San Juan, was formed in 1521.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the 16th century, two more municipalities were formed, Coamo and San Germán, both in 1570.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the 17th century, three more municipalities appeared: Arecibo, 1614; Aguada, 1692 and Ponce.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the population of the island increased rapidly, leading to the creation of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and another 34 in the 19th century.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the 20th century, only six municipalities were founded, the last of which was Florida, formed in 1971.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Economics


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the early 1900s, Puerto Rico's economy was predominantly agricultural, and its main commodity was sugar.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In the late 1940s, several projects called Operation Bootstrap were launched, the essence of which was tax exemption and the construction of factories.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

As a result, industrial production has become the island's main industry.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

During the Great Depression, economic conditions in Puerto Rico improved markedly due to foreign investment in capital-intensive industries, such as petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Thanks to US tax breaks, local industries can now compete with countries where wages are much lower than US standards.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In recent years, many American and foreign manufacturers have moved to Latin America and Asia, where labor costs are much lower.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico follows U.S. labor laws and restrictions.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Tourism is an important component of the Puerto Rican economy and generates approximately $1.8 billion a year.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In 1999, the island was visited by about 5 million tourists, mostly from the United States.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Approximately a third of them are cruise ship passengers.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The number of hotel registrations is constantly increasing (statistics since 1998), new hotels and other tourism centers are being built, which indicates the good state of the tourism industry.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The island's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004 was $17,700 per year per capita [39], which shows a significant increase compared to 2002 ($14,412).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[40] However, if we compare this value with the main territory of the United States, according to US statistics, the poorest US state Mississippi in 2002-04 had an income of $21,587 per year per capita, which well above Puerto Rico's figures.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[41] Since 1952, the difference in GDP per capita between Puerto Rico and the main US territory has remained unchanged — the island is about a third of the US average.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On 1 May 2006, Puerto Rico's budget faced a sharp cash shortage, which led to the closure of the local Ministry of Education and 42 other government agencies.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

All 1,536 public schools were closed, and 95,762 people faced a partial shutdown of government for the first time in the island's history.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[42] On May 10, 2006, the budget crisis was resolved with the conclusion of a new tax agreement, so that all civil servants were able to return to work.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On August 3, 2015, the country had to pay creditors $58 million, but transferred them only $628,000.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Thus, the country made a technical default.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

As of August 2015, Puerto Rico's debt to creditors exceeded $72 billion.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

“The future of debt raises concerns of financial analysts and experts,” Vedomosti writes with reference to the New York Times.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The governor of the island state Alejandro García Padilla said that the country will not be able to pay off all its debts.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On April 6, 2016, the Governor of Puerto Rico signed a law under which he can stop paying debts.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

On July 1, the government of Puerto Rico, despite the rescue package, was unable to pay off its obligations for $779 million.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Thus, the state defaulted.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Transportation


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The island has a well-developed road network, including expressways, which are under the control of the local Roads and Transportation Authority.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The metropolitan area has a bus service, as well as the San Juan Metro, called Tren Urbano.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

From 1880 to 1946, trams were also in operation in San Jose.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The island's main airport is Luis Munoz Marín International Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Internacional Luis Muñoz Marín).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

It is located in the municipality of Carolina.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico's main seaport is Port of San Juan (English: San Juan Port).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

There is no rail transport on the island, with the exception of the metro line introduced in 2004 in the center of the capital.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Intercity bus service is very poorly developed.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The only connection between the capital and the west coast is provided by the small bus company Linea Sultana.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Locals prefer to travel around the island exclusively by their own transport.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Culture


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The national symbols of Puerto Rico are a small bird of the tanager family Spindalis portoricensis, the Thespesia grandiflora flower and the Cotton Tree (Ceiba pentandra).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The unofficial national animal is the Tiny Frog (Eleutherdactylus coqui).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico has quite rich cultural traditions for a small island nation, including such manifestations as folklore (dancing, music, songs, colorful religious processions and performances), painting, literature, theater, amateur cinema, etc.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The first written mention of a theatrical performance on the island dates back to 1644, when Bishop Damian de Aro, appointed by the Vatican, mentioned in his letter that upon arrival from Spain he was greeted local residents, who prepared dances, bullfighting and a theatrical comedy for him.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The first printing press was brought to the island in 1806, which gave a powerful impetus to local printing and literature.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Stars such as Ricky Martin, Jennifer Lopez, Daddy Yankee, Don Omar, Angel y Khriz, Wisin y Yandel, Rosalyn Sanchez, Mark Anthony, Luis Fonsi come from the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

It is generally believed that it was in Puerto Rico that the musical style of reggaeton was born.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican women constantly participate in Miss World and Miss Universe beauty pageants.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican women won the Miss Universe pageant five times (1970, 1985, 1993, 2001, 2006), second only to the United States in terms of the number of nominations, and once won the Miss World pageant (1975).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

In this competition, in 2005, the Puerto Rican woman won second place.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Education


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Education in Puerto Rico is four-level and includes primary, secondary, high schools and higher education.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The school can be either public or private.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

According to a 2000 survey, 60% of the population has a high school diploma (analogous to upper secondary education in the CIS), and 18.3% have at least a bachelor's degree.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

These figures are in sixth place from the end compared to the main US territory, where the national average is 80.4% and 24.4%, respectively.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

[45] As of 2002, the literacy rate on the island is 94.1%, and the literacy rate of the female population is slightly higher than that of men.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Private schools are run by various non-governmental organizations, mostly by the Roman Catholic Church.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Two major public higher education institutions are the University of Puerto Rico (Spanish: Universidad de Puerto Rico) and the University of San Juan (Spanish: Colegio Universitario de San) Juan).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The largest private universities on the island are Ana G. Méndez (Spanish: Sistema Universitario Ana G. Méndez), Inter-American University (Spanish: Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico), Catholic University (Spanish: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Puerto Rico) and Sacred Heart University (Spanish: Universidad del Sagrado Corazón).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Approximately 100,000 students attend 1,500 schools each year.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

With 45,000 teachers, the Department of Education is the largest employer on the island.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The Puerto Rico Teachers Federation (Spanish: Federación de Maestros de Puerto Rico) is the largest union of all full-time teachers in the public sector.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Sports


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico has its own Olympic team at the Summer and Winter Olympics, as well as participating in other major international competitions such as the Pan American Games, Central American and Caribbean Games, and the Caribbean Baseball Cup (English: Caribbean World Series).


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

At the Olympic Games, Puerto Rican athletes have won 7 medals (1 gold, 1 silver and 5 bronze) since 1948, when Juan Evangelista Venegas won a bronze medal in boxing.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Although the island is famous for boxing, basketball, volleyball and baseball, the latter has traditionally been considered the most popular sport on the island until the number of basketball players has increased in recent years.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

The island has its own professional baseball league.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico competes in the Baseball World Cup and has 1 gold (1951), 4 silver and 4 bronze medals.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

August 8, 2004 was a milestone for the Puerto Rican Olympic team, when the national basketball team defeated the United States at the Athens Olympics.


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministries


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Agriculture


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Police


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Health


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Economic Development and Trade


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Education


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Labor and Human Resources


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Natural Resources


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Ministry of Corrections and Rehabilitation


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

See also


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican political parties


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Arecibo Observatory


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Notes


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Literature


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

(Puerto Rico Armed Forces)


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

References


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

at Curlie


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

on Ethnologue


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

(all nations, languages, etc.)


Question: What is the official language in Puerto Rica?

Puerto Rico

Category:Associated States


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles Lewis Tiffany (English: Charles Lewis Tiffany; February 15, 1812 — February 18, 1902) was a famous leader in American trade 19th century jewelry, founder of Tiffany & Co.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

He is the creator of the first retail catalog in America and the founder of the British sterling silver and platinum standards.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Biography


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Childhood


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles was born in Killingley, Connecticut, the son of thriving Comfort textile manufacturer Tiffany and his wife Chloe Draper Tiffany.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

The Tiffany family comes from an immigrant Humphrey Tiffany (1630-1685) [1] who lived in the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1660.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

[2] Despite the complete absence of financial problems for his parents, Charles sought to earn money at an early age.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

From the age of 15, he ran to work at his father's grocery store every day after school, and at the age of 18 he ran his father's mill.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles received his first education at county school and then at the Plainfield Academy, Connecticut [3].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Career


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1837, as a 25-year-old, Charles borrowed $1,000 from his father and, along with his school friend John B.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Young and Harriet's future wife Olivia Avenue Young (John's sister) moves to New York.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Here, on September 18, they open a small stationery and souvenir shop, calling it Tiffany & Young.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

On the first day of operation, sales revenue amounted to $4.98 [4], but nevertheless the store continues to operate and in two years its assortment includes glass, porcelain, dining appliances, watches, as well as jewelry.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Despite a small income from its first day of work, Tiffany & Young soon begins to flourish.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

This was due to the rivalry of New Yorkers over various rare and exotic finds, including bronze antiques from India, delicate Chinese porcelain and the latest French accessories.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles Tiffany manages to bypass competitors by purchasing much-desired goods at the time directly from ships returning to New York and Boston from foreign ports [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

For his business, Charles chose a philosophy expressed in the following words: “good design is good business”.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

After the fall of the Louis-Philippe regime in the 1840s, French aristocrats, fleeing political upheavals, sought to exchange their jewelry for cash.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles Tiffany saw this as a great opportunity and began to buy great diamonds, risking the capital of his young venture.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

This led to the appearance of large gems in the United States, which did not go unnoticed by the American press.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

The latter dubbed Charles Tiffany the title of “King of Diamonds” [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1841, the store expanded (Charles and John were joined by J.L. Ellis) and changes its name to Tiffany, Young and Ellis.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

The shop has a reputation as the best store selling Bohemian glass and porcelain.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

At the same time, the production of its own jewelry begins.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In the early 1850s, Charles opened many jewelry workshops.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1853, John Young left the company, as a result of which it was reorganized.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

The company changes its name to Tiffany & Co., and opens branches in Paris (1850) and London (1868).


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

The central store is moving to 5th Avenue [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

To meet the Victorian society's demand for silver goods, Charles Tiffany hires a famous New York jeweler (silversmith), John S. Moore.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

He was tasked with making silver equal to British sterling - 92.5% of pure silver and 7.5% of other metals.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Subsequently, the development of Tiffany & Co.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

was adopted as the US standard for silver [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1861, Charles personally met President Lincoln, who decided to order jewelry for his wife.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

A delightful pearl necklace was created especially for Maria Lincoln.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1862, during the American Civil War, Charles and his company supported the Northerners by supplying the army with weapons, food, and medicines [3].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

By the mid-1860s, Charles's company was a leader in the American silver market, but was little known in Europe.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

At the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1867, the company challenged Europeans and won the main prize for silverware.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

For the first time, an American design house was praised by a foreign jury [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1870, the company moved its office to Union Square 15, Manhattan.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

At this time, Charles, as they said, looked very lively and cheerful, just like in his youth.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In the city, he always wore an open coat and wore a high silk hat.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In his entire life, Charles Tiffany did not miss a single day of work due to illness [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles was committed to innovative ideas, which contributed to the development of the business and strengthened the status of his company.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

One of the innovations was the introduction of colored gems into jewelry.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1876, Tiffany & Co. purchased exceptional tourmaline from the famous gemologist George Frederick Kuntz.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Soon after, Dr. Koontz joined the jewelry house and collaborated with Charles Tiffany to find the best gems in America and around the world for Tiffany & Co. customers [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1877, one of the largest and most beautiful diamonds in the world, the Tiffany yellow diamond, was found at Kimberly's diamond mines in South Africa.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles bought the stone weighing 287.42 carats for $18,000.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Under the leadership of George Frederick Kuntz, the diamond was cut and reduced in weight to 128.54 carats, becoming the owner of 82 faces - an unprecedented number of faces at that time [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In 1878, at the Universal Exhibition in Paris, Tiffany received the highest awards for silver and jewelry, and Charles Tiffany was awarded the Cross of the Legion of Honor.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

As a result of these achievements, Tiffany & Co. gains the status of an imperial and royal jewelry company, supplying jewelry to crowns in Europe, as well as the Ottoman Sultan, Emperor and Empress of Russia and Shah of Iran.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

In the last 20 years of Charles's life, his company has won the highest awards for its products more than once.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

This is what happened at the World's Fair in Paris in 1889, the Chicago World's Fair in 1893 and 1900 [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

One of the greatest achievements in Charles's life is working with Thomas Edison, which resulted in the creation of a floodlight and various other methods of electric theater lighting.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

This has made Broadway and other theater shows more popular.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles Tiffany was also a patron saint of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and one of the founders of the New York Society of Fine Arts [5].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Death


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Charles Tiffany died in Yonkers, New York on February 18, 1902 at the age of 90.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

At this point, his company was valued at more than $2 million and was recognized as the most prominent jewelry company in North America [2].


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Personal life


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

On November 30, 1839, Charles married John B.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Young — Harriet Olivia Avenue Young (1816-1897).


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

They had six children: Charles Lewis Tiffany Jr. (b. 1842), Annie Olivia Tiffany Mitchell (b. 1844; great-grandmother of American diplomat Hyrum Bingham IV) [6] [7], Louis Comfort Tiffany (b. 1848), Louise Harriet Tiffany (b. 1856), Henry Charles Tiffany (b. 1858), and Burnett Young Tiffany (b. 1860).


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Honors


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Knight of the Legion of Honor, 1878 [2]


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Bibliography


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

See also


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Tiffany & Co.


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Louis Comfort Tiffany


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Tiffany (diamond)


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Notes


Question: How many kids did Charles Lewis Tiffany have?

Charles Lewis Tiffany

Category:American jewelers


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Natural or black ospa (Latin: variola, variola vera) is a highly contagious viral infection.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It is caused by two types of viruses: Variola major (mortality rate 20-40%, according to some reports - up to 90%) and Variola minor (mortality 1-3%), which belong to the Poxviridae family, a subfamily of Chordopoxvirinae , of the genus Orthopoxvirus.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

People who survive smallpox may partially or completely lose their eyesight, and almost always there are numerous scars on the skin in places of former ulcers.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Those who have had smallpox have a strong immunity to this disease.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The last case of smallpox was reported on October 26, 1977 in the Somali city of Marka [1].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Historical review


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Virus evolution


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The question of the timing of the appearance of the smallpox virus is not finally resolved.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Most likely, the smallpox virus evolved between 68,000 and 16,000 years ago [2] [3].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The wide range of dates is associated with the different readings used to calibrate molecular clocks.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

One treasure trove of strains belongs to Variola major (a virus that causes a clinically more severe form of the disease), which passed to humans and spread from Asia between the 5th and 16th centuries.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The second treasure includes two varieties of Variola Alastrim minor (phenotypically mild smallpox) described in America and isolated in West Africa, which separated from the common ancestor of the virus smallpox between the 15th century and the 7th century AD


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Later, this treasure was divided into two subclades around the 13th century.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox before the era of mass vaccination


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Previously, it was believed that smallpox has been known to mankind since ancient times.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Various sources attributed its first appearance either to Africa (Egypt, 3730—3710) or to Asia (ancient China, 3000).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, according to genetic studies, the human smallpox virus is close to the camel pox virus, which is why it is now assumed that it has passed to humans from camels to Middle East region at the beginning of our era [4].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The smallpox epidemic first swept through China in the 4th century, and hit Korea in the middle of the 6th century.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 737, more than 30% of the Japanese population died out of smallpox (the mortality rate in densely populated areas reached 70%) [4].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In India, there was a special goddess of smallpox, Mariatale; she was portrayed as a young woman in red clothes with a very hot-tempered character — according to legend, she once got angry with her father, and in anger threw her gold necklace in his face, and pustules appeared where the beads touched the skin.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

With this in mind, the believers tried to appease and propitiate Mariatala, and sacrificed her.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In Korea, smallpox epidemics were explained by visiting a spirit that was called the “respected guest of smallpox.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

An altar was set up for him, where the best food and wine were brought [5].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Some researchers believed that smallpox was mentioned in the Bible (Exodus, ch. IX, verse 9—10), where, in the description of the ten Egyptian executions, it is said: “... and there will be inflammation in people and cattle with boils, throughout the land of Egypt” [6], although “boils” could mean another cutaneous illness.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

IN. IN. Svyatlovsky wrote that smallpox from India was distributed to other regions by the troops of Alexander the Great.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It was assumed that in the 2nd century AD.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

this disease, under the name “Antoninus plague”, affected the Roman legions of Marcus Aurelius, and in 60 appeared in ancient Rome [6], but Galen's description of the “Antoninus plague” does not correspond to the nature of the course of the disease in smallpox infection [4].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

According to the Arab doctor Aron, who lived in the 7th century, smallpox has been known among the Arabs since ancient times.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

According to fairly reliable scientific data, the first description of the smallpox epidemic in the western part of the Old World is a brief mention in the Koran: in 569—570, the Ethiopian army besieging Mecca was is affected by an unknown disease [4].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the 6th century, smallpox was already in charge of Byzantium, being brought to the last of Africa under Justinian I [6].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Muslim Arabs, having begun conquest, spread smallpox from Spain to India in the 7th-8th centuries [4]: history has witnessed the appearance of smallpox in Syria, Palestine and Persia in the 7th century, in Sicily, Italy, Spain and France in the next 8th century [6].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since the 6th century, smallpox has appeared under its still surviving Latin name variola, first used by Bishop Mary of Avenches in 570.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since that time, smallpox, under its irreplaceable name, has claimed many lives every year in Europe.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Among the Normans, during their invasion of Paris (in 846), it spread to terrifying proportions.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

A close associate of King Karl the Bald Cobbo also fell ill.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The king, fearing that the infection would reach him and his court, ordered the killing of all the infected, as well as all those with the sick.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Such a radical measure gives an idea of the strength and cruelty of the disease against which it was taken.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

On the other hand, it was too early to make an unyielding demand for salvation from this disease to medicine and severely punished the helplessness of doctors.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Queen Austrigilde of Burgundy, dying of smallpox, asked her husband, in the form of last mercy, to execute her both doctors if they could not save her.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

King Guntran complied with her request and ordered the scientists Nikolaus and Donatus to be cut with swords.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The spells, prayers and talismans invented against smallpox, of course, did not help to weaken smallpox at all, nor did the treatments of that time (for example, when the patient was dressed in red clothes to “lure smallpox out”).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The spread of the disease reached such an extent that it was rare to find a person who did not suffer smallpox; therefore, in the Middle Ages, the Germans had a saying: “Von Pocken und Liebe bleiben nur Wenige frei” (Few will avoid smallpox and love) [7].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since the 15th century, Europe has been imagining a smallpox hospital, so doctors (for example, Mercurialis) have begun to argue that “everyone should suffer from smallpox at least once in a lifetime.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The English physician Kilwai, in his treatise on smallpox (1593), “considered it superfluous to go into a detailed description of the disease, as it is well known to almost everyone.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

From Europe, smallpox passed to America, where in 1527 it claimed many millions of lives, and many tribes died out without a trace.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1577 and 1586, terrible smallpox epidemics tormented France, about which Ballonius wrote: “such mortality did not happen in people's memory; almost all those who were affected by smallpox died” [7].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The famous English historian Thomas Macaulay, speaking about the death of Queen Mary, who died of smallpox at the end of the 17th century, notes that this disease was at that time one of the most terrible accomplices in death:” The pestilence or plague was more deadly, but it visited our coast only once or twice in people's memory, while smallpox was relentlessly between us, filling cemeteries with the dead, tormenting the constant fear of all those who have not yet suffered from it, leaving ugly signs on the faces of the people whose lives she has spared, as a stigma of their power, making the child unrecognizable to his own mother, making the beautiful bride an object of disgust in the groom's eyes.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

“Smallpox spared no one,” says Professor Immerman, “neither nobility nor mob; it spread its destructive power as often in the huts of the poor as in the dwellings of the rich, it penetrated into the palaces of the rulers and has repeatedly threatened European dynasties” [7].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since the 17th century, there is already a lot of evidence on smallpox recorded by contemporaries.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since there was no country in the Old and New World in which smallpox did not rage, it turns out a terrible picture of the extermination and disfigurement of mankind.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In many countries, statistics on mortality from smallpox have been preserved.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Thus, the British Museum has such information about mortality in London in the 17th century.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the following century, the terrible smallpox martyrology continued: “Hardly one person in a thousand was sick with smallpox,” wrote Med in 1747, and at the end of the century, in 1788, Plaid says in his Essays in his Essays comparative mortality at all times”, which follows about smallpox: “few people avoid this disease, especially in crowded cities, where foci of infection exist constantly. Hardly a handful of people from the capital can be sure that they have avoided this infection that lies everywhere around them.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox killed 1/6 to 1/8 of all cases, and in young children, mortality even reached 1/3.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In relation to total mortality, smallpox accounted for 1/4 or even more than 1/3.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The total number of deaths from smallpox was determined in Prussia, by the beginning of the XIX century, at 40 thousand people annually.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

According to Juncker, in 1796 alone, 70,000 people died from this disease in Germany.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In general, it was calculated that more than 1.5 million people died from smallpox every year in Europe [7].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In France of the XVIII century, when the police were looking for a person, it was indicated as a special sign: “It has no signs of smallpox.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The widespread spread of smallpox was one of the reasons for the abuse of cosmetics: a thick layer of white and blush applied to the face made it possible not only to give the skin the desired shade, but also to mask smallpox scars.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Variolation


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Ar-Razi and Avicenna left classic descriptions of smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Al-Razi also mentioned variolation, the vaccination of human smallpox, which was the first serious human opposition to this infectious disease.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Variolation consisted of vaccinating smallpox pus from a mature pustule of a patient with smallpox, which led to mild smallpox disease.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

This method has been known in the East at least since the early Middle Ages, and records of the 8th century have been preserved in India, and in China - the 10th century.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Variolation was performed on young girls intended for harem life in order to preserve their beauty from smallpox scars.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

This method was also used in Africa, Scandinavia, among local peoples of the Urals and Siberia [6].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

This technique was first brought to Europe from Turkey by Mary Wortley Montague, the wife of the British ambassador to Constantinople, in 1718, who, having learned about variolation among the Turks, vaccinated her six-year-old son .


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In England, after experiments on criminals and children from church shelters, smallpox was vaccinated in the family of British King George I.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the first 8 years, smallpox was vaccinated in England, 845 people were vaccinated, of which 17 did not tolerate it and died, that is, variolation gave 2% of mortality [8].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since smallpox led to mortality by 10 to 20 times more, variolation was initially very popular.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, since the latter sometimes led to the death of smallpox vaccinated people (among the victims was the famous theologian Jonathan Edwards in 1758), it often caused epidemics itself and did not always protect those who suffered inoculation from subsequent smallpox infection, then it gradually fell out of use.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The English doctor Geberden proved at the end of the 18th century that in 40 years of variolation in London alone, 25,000 more patients died than in the same number of years before the introduction of vaccinations [6].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Variolation was banned in France by an act of Parliament in 1762, but existed in England until 1840 [9] Despite this, doctor Watson, without a safe smallpox vaccine, used it in 1862 on ship at sea when the epidemic broke out among the sailors, and all 363 vaccinated survived, while 9 out of 12 smallpox patients died [6].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

“It is usually said in Europe that the British are crazy and exalted people; crazy, because they vaccinate their children with smallpox to prevent them from getting it; exalted because they are happy to communicate this terrible disease to their children in order to prevent evil as yet unknown. The British, for their part, say: other Europeans are cowards and degenerate people: cowards because they are afraid to cause minor pain to children; degenerated people because they expose their children risk of dying from smallpox.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Vaccination


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the end of the 18th century, several observers drew attention to cowpox, a disease common in horses and cows.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the latter, it manifested itself in the form of pustules, vesicles with purulent contents on the udder, very similar to smallpox rashes in humans.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, cowpox in animals was much more benign than smallpox in humans, and could be transmitted to him.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Milkmaids often suffered cowpox, but subsequently did not become infected with natural pox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The fact that in the English army of the 18th century, the incidence of smallpox in cavalry was significantly lower than in the infantry is a phenomenon of the same order (infection with horse pox, which reported immunity to natural) [10].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Back in 1765, doctors Sutton and Fewster told the London Medical Society that smallpox in dairy cows, if a person becomes infected with it, protects him from natural human disease smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The London Medical Society did not agree with them, recognized their observation as a simple accident that does not deserve further research.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, in 1774, English farmer Benjamin Jestie successfully vaccinated his family with cowpox, and German teacher Peter Plett did the same in 1791 [11]


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Regardless of them, this was discovered by the English doctor and naturalist Jenner, who, after observing natural cases of cowpox for 30 years, decided to make a public experience vaccinating cowpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the presence of doctors and outsiders, Jenner removed smallpox from the hand of a young milkmaid Sarah Nelms, who contracted cowpox by accident, and vaccinated it in an eight-year-old boy James Phipps.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox began, developed only in two vaccinated places and flowed normally.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Then, on July 1 of the same year, Jenner vaccinated Phipps with natural human smallpox, which, like a protected person with a safety vaccine, did not take [12].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Two years later, Jenner published his work entitled: “” (A study on the causes and effects of variolae vaccinae, a disease found in some western counties of England, especially Gloucestershire, and known as cowpox, with tables, L., 1798) (in English).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In this brochure, Jenner pointed out that cowpox and smallpox are two forms of the same disease, so that suffering cowpox reports immunity to smallpox [12].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Template:Quotation end


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1800, vaccination was made mandatory in the British Army and Navy.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

During these years, it spread to the English colonies, North America and further into Europe.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1803, the Spanish king, convinced of the benefits of vaccination, ordered his personal doctor Francis Javier de Balmi to take her to Spanish possessions in the Americas.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

To keep the vaccine in good condition during the trip, the doctor took 22 boys aged 3 to 9 years from orphanages in Spain who had not previously had cow or smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

While moving across the Atlantic Ocean, de Balmi vaccinated orphans with a “human chain”.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Two children were vaccinated before leaving, and when cowpox pustules appeared on their arms, the discharge from those ulcers was used to vaccinate the next two children (in English) [10].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1807, Bavaria became the first country to make smallpox vaccination mandatory for the population.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the first years after the invention of vaccination, it was given from hand to hand (cowpox was vaccinated to one person, then, a few days later, the discharge was removed from the vaccination site and used as material for the next vaccination).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

This method (vaccination of humanized lymph) required damage to the smallpox on the hand of the vaccinated person (when taking the vaccination material), which could cause inflammation at the vaccination site and slow down healing wounds.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In addition, pathogens of various diseases, including syphilis and erysipelas, could be transmitted along with cowpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

All this, taken together, prompted us to turn to animal lymph.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It turned out that smallpox is certainly safe in calves that were originally vaccinated with native cowpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox removed from calves is vaccinated in humans and the same calf smallpox is vaccinated in other calves.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Since the use of calf pox (since the 1860s), smallpox vaccination has become available to the masses, as it has become possible to extract the required smallpox material in any quantity, very cheaply and distribute smallpox, not meeting resistance among the people, who instinctively disgusted shooting smallpox and grafting from hand to hand.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The simplest method of preparing the vaccine was to scrape off smallpox pustules in calves and rubbing it with glycerin (smallpox detritus) [12].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Already in the 20th century, a freeze-dried vaccine was proposed.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Such a vaccine was resistant to the temperature factor, which was extremely important for countries in tropical Africa, Asia, and South America, where the liquid drug was quickly inactivated [9].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox and smallpox vaccination in Russia


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In Russia, as elsewhere, smallpox was not uncommon — this is evidenced, in particular, by the fact that there are more than a dozen Russian surnames formed from different dialectal words that denoted the specific appearance of people who have had smallpox (Ryabovs, Ryabtsevs, Ryabinins, Shchedrins, Shadrins, Koryavins, etc.).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, the word “smallpox” is first found only in 1653, in the correspondence of Dr. Belau (nicknamed Belousov in Russia) with a pharmacy order, to which he offered to purchase a miraculous the “inrog” (unicorn) remedy against it.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1680, a decree was already issued on preventive measures against the spread of smallpox, which was subsequently followed by various rules on the procedure for declaring and suppressing the development of this disease [7].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the beginning of the 17th century, starting in 1610, smallpox began to spread in Siberia (among the Ostyaks), and in 1788 reached Kamchatka, destroying ⅓, ½ and even ¾ of other tribes.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Wanting to protect themselves from infection, they eliminated smallpox patients, avoided any intercourse with them, but these precautions did not prevent Emperor Peter II from becoming infected and dying of smallpox on January 18 1730, at the age of 15.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Mortality reached such a huge scale that Baron Dimsdal (in 1768) claimed that 2,000,000 people died from smallpox in Russia every year (?!) , while at the time of Catherine we not only had no idea about the mortality rate in Russia, but did not even know the number of cities [13]


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Emperor Peter II, 14, died of smallpox in 1730. He became infected after one of the Dolgorukikh princes, having smallpox patients at home, came to the royal court, despite the prohibition of this made by Menshikov back in 1727. Peter III also later suffered smallpox, even before he became emperor [8].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The first vaccinations (variolations) in Russia were given by Thomas Dimsdale, a doctor specially invited from England.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the same time, Catherine II decided to set a personal example for her subjects: on the night of the year, the Empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The material for vaccination was taken from a peasant boy Alexander Markov, for which he was later granted the nobility, the surname Markov-Ospenny and a noble coat of arms with the image of a naked hand, above the elbow of which there was a mature pockmark.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Fedorovna were also among the first vaccinated [14] [15].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

A few years later, Ekaterina's grandchildren Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovichi were also vaccinated.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox matter for the last vaccination was given by 12-year-old Alexander Briskorn, the future major general, who was admitted to the Engineering Corps for this.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the 18th century, every seventh child in Russia died of smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the end of the XVIII century, all those entering the cadet corps were subject to variolation, if they had not previously tolerated smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The then cadet, future historian, writer Sergei Glinka, described this in his memoirs:


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

A smallpox hall was established in the building.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Although I still had severe smallpox at home, it did not leave any traces, so I was placed there among 80 cadets, and my ten-year-old comrade Golovnya was immediately there.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

After being vaccinated with smallpox, he fell down.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Seeing his suffering, I... looked after him... when he called me in a weak and dull voice.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

He gave his last breath in my arms.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Despite such accidents, inevitable with mass vaccinations of a potentially deadly vaccine, variolation has spread in many cities of the Russian Empire.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox houses were opened in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Oranienbaum, Tsarskoye Selo, Kiev (1783), and even in Irkutsk (1772).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

A silver ruble was given for each vaccinated person [12].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Catherine II issued a decree on mandatory smallpox vaccination.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, due to the fact that the case immediately fell into the hands of gross ignorant people - smallpox, due to the fact that the police used violent techniques to attract the population to vaccinations, and the population, general underdevelopment, did not understand and could not understand the benefits of vaccinations — thanks to all this, the law on vaccinations was not successful.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

By this time, Europe is also disappointed in the feasibility of variolation.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In Russia, vaccination using the Jenner method began in October 1801. Smallpox vaccination was carried out in the Moscow orphanage by Professor E.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

O. Mukhin.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The material for vaccinations was sent by Empress Dowager Maria Fedorovna, who was in correspondence with Jenner himself (according to German sources, the vaccine was sent from Breslavl by Dr. Friese , and the vaccination was carried out by doctor Schultz).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The first vaccinated was pupil Anton Petrov.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the behest of the Empress, Petrov was given the surname Vaccinov, and he was awarded a lifetime pension.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

For a long time, the orphanage became an important Moscow smallpox vaccination center, where they independently made the vaccine and vaccinated everyone.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Jenner visited Russia in 1814 and was introduced to Emperor Alexander I [6].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1802, Dr. Franz Buttatz, who studied vaccination in England, traveled, on behalf of the government, to vaccinate smallpox; after leaving St. Petersburg, he traveled through Novgorod, Tver, Moscow, Kaluga, Tula, Kursk and so on reached Nerchinsk and Kyakhta, and made the return journey by another road [16].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1815, a smallpox vaccination committee was established in Russia, whose duties were to compile lists of children with whom smallpox had not yet been vaccinated and train skillful smallpox.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The Free Economic Society took a prominent part in the spread of smallpox vaccination in Russia, especially since 1824, when a department called the guardianship preserving the health of mankind and all pets.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The Society sent smallpox matter and tools throughout Russia, took care of the training of experienced smallpox vaccinators, and distributed hundreds of thousands of brochures in Russian and foreign languages [17].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Subsequently, the functions of smallpox vaccination were transferred to Zemstvo institutions [7].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

However, before the Great October Socialist Revolution, Russia still did not introduce mandatory vaccination, which greatly affected mortality statistics.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the end of the 19th century, physician and writer Svyatlovsky wrote: “In England, where mandatory vaccinations and revaccination have been introduced, an average of 1, and at most 12 people die from this disease per year. It should be noted that this is throughout England; in Austria, which does not have a mandatory law, at least 5,000 people die from smallpox in the best years per year. In Vienna alone, or here in Warsaw, he dies of smallpox every year more than in the whole of England or even in the whole of Germany.” [6]


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

On April 10, 1919, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR issued a decree “On mandatory smallpox vaccination”, which was universal.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1924, a new law on mandatory vaccination and booster vaccination was issued.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1919, 186,000 patients with smallpox were registered, in 1925 — 25,000, in 1929 — 6,094, in 1935 — 3,177; by 1936, smallpox was eliminated in the USSR [18] [19].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox outbreak in Moscow in 1959—1960


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Although the disease was defeated within the borders of the USSR, there were outbreaks of smallpox imported from abroad before the worldwide elimination of this disease.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

One of the latest was the case in Moscow in December 1959 — January 1960. :


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Moscow artist Kokorekin visited India.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

He had a chance to attend the burning of the deceased Brahmin.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Having gained impressions and gifts for his mistress and wife, he returned to Moscow a day earlier than his wife was waiting for him.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

He spent this day with his mistress, to whom he gave gifts and in whose arms he spent the night not without pleasantness.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

After guessing the arrival time of the plane from Delhi, he arrived home the next day.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

After giving gifts to his wife, he felt unwell, his temperature rose, his wife called an ambulance, and he was taken to the infectious diseases department of the Botkin Hospital... By morning, the patient became heavier and died.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The pathologist who performed the autopsy invited the head of the department, academician N. A. Kraevsky.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

An old pathologist from Leningrad came to visit Nikolai Alexandrovich, and he was invited to the sectional table.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The old man looked at the corpse and said, “Yes, my friend, variola vera is smallpox.”


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The old man was right... The Soviet health care machine was spinning.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The infectious diseases department was quarantined, the KGB began to monitor Kokorekin's contacts... As it turned out, the wife and mistress behaved the same way - both ran to thrift stores to hand over gifts.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

There have been several cases of smallpox in Moscow that have been fatal.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The hospital was quarantined, and it was decided to vaccinate the entire population of Moscow with smallpox vaccine.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

A total of 19 people were infected from Kokorekin during this outbreak in Moscow (7 relatives, 9 staff and 3 patients of the hospital where he was hospitalized with unrecognized smallpox).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

They infected 23 more people and the latter infected three more.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

3 out of 46 infected people died [9].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Mass vaccination


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In America, Asia, and Africa, smallpox lasted almost two hundred years after the invention of vaccination.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the 20th century, the virus killed 300—500 million people [20] [21] [22].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the late 1960s, smallpox affected 10-15 million unvaccinated people.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1958, Deputy Minister of Health of the USSR V. M. Zhdanov speaks at the XI session of the World Health Assembly with a program to eradicate smallpox around the world [23] :46.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The speech was followed by resolution WHA11.54, which was unanimously adopted by the Assembly and launched the campaign to combat smallpox [24].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1967, the World Health Organization (WHO) decided to intensify the eradication of smallpox through mass vaccination of mankind.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The last case of natural smallpox infection was reported in Somalia in 1977.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 1978, the last case of laboratory infection was recorded.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The eradication of smallpox was officially announced in 1980 at the WHO Assembly, which was preceded by the relevant opinion of a commission of specialists issued in December 1979 [25].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The cost of the smallpox eradication campaign from 1967 to 1979 was $298 million (approximately $2.16 billion at 2018 prices), or $29 million per year.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

African countries for which smallpox was endemic provided $200 million, and the remaining $98 million was provided by other countries of the world community [26].


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

From 1958 to 1979, the USSR provided one and a half billion doses of smallpox vaccine, and also sent specialists to places where the disease spread in Asian and African countries [23] :46.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox is the first of two infectious diseases (the second is bovine plague) to be defeated through mass vaccination.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Vaccinations against smallpox in the USSR ceased in 1978—1982.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Vaccination in the 21st century


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In 2001, in the United States, President George W. Bush ordered smallpox vaccinations to all military personnel after anthrax spores were sent out and smallpox was threatened as a biological weapon.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Etiology and pathogenesis


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In typical cases, smallpox is characterized by general intoxication, fever, peculiar rashes on the skin and mucous membranes, successively passing through the stages of spots, vesicles, pustules, crusts and scar.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The causative agent of smallpox belongs to viruses of the Poxviridae family, the subfamily of Chordopoxviridae, the genus Orthopoxvirus; contains DNA, has a size of 200-350 nm, multiplies in the cytoplasm with the formation of inclusions.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The smallpox virus has an antigenic relationship with red blood cells of group A of human blood, which causes weak immunity, high morbidity and mortality of the corresponding group of people.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It is resistant to environmental influences, especially to drying and low temperatures.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It can persist for a long time, for a number of months, in crusts and scales taken from pockmarks on the skin of patients, and remains viable for several years in a frozen and lyophilized state.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox belongs to anthroponoses and is a highly contagious, especially dangerous infection.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

All people are susceptible to smallpox if they do not have immunity from a previous illness or vaccination.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Smallpox was widespread in Asia and Africa.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It is an airborne infection, but it is possible to inoculate the virus in direct contact with the affected skin of the patient or objects infected with it.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The patient's infectiousness is observed throughout the disease - from the last days of incubation to the rejection of crusts.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The corpses of those who died from smallpox also remain highly contagious.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

When contaminated air is inhaled, viruses enter the respiratory tract.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

It is possible to infect through the skin during variolation and transplacental.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The virus enters the nearest lymph nodes and then into the bloodstream, which leads to viremia.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The epithelium is hematogenously infected, the virus multiplies here, which is the reason for the appearance of enanthema and exanthema.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The weakening of immunity leads to the activation of the secondary flora and the transformation of vesicles into pustules.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

As a result of the death of the germ layer of the epidermis, deep suppuration and destructive processes, scars are formed.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Infectious toxic shock may develop.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Severe forms are characterized by the development of hemorrhagic syndrome.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Symptoms


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In the typical course of smallpox, the incubation period lasts 8-14 days.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The initial period is characterized by chills, fever, severe tearing pain in the lower back, sacrum and limbs, severe thirst, dizziness, headache, vomiting.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Sometimes the onset of the disease is mild.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

On the 2nd-4th day, against the background of fever, an initial rash appears on the skin either in the form of areas of hyperemia (measles-like, roseolous, erythematous), or a hemorrhagic rash on both sides of the chest in areas of the pectoral muscles to the armpits, as well as below the navel in the inguinal folds and inner thighs (“Simon's triangle”); hemorrhages look like purpura and even ecchymosis.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The spotted rash lasts several hours, the hemorrhagic rash lasts for a longer time.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

On the 4th day, there is a decrease in body temperature, the clinical symptoms of the initial period are alleviated, but typical pockmarks appear on the scalp, face, trunk and limbs that go through stages spots, papules, vesicles, pustules, crusting, rejection of the latter and scar formation.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

At the same time, pockmarks appear on the mucous membrane of the nose, oropharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, conjunctiva, rectum, female genital organs, urethra.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

They soon turn into erosion.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

On the 8th-9th days of the disease, in the stage of suppuration of the vesicles, the patients' well-being worsens again, signs of toxic encephalopathy appear (impaired consciousness, delirium, agitation, in children - convulsions).


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The period of drying and falling off the crusts takes about 1-2 weeks.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Numerous scars form on the face and scalp.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

The change in blood is characterized by leukocytosis, in severe forms there is a sharp shift to the left with the release of myelocytes and young cells into the blood.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

Severe forms include the confluence form (Variola confluens), pustular hemorrhagic (Variola haemorrhagica pustulesa) (the so-called “smallpox”) and smallpox purpura (Purpura variolosae), with which develops massive hemorrhages into the skin.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In particularly severe cases, death occurs even before the rash appears.


Question: Can the plant be infected with a virus?

Smallpox

In those vaccinated with the smallpox vaccine, smallpox is easy (Varioloid).