Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The commander of “Kirovograd” captain of the III rank Vladimir Khromchenkov in the evening called the live broadcast of the Shuster Live program and said that the ships are waiting for an adequate order on their future fate, adding that it is not contacted by management. [57]


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav

The next day, Acting Chief of Staff of the Presidential Executive Office Sergei Pashinsky contacted the commander [58].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Later, the commander of “Kirovograd” Vladimir Khromchenkov, the commander of “Feodosia” O. Bely and Chernigov commander Boris Paliy defected to Russia [54].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

260px|mini|left|Cherkassy sea minesweeper during exercises in Donuzlav in 2009


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On March 21, the Cherkasy minesweeper made its first attempt to break through from Donuzlav [59].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Cherkassy hooked one of the sunken ships with mooring cables and tried to drag it away.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The operation lasted about two hours, but the minesweeper failed to do so due to lack of power [60].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The commander of the ship Yuri Fedash asked for help from the minesweeper “Chernihiv”, but he was refused.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On this day, two officers, one midshipman and nine personnel left Cherkassy [61].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

In return, three sailors boarded from the Chernigov minesweeper [60].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On March 22, the Vinnitsa corvette raised the St. Andrew's flag as a result of the assault [62], and commander Sergei Zaugolnikov eventually defected to Russia [54].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On the same day, Siarhei Haiduk said that the food supplies on the ships that are in Donuzlav remained for 10 days [63].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On March 23, the Genichesk raid minesweeper attempted to leave Donuzlav [64], but was blocked by a tugboat of the Russian Black Sea Fleet [24].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On the same day, the commander of the Cherkasy minesweeper Yuriy Fedash said that he still had contact with the command [65].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The next day, the Cherkasy minesweeper made a second attempt to leave Donuzlav, passing between two sunken ships.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The R-60 missile cruiser reacted to this maneuver, on which a combat alert was announced [66].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

As a result, the minesweeper was blocked by a tugboat, from which attempts were made to board [67].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The tug rammed the Cherkassy to the port side, which caused seawater to flow to the ship [23].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

According to Fedash, he considered the option of seizing this vessel, but the leadership in Kiev refused him.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

He also said that in order to prevent the seizure of the ship, they fired at the water and used RG-42 grenades [45].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On the night of March 24, the military of the Russian Federation sunk a Russian small-sized vessel [68].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Later, the Konstantin Olshansky used smokescreens, but was still captured from the launch U8301 [67] [69] [70] [71], as was the Genichesk minesweeper [72].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The captain of the Konstantin Olshansky Dmitry Kovalenko said that the issue of flooding the ship was not considered [73].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

At the time of the capture of the ship, 21 of the 120 crew remained.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

During all the time, about 400 grenades were thrown out of Konstantin Olshansky [30].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine called the seizure of ships by Russia piracy [74].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

At the same time, Acting President of Ukraine Oleksandr Turchynov said that the Ministry of Defense had been instructed to withdraw military units from Crimea [75].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On the same day, the Minister of Defense of Ukraine Igor Tenyukh announced the decision to withdraw troops from the Crimea and that he had ordered “to use weapons, but the commanders did not use these weapons, so that there was no bloodshed” [76].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Two days later, Tenyukh resigned [77].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On March 25, an unknown boat made a detour around the Cherkassy minesweeper [78].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On the night of March 25-26, the last Ukrainian ship in the Crimea, the Cherkassy minesweeper, was captured.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Two Mi-35 helicopters, three boats and the Kovel tugboat (on which the Vladimirov heavy machine gun was additionally installed) took part in this operation [23] [79].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The ship maneuvered for several hours, but was still captured using firearms and stun grenades [80] [81].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

According to Fedash, Tambov special forces participated in the capture of Cherkassy [82].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

He also said that by the time the assault began, two engines and control mechanisms on the ship had failed [23].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The idea of sinking the ship was also considered by the captain of the 3rd rank, but he abandoned it due to possible prosecution [83].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The assault on the Cherkasy took place without casualties [84], after which the tugboat Kovel pulled the minesweeper to the pier [85].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The next day, the crew disembarked and went to mainland Ukraine.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Commander Yuri Fedash was the last to leave the ship, after which Ukrainian symbols were removed from the Cherkasy [60].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The return of ships


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

After the capture of Ukrainian ships, Oleksandr Turchynov instructed the new Minister of Defense of Ukraine Mikhail Koval that “not a single warship should remain in captivity” [86].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On April 19, 2014, the ships Kirovograd, Vinnitsa, Kherson, Kovel, Gorlovka and Novoozernoye were returned to Ukraine and redeployed to Odessa [87] [88].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The transfer took place in neutral waters, where the ships were towed by the Russian side, after which the Ukrainian flags were raised on the ships again [89].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

In May, Ukraine received the Henichesk minesweeper [90] and the Dobropillya passenger boat [8].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

As of June 2015, the ships “Chernihiv”, “Cherkasy” and “Konstantin Olshansky” were not returned to Ukraine [91].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On January 12, 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin said that Russia is ready to continue the process of returning military equipment of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to Ukraine from the Crimea [92] [93].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Recovering sunken ships


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

In April 2014, the Research Institute (Rescue and Underwater Technologies) developed a project to lift the flooded Ochakov.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

About 100 specialists worked on the lifting of the ship: servicemen of the ships of the ship lifting detachment, divers of the emergency rescue squad, specialists from the 13th shipyard of the Black Sea Fleet of the Russian Federation and Sevzapkanat enterprises [35].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Such a large-scale operation to lift ships in Crimea has not been carried out for about 20 years.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Divers worked three shifts every day.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

23 tons of ropes were prepared for lifting, and a 100-ton crane was used [35].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

As a result, in October 2014 “Ochakov” was raised.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

It was planned to deliver it for disposal to Inkerman, but the Ochakov was towed to the ship cemetery near Novoozerny [94] [95].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

memento


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The Russian side


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

250px|mini|right|Memorial to the sunken ships in Novoozerne


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On August 8, 2014, in Novoozernoye, Chairman of the State Council of the Crimea Vladimir Konstantinov, unveiled a memorial sign to the sunken ships that blocked the exit to the ships of the Naval Forces of Ukraine.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The memorial plaque says: “In memory of the ships sunk in March 2014 for the reunification of Crimea with Russia” [96] [97].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Ukrainian side


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

For their actions in Donuzlav Bay, the Ukrainian media called the crew of the minesweeper and his captain heroes.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On April 4, the crew of the Cherkasy minesweeper greeted in the center of the city of the same name, where they were greeted as heroes [98].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

The commander of the Cherkassy minesweeper Yuri Fedash was awarded the title of Honorary Citizen of Cherkasy [99] and awarded the Order of Danila Galitsky [100].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

In April 2014, the Lyapis Trubetskoy rock band invited the sailors of Konstantin Olshansky to their concert in Odessa and called Ukrainian sailors in Donuzlav heroes.


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

They also noted a video that was shot on a ship, where sailors sing the song “Warriors of Light” [101].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

However, it is mistakenly believed that the video was shot on the Cherkassy minesweeper [98].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On April 6, 2014, before the match between Dynamo Kyiv and Metalist Kharkiv in the framework of the Ukrainian League, sailors from Kirovograd were invited to the field of the Olimpiyskiy stadium, who were greeted as heroes [102].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

On August 24, 2014, during a military parade on the occasion of the Independence Day of Ukraine, President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko said: “Ukraine will never forget the actions of the crew of the Cherkasy minesweeper, which the latter maneuvered and defended his ship in Donuzlav Bay” [103] [104].


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

In April 2017, Ukrainian director Timur Yashchenko began filming a film about the actions of the Cherkasy minesweeper in 2014 [105]


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

See also


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

List of ships of the Ukrainian Navy


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

Notes


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

References


Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

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Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

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Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

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Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

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Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

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Question: How many ships were returned to Ukraine after the blockade of the Ukrainian fleet in Donuzlav?

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Category:March 2014


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Uranus is the planet in the solar system, the seventh most distant from the Sun, the third largest in diameter, and the fourth largest in mass.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

It was discovered in 1781 by the English astronomer William Herschel and named after the Greek god of the sky Uranus.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Uranus was the first planet discovered in modern times and with the help of a telescope [1].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

It was discovered by William Herschel on March 13, 1781 [2], thereby expanding the boundaries of the solar system in the eyes of man for the first time since antiquity.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Despite the fact that Uranus is sometimes distinguishable by the naked eye, earlier observers mistook it for a dim star [3].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Unlike the gas giants Saturn and Jupiter, which consist mainly of hydrogen and helium, there is no metallic hydrogen in the depths of Uranus and similar Neptune, but there is a lot of ice in its high-temperature modifications.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

For this reason, experts have identified these two planets as a separate category of “ice giants”.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The basis of Uranus's atmosphere is hydrogen and helium.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In addition, it contains traces of methane and other hydrocarbons, as well as clouds of ice, solid ammonia and hydrogen.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

This is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system with a minimum temperature of 49 K (−224° C).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It is believed that Uranus has a complex layered cloud structure, where water forms the lower layer and methane forms the upper layer [4].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The subsoil of Uranus consists mainly of ice and rocks.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Like the gas giants of the solar system, Uranus has a system of rings and a magnetosphere, as well as 27 satellites.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The orientation of Uranus in space differs from the rest of the planets of the solar system — its axis of rotation lies “on its side” relative to the plane of revolution of this planet around the Sun.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

As a result, the planet faces the Sun alternately by the North Pole, the South Pole, the Equator, or the Middle Latitudes.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In 1986, the American spacecraft Voyager 2 transmitted close-up images of Uranus to Earth.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

They show a planet that is “expressionless” in the visible spectrum without cloud bands and atmospheric storms characteristic of other giant planets [5].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

However, at present, ground-based observations have been able to distinguish signs of seasonal changes and increased weather activity on the planet caused by the approach of Uranus to its equinox.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The wind speed on Uranus can reach 250 m/s (900 km/h) [6].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Discovering the planet


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

People observed Uranus even before William Herschel, but usually mistook it for a star.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The earliest documented evidence of this fact should be considered the records of the English astronomer physicist John Flamstead, who observed it in 1690 at least 6 times, and recorded like star 34 in the constellation Taurus.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

From 1750 to 1769, French astronomer Pierre Charles le Monier observed Uranus 12 times [7].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In total, Uranus was observed 21 times before 1781 [8].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

At the time of his discovery, Herschel participated in observations of parallax stars using a telescope of his own design [9], and on March 13, 1781, he first saw the planet from the garden of his house No. 19 on New York King Street (Bath, Somerset, UK) [10] [11], making the following entry in his magazine [12]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In the quartile next to Taurus... Or a misty star, or maybe a comet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

On March 17, another entry appeared in the magazine [12]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

I was looking for a comet or a misty star, and it turned out to be a comet because it changed position.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

On March 22, his letter to Sir William Watson was first read at the Royal Society [13].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

This was followed by three more letters (March 29, April 5, and April 26), in which he continued to mention that he had discovered the comet, compared the newly discovered object to planets [14]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The first time I saw this comet was 227 times magnified.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

My experience shows that the diameter of stars, unlike planets, does not change proportionally when using lenses with higher magnification; so I used lenses with a magnification of 460 and 932 and found that the size of the comet increased in proportion to the change in optical magnification, suggesting that it is not a star, since the size of the stars taken for comparison did not change.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Moreover, at a higher magnification than its brightness allowed, the comet became blurred, difficult to see, while the stars remained bright and clear — as I knew from the thousands I spent observations.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Repeated observation confirmed my assumptions: it really was a comet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

On April 23, Herschel received a response from Astronomer Royal Neville Muskelain, which read as follows [15]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

I don't know what to call it.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It can be either an ordinary planet orbiting the Sun in an almost circular orbit, or a comet moving along a very elongated ellipse.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

I haven't noticed a head or a comet's tail yet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

While Herschel was still cautiously describing the object as a comet, other astronomers suspected that it was some other object.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Russian astronomer Andrey Ivanovich Lexel found that the distance from the Earth to the object exceeds the distance from the Earth to the Sun (astronomical unit) by 18 times and noted that there is not a single comet with perihelion distance of more than 4 astronomical units (currently such objects are known) [16].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Berlin astronomer Johann Bode described the object discovered by Herschel as “a moving star that can be considered similar to a planet orbiting in a circle outside the orbit of Saturn” [17] and concluded that this the orbit is more like a planetary orbit than a comet orbit [18].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It soon became apparent that the object was indeed a planet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In 1783, Herschel himself announced the recognition of this fact to the President of the Royal Society Joseph Banks [19]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Observations by Europe's most prominent astronomers have proved that the comet I had the honor to point them out in March 1781 is a planet in our solar system.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

For his services, Herschel was awarded King George III a lifetime scholarship of £200, provided that he moved to Windsor so that the royal family had the opportunity to see his telescopes [20].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Name


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Nevile Muskelin wrote a letter to Herschel asking him to do a favor to the astronomical community and give the name of the planet the discovery of which is entirely the merit of this astronomer [21].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In response, Herschel proposed to name the planet “Georgia Sidus” (Latin “George's Star”), or planet George in honor of King George III [22].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

He explained his decision in a letter to Joseph Banks [19]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In magnificent antiquity, planets were given the names of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in honor of mythical heroes and deities.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In our enlightened philosophical time, it would be strange to go back to this tradition and call the recently discovered celestial body Juno, Pallas, Apollo, or Minerva.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

When discussing any incident or notable event, the first thing we consider is when it happened.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

If anyone in the future wonders when this planet was discovered, a good answer to this question would be: “During the reign of George III.”


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

French astronomer Joseph Lalande proposed naming the planet in honor of its discoverer Herschel [23].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Other names were also proposed: for example, Cybele, after the name worn in ancient mythology by the wife of the god Saturn [8].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

German astronomer Johann Bode was the first scientist to propose calling the planet Uranus, in honor of the god of heaven from the Greek pantheon.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

He explained this by the fact that “since Saturn was the father of Jupiter, the new planet should be named after the father of Saturn” [20] [24] [25].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The earliest official name of the planet Uranus is found in a scientific work in 1823, a year after Herschel's death [26] [27].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The former name “Georgia Sidus” or “Georg” was no longer common, although it was used in the UK for almost 70 years [8].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The planet finally began to be called Uranus only after His Majesty's Maritime Almanac Publishing House “HM Nautical Almanac Office” in 1850 itself fixed this name in its lists [24 ].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Uranus is the only big planet whose name does not come from Roman, but from Greek mythology.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The word “Uranus” is considered an adjective derived from the word “Uranus”.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The astronomical symbol “”, denoting Uranus, is a hybrid of symbols of Mars and the Sun.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The reason for this is that in ancient Greek mythology, the Uranus-sky is under the combined power of the Sun and Mars [28].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The astrological symbol of Uranus, proposed by Lalande in 1784, was explained by Lalande himself in a letter to Herschel as follows [23]:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

This is the globe crowned with the first letter of your name.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean, the name of the planet is literally translated as “Star/Planet of the Heavenly King” [29] [30].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Orbit and rotation


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The average distance of the planet from the Sun is 19.1914 AU.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

(2.8 billion km).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The period of full rotation of Uranus around the Sun is 84 Earth years.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The distance between Uranus and Earth varies from 2.6 to 3.15 billion km [31].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The semi-major axis of the orbit is 19.229 AU.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

, or about 3 billion kilometers.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The intensity of solar radiation at this distance is 1/400 of the value in Earth's orbit [32].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

For the first time, the elements of the orbit of Uranus were calculated in 1783 by the French astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace [16], but over time, discrepancies between the calculated and observed positions of the planet were revealed.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In 1841, British John Couch Adams was the first to suggest that calculation errors were caused by the gravitational influence of a planet that had not yet been discovered.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In 1845, the French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier began independent work on calculating the elements of the orbit of Uranus, and on September 23, 1846, Johann Gottfried Halle discovered a new planet, later called Neptune , almost in the same place as Le Verrier predicted. [33]


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The period of rotation of Uranus around its axis is 17 hours and 14 minutes.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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However, as on other giant planets, very strong winds blow in the upper atmosphere of Uranus in the direction of rotation, reaching speeds of 240 m/s.


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Thus, near 60 degrees south latitude, some visible atmospheric parts orbit the planet in just 14 hours [34].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Rotation axis inclination


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The plane of the equator of Uranus is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of 97.86° - that is, the planet rotates retrograde, “lying on its side slightly upside down.”


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This leads to the fact that the seasons change in a completely different way than on other planets in the solar system.


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If other planets can be compared to spinning tops, Uranus is more like a rolling ball.


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This anomalous rotation is usually explained by the collision of Uranus with a large planetesimal at an early stage of its formation [35].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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At solstices, one of the poles of the planet is directed towards the Sun.


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Only a narrow strip near the equator experiences a rapid change of day and night; at the same time, the Sun there is very low above the horizon, as in the Earth's polar latitudes.


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After six months (Uranium), the situation changes to the opposite: the “polar day” occurs in the other hemisphere.


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Each pole for 42 Earth years is in the dark — and another 42 years under the light of the Sun [36].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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At the equinox, the Sun stands “in front” of the equator of Uranus, which gives the same change of day and night as on other planets.


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The next equinox on Uranus came on December 7, 2007 [37] [38].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Due to this inclination of the axis, the polar regions of Uranus receive more energy from the Sun during the year than the equatorial regions.


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However, Uranus is warmer in the equatorial regions than in the polar regions.


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The mechanism that causes this redistribution of energy is still unknown.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Explanations for the unusual position of the axis of rotation of Uranus also remain hypothetical, although it is usually believed that during the formation of the solar system, a protoplanet about the size of Earth crashed to Uranus and changed its axis of rotation [39].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Many scientists disagree with this hypothesis, as it cannot explain why none of Uranus' moons have the same inclined orbit.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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A hypothesis was proposed that the axis of rotation of the planet for millions of years rocked a large satellite, which was later lost [40].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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During Voyager 2's first visit to Uranus in 1986, the south pole of Uranus was facing the Sun.


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This pole is called the “south” pole.


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According to the definition approved by the International Astronomical Union, the south pole is one that is located on a certain side of the plane of the solar system (regardless of the direction of rotation of the planet) [ 41] [42].


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Sometimes another convention is used, according to which the direction to the north is determined based on the direction of rotation according to the right hand rule [43].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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By this definition, the pole that was illuminated in 1986 is not the south, but the north pole.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Astronomer Patrick Moore commented on this problem in the following concise way: “Choose any” [44].


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Visibility


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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From 1995 to 2006, the apparent magnitude of Uranus fluctuated between +5.6m and +5.9m, that is, the planet was visible to the naked eye at the limit of its capabilities (approximately +6.0m) [45]).


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The angular diameter of the planet was between 3.4 and 3.7 arcseconds (for comparison: Saturn: 16-20 arcseconds, Jupiter: 32-45 arcseconds [45]).


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In a clear dark sky, Uranus is visible to the naked eye in confrontation, and with binoculars it can be observed even in urban conditions [46].


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In large amateur telescopes with a lens diameter of 15 to 23 cm, Uranus is seen as a pale blue disc with a pronounced darkening towards the edge.


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Larger telescopes with a lens diameter of more than 25 cm can distinguish clouds and see large satellites (Titania and Oberon) [47].


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Physical characteristics


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Internal structure


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Uranus is 14.5 times heavier than Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets in the solar system.


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The density of Uranus, equal to 1.270 g/cm³, puts it in second place after Saturn among the least dense planets in the solar system [48].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Despite the fact that the radius of Uranus is slightly larger than the radius of Neptune, its mass is slightly less [49], which supports the hypothesis that it consists mainly of various ice - water, ammonia and methane [50].


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Their mass, according to various estimates, ranges from 9.3 to 13.5 Earth masses [50] [51].


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Hydrogen and helium make up only a small part of the total mass (between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses [50]); the remaining share (0.5 to 3.7 earth masses [50]) falls on rocks (which are believed to form the core planets).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The standard model of Uranus assumes that Uranus consists of three parts: in the center there is a stone core, in the middle there is an ice shell, and on the outside there is a hydrogen-helium atmosphere [50] [52].


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The core is relatively small, with a mass of about 0.55 to 3.7 Earth masses and a radius of 20% of the radius of the entire planet.


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The mantle (ice) makes up most of the planet (60% of the total radius, up to 13.5 Earth masses).


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The atmosphere, with a mass of only 0.5 Earth masses (or, according to other estimates, 1.5 Earth mass), extends to 20% of the radius of Uranus [50] [52].


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At the center of Uranus, the density should increase to 9 g/cm³, the pressure should reach 8 million bar (800 hPa) at a temperature of 5000 K [51] [52].


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The ice shell is actually not ice in the generally accepted sense of the word, since it consists of a hot and dense liquid, which is a mixture of water, ammonia and methane [50] [52].


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This liquid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called the “ocean of aqueous ammonia” [53].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The composition of Uranus and Neptune is very different from that of Jupiter and Saturn due to the “ice” prevailing over gases, justifying the placement of Uranus and Neptune in the category of ice giants.


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Despite the fact that the model described above is the most common, it is not the only one.


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Based on observations, other models can also be built — for example, if a significant amount of hydrogen and rock material mixes in an ice mantle, the total mass of ice will be lower, and accordingly, the total mass of hydrogen and rock material is higher [51].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Currently, the data available does not allow us to determine which model is more correct.


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The liquid internal structure means that Uranus does not have any solid surface, since the gaseous atmosphere smoothly passes into liquid layers [50].


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However, for the sake of convenience, it was decided to conditionally take a flattened spheroid of rotation as a “surface”, where the pressure is 1 bar.


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The equatorial and polar radii of this flattened spheroid are 25,559±4 and 24,973±20 km.


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Later in the article, this value will be taken as a zero reference for the Uranus altitude scale [49].


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Internal warmth


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The internal heat of Uranus is significantly less than that of other giant planets in the solar system [54] [55].


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The planet's heat flux is very low, and the reason for this is now unknown.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Neptune, similar to Uranus in size and composition, emits 2.61 times more thermal energy into space than it receives from the Sun [55].


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Uranus, on the other hand, has very little, if any, excess heat radiation.


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The heat flux from Uranus is 0.042 — 0.047 W/m², and this value is less than that of Earth (~0.075 W/m²) [56].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Measurements in the far infrared part of the spectrum showed that Uranus emits only 1.06 ± 0.08% of the energy it receives from the Sun [4] [56].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The lowest temperature recorded in the tropopause of Uranus is 49 K (-224° C), which makes the planet the coldest of all planets in the solar system — even colder than Neptune [4] [56].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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There are two hypotheses that try to explain this phenomenon.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The first of them claims that the alleged collision of the protoplanet with Uranus during the formation of the solar system, which caused a large slope of its axis of rotation, led to scattering initially available heat [57].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The second hypothesis states that there is a layer in the upper layers of Uranus that prevents the heat from the nucleus from reaching the upper layers [50].


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For example, if adjacent layers have different compositions, convective transfer of heat from the core upwards may be difficult [4] [56].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The absence of excessive thermal radiation of the planet makes it much more difficult to determine the temperature of its subsoil, but assuming that the temperature conditions inside Uranus are close to those characteristic of others giant planets, then liquid water may exist there and, therefore, Uranus can be among the planets of the solar system where life is possible [58].


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Uranus Rings


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Uranus has a weakly expressed ring system consisting of very dark particles ranging in diameter from micrometers to fractions of a meter [5].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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This is the second ring system found in the solar system (the first was the system of Saturn's rings) [59].


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At the moment, Uranus has 13 rings, the brightest of which is the ε ring (epsilon).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Uranus rings are probably very young, as indicated by the gaps between them, as well as differences in their transparency.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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This suggests that the rings did not form together with the planet.


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Perhaps earlier the rings were one of the moons of Uranus, which collapsed either in a collision with a celestial body, or under the influence of tidal forces [59] [60].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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In 1789, William Herschel claimed to have seen the rings, but this report looks doubtful, as other astronomers could not find them for two centuries later.


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The presence of a ring system in Uranus was officially confirmed only on March 10, 1977 by American scientists James L. James L. Elliot, Edward W. Edward W. Dunham and Douglas J.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Douglas J. Mink, who used the Kuiper Onboard Observatory.


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The discovery was made by accident - a group of discoverers planned to observe the atmosphere of Uranus when Uranus covered the star SAO 158687.


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However, by analyzing the information received, they found a weakening of the star even before it was covered by Uranus, and this happened several times in a row.


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As a result, 9 rings of Uranus were discovered [61].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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When the Voyager 2 spacecraft arrived in the vicinity of Uranus, two more rings were detected using onboard optics, thereby increasing the total number of known rings to 11 [5].


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In December 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope made it possible to discover two more previously unknown rings.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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They are twice as far away as the previously open rings, and therefore are often referred to as the “outer system of Uranus rings.”


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In addition to the rings, Hubble also helped discover two previously unknown small satellites, one of which (Mab) orbits the farthest ring.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Taking into account the last two rings, the total number of Uranus rings is 13 [62].


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In April 2006, images of the new rings taken by the Keck Observatory in Hawaii made it possible to distinguish the colors of the outer rings.


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One of them was red and the other (the outermost) was blue [63] [64].


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It is believed that the blue color of the outer ring is due to the fact that it consists of small particles of water ice from the surface of the Mab [63] [65].


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The inner rings of the planet appear gray [63].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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In the works of the discoverer of Uranus William Herschel, the first mention of rings is found in a record dated February 22, 1789.


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In the notes to the observations, he noted that Uranus assumes that Uranus has rings [66].


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Herschel also suspected their red color (which was confirmed in 2006 by observations of the Keck Observatory for the penultimate ring).


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Herschel's notes appeared in the Journal of the Royal Society in 1797.


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However, later, for almost two centuries, from 1797 to 1979, rings are not mentioned in the literature at all, which, of course, gives the right to suspect a scientist's mistake [67].


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Nevertheless, fairly accurate descriptions of what Herschel saw do not give reason to just discount his observations [63].


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When the Earth crosses the plane of Uranus's rings, they are visible from the edge.


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This was the case, for example, in 2007-2008 [68].


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Uranus magnetosphere


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Prior to Voyager 2, no measurements of the magnetic field of Uranus were carried out.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Before the spacecraft arrived in orbit of Uranus in 1986, it was assumed that it would correspond to the direction of the solar wind.


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In this case, the geomagnetic poles would have to coincide with the geographical poles that lie in the plane of the ecliptic [69].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Voyager 2 measurements made it possible to detect a very specific magnetic field in Uranus, which is not directed from the geometric center of the planet and is inclined 59 degrees relative to the axis of rotation [69] [70] .


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In fact, the magnetic dipole is shifted from the center of the planet to the south pole by about 1/3 of the planet's radius [69].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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This unusual geometry results in a very asymmetric magnetic field, where surface tensions in the southern hemisphere can be 0.1 gauss, while in the northern hemisphere it can reach 1.1 gauss Gauss [69].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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On average, this figure is 0.23 Gaussian [69] (for comparison, the Earth's magnetic field is the same in both hemispheres, and the magnetic equator approximately corresponds to the “physical equator” [70]).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The dipole moment of Uranus is 50 times greater than the Earth moment [69] [70].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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In addition to Uranus, a similar shifted and “tilted” magnetic field is also observed in Neptune [70], and therefore it is assumed that this configuration is characteristic of ice giants.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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One theory explains this phenomenon by the fact that the magnetic field of terrestrial planets and other giant planets is generated in the central core, and the magnetic field of the “ice giants” is formed at relatively shallow depths: for example, in the ocean of liquid ammonia, in a thin convective shell surrounding the liquid inner part, which has a stable layered structure [53] [71].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Nevertheless, in terms of the general structure of the magnetosphere, Uranus is similar to other planets in the solar system.


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There is a head shock wave, which is located at a distance of 23 of its radius from Uranus, and a magnetopause (at a distance of 18 radii of Uranus).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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There are developed magnetic tail and radiation belts [69] [70] [72].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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In general, Uranus differs in the structure of the magnetosphere from Jupiter and is more like Saturn [69] [70].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The magnetic tail of Uranus stretches millions of kilometers behind the planet and is curved “into a tailspin” by the rotation of the planet [69] [73].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The magnetosphere of Uranus contains charged particles: protons, electrons and a small amount of H2+ ions [70] [72].


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No heavier ions were found during the studies.


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Many of these particles are probably taken from the hot thermosphere of Uranus [72].


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The energies of ions and electrons can reach 4 and 1.2 mega-electronvolts (MeV), respectively [72].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The density of low-energy ions (that is, ions with an energy of less than 0.001 MeV) in the internal magnetosphere is about 2 ions per cubic centimeter [74].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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An important role in the magnetosphere of Uranus is played by its satellites, which form large cavities in the magnetic field [72].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The flow of particles is high enough to cause the surface of the moons to darken over a period of about 100,000 years [72].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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This may be the reason for the dark color of satellites and particles of Uranus's rings [60].


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Uranus has well-developed auroras, which are visible as bright arcs around both polar poles [75].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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However, unlike Jupiter, auroras on Uranus are not significant for the energy balance of the thermosphere [76].


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Climate


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ambience


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Although Uranus does not have a solid surface in the usual sense of the word, the farthest part of the gaseous shell is commonly called its atmosphere [4].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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It is assumed that the atmosphere of Uranus begins at a distance of 300 km from the outer layer at a pressure of 100 bar and a temperature of 320 K [77].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The “atmospheric corona” extends for a distance 2 times the radius from the “surface” with a pressure of 1 bar [78].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The atmosphere can be divided into 3 parts: the troposphere (-300 km — 50 km; pressure is 100 — 0.1 bar), the stratosphere (50 — 4000 km; pressure is 0.1 — 10−10 bar) and the thermosphere/atmospheric crown (4000 — 50,000 km from the surface) [4].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Uranus has no mesosphere.


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Roster


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The composition of Uranus's atmosphere differs markedly from that of the rest of the planet due to the high content of helium and molecular hydrogen [4].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The molar fraction of helium (that is, the ratio of the number of helium atoms to the number of all atoms and molecules) in the upper troposphere is 0.15 ± 0.03 and corresponds to a mass fraction of 0.26 ± 0.05 [4] [56] [79].


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This value is very close to the protostellar mass fraction of helium (0.275 ± 0.01) [80].


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Helium is not located in the center of the planet, which is typical for other gas giants [4].


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The third component of Uranus' atmosphere is methane (CH4) [4].


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Methane has well-visible absorption bands in the visible and near infrared spectrum.


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It is 2.3% in terms of the number of molecules (at a pressure level of 1.3 bar) [4] [81] [82].


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This ratio decreases significantly with altitude due to the fact that extremely low temperatures cause methane to “freeze out” [83].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The presence of methane, which absorbs light from the red part of the spectrum, gives the planet its green-blue color [84].


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The prevalence of less volatile compounds, such as ammonia, water and hydrogen sulfide, in the depths of the atmosphere is poorly known [4] [85].


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In addition, traces of ethane (C2H6), methylacetylene (CH3C2H) and diacetylene (C2HC2H) [83] [86] [87] were found in the upper layers of Uranus.


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These hydrocarbons are believed to be a product of methane photolysis by solar ultraviolet radiation [88].


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Spectroscopy also found traces of water vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.


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They probably get to Uranus from external sources (for example, from passing comets) [86] [87] [89].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Troposphere


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The troposphere, the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere, is characterized by a decrease in temperatures with altitude [4].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The temperature drops from 320 K at the very bottom of the troposphere (at a depth of 300 km) to 53 K at an altitude of 50 km [77] [82].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The temperature in the uppermost part of the troposphere (tropopause) varies from 57 to 49 K, depending on latitude [4] [54].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Tropopause is responsible for most of the infrared radiation (in the far infrared part of the spectrum) of the planet and makes it possible to determine the effective temperature of the planet (59.1 ± 0.3 K) [54] [56].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The troposphere has a complex structure: presumably, water clouds can be in the pressure range from 50 to 100 bar, clouds of ammonium hydrosulfide - in the range of 20-40 bar, clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide — in the range of 3-10 bar.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Methane clouds can be located between 1 and 2 bars [4] [77] [81] [90].


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The troposphere is a very dynamic part of the atmosphere, and it clearly shows seasonal changes, clouds and strong winds [55].


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Upper atmosphere


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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After the tropopause, the stratosphere begins, where the temperature does not decrease, but, on the contrary, increases with altitude: from 53 K in the tropopause to 800—850 K (520° C) [91] in the main part of the thermosphere [78].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The heating of the stratosphere is caused by the absorption of solar infrared and ultraviolet radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons formed due to methane photolysis [83] [88].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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In addition, the stratosphere is also heated by the thermosphere [75] [92].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Hydrocarbons occupy a relatively low layer from 100 to 280 km in the range of 10 to 0.1 millibars and temperature ranges between 75 and 170 K [83].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The most common hydrocarbons, acetylene and ethane, are 10−7 in this area relative to hydrogen, the concentration of which here is close to the concentration of methane and carbon monoxide [83] [86] [89].


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For heavier hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water vapor, this ratio is even three orders of magnitude lower [86].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Ethane and acetylene condense in the colder and lower parts of the stratosphere and tropopause, forming fogs [88].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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However, the concentration of hydrocarbons above these fogs is significantly less than on other giant planets [83] [75].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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The parts of the atmosphere farthest from the surface — the thermosphere and the corona — have a temperature of 800—850 K [4] [75], but the reasons for this temperature are still unclear.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Neither solar ultraviolet radiation (neither near nor far of the ultraviolet spectrum) nor auroras can provide the right energy (although low cooling efficiency due to lack of hydrocarbons in the upper stratosphere can contribute [78] [75]).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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In addition to molecular hydrogen, the thermosphere contains a large number of free hydrogen atoms.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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Their low mass and high temperature can help explain why the thermosphere extends 50,000 km (two planetary radii) [78] [75].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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This extended crown is a unique feature of Uranus [75].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

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This is the reason for the low dust content in its rings [78].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The Uranus thermosphere and the upper layer of the stratosphere form the ionosphere [82], which is at altitudes from 2,000 to 10,000 km [82].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The ionosphere of Uranus is denser than that of Saturn and Neptune, possibly due to the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the upper stratosphere [75] [93].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The ionosphere is mainly supported by solar ultraviolet radiation and its density depends on solar activity [94].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Auroras are not as frequent and significant here as on Jupiter and Saturn [75] [76].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The atmosphere of Uranus is unusually calm compared to the atmospheres of other giant planets, even compared to Neptune, which is similar in composition and size to Uranus [55].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

When Voyager 2 approached Uranus, it was possible to see only 10 stripes of clouds in the visible part of this planet [5] [95].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

This calm in the atmosphere can be explained by the extremely low internal heat.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It is much smaller than that of other giant planets.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The lowest temperature recorded in the tropopause of Uranus is 49 K (-224° C), making the planet the coldest among the planets in the solar system — even colder than more distant from the Sun by Neptune and Pluto [4] [56].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Atmospheric formations, clouds and winds


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Images taken by Voyager 2 in 1986 showed that the visible southern hemisphere of Uranus can be divided into two regions: a bright “polar hood” and less bright equatorial zones [5].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

These zones are bordered at a latitude of −45°.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The narrow band between −45° and −50°, called the southern “ring”, is the most noticeable feature of the hemisphere and the visible surface in general [5] [96].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The “hood” and ring are believed to be located in the pressure range from 1.3 to 2 bar and are dense clouds of methane [97].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Unfortunately, Voyager 2 approached Uranus during the Southern Polar Summer and was unable to record the Arctic Circle.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

However, at the beginning of the 21st century, when the northern hemisphere of Uranus was able to be seen through the Hubble Space Telescope and telescopes of the Keck Observatory, there was no “hood” or “ring” in this part of the planet was not found [96].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Thus, another asymmetry was noted in the structure of Uranus, especially bright near the south pole and evenly dark in the areas north of the “southern ring” [96].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

In addition to the large-scale banded structure of the atmosphere, Voyager 2 noted 10 small bright clouds, most of which were noted a few degrees north of the “southern ring” [5]; In all other respects, Uranus looked like a “dynamically dead” planet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

However, in the 1990s, the number of recorded bright clouds increased significantly, with most of them found in the northern hemisphere of the planet, which at that time became visible [55].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The first explanation for this (light clouds are easier to see in the northern hemisphere than in the brighter southern hemisphere) was not confirmed.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

There are differences in the structure of the clouds of the two hemispheres [98]: the northern clouds are smaller, brighter and clearer [99].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Apparently, they are located at a higher altitude [99].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The lifetime of the clouds is very different — some of the clouds seen did not last even several hours, while at least one of the southern clouds has survived since Voyager 2 flew near Uranus [ 55] [95].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Recent observations of Neptune and Uranus have shown that there are many similarities between the clouds of these planets [55].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Although the weather on Uranus is calmer, it, like Neptune, was marked with “dark spots” (atmospheric vortices) — in 2006, for the first time, a vortex was seen and photographed in its atmosphere [100].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Tracking various clouds made it possible to identify zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus [55].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

At the equator, winds are retrograde, that is, they blow in the opposite direction to the rotation of the planet, and their speeds (since the movement is back to rotation) are −100 and −50 m/s [55] [96].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Wind speeds tend to zero as the distance from the equator increases up to a latitude of ± 20°, where there is almost no wind.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Winds begin to blow in the direction of rotation of the planet up to the poles [55].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Wind speeds begin to increase, reaching their maximum at latitudes of ±60° and falling almost to zero at the poles [55].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The wind speed at a latitude of −40° ranges from 150 to 200 m/s, and then observations are hampered by the Southern Ring, which shades the clouds with its brightness and does not allow calculating the wind speed closer to the south pole.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The maximum wind speed seen on the planet was recorded in the northern hemisphere at a latitude of +50° and equals more than 240 m/s [55] [96] [101].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Seasonal changes


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

During a short period from March to May 2004, more active cloud appearance was observed in the atmosphere of Uranus, almost like Neptune [99] [102].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Observations recorded wind speeds of up to 229 m/s (824 km/h) and a constant thunderstorm, called the “fireworks display of July 4” [95].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

On August 23, 2006, the Institute for Space Research (Boulder, Colorado, USA) and the University of Wisconsin observed a dark spot on the surface of Uranus, which increased knowledge of the change of seasons on this planet [100].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It is not known exactly why such an increase in activity occurs — perhaps the “extreme” slope of the Uranus axis leads to “extreme” season changes [38] [103].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It remains only a matter of time to determine the seasonal variations of Uranus, as the first qualitative information about its atmosphere was obtained less than 84 years ago (the “Uranium Year” lasts 84 Earth years).


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Photometry, begun about half of Uranium's year ago (in the 1950s), showed variations in the brightness of the planet in two ranges: with highs occurring at solstices and minimums during equinox time [104].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

This periodic variation was noted due to microwave measurements of the troposphere begun in the 1960s [105].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Stratospheric temperature measurements, which appeared in the 1970s, also made it possible to identify maxima during solstices (in particular, in 1986) [92].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Most of these changes are assumed to be due to the asymmetry of the planet [98]


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

However, studies show that seasonal changes in Uranus do not always depend on the factors mentioned above [103].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

During its previous “northern solstice” in 1944, Uranus rose in brightness in the northern hemisphere, which showed that it was not always dim [104].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The visible pole facing the Sun gains brightness during the solstice and darkens rapidly after the equinox [103].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

A detailed analysis of visual and microwave measurements showed that the increase in brightness does not always occur during the solstice.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

There are also changes in meridian albedo [103].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Finally, in the 1990s, when Uranus left the solstice, thanks to the Hubble Space Telescope, it was possible to notice that the southern hemisphere began to darken noticeably, and the northern hemisphere began to become brighter [97], it increased wind speed and more clouds [95], but there was a tendency to clarify [99].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The mechanism governing seasonal changes is still not sufficiently studied [103].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Around the summer and winter solstices, both hemispheres of Uranus are either under sunlight or under the darkness of outer space.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Clearings of sunlit areas are believed to be due to local thickening of fog and methane clouds in the troposphere layers [97].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The bright ring at −45° latitude is also associated with methane clouds [97].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Other changes in the southern polar region may be explained by changes in the lower layers.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Variations in the change in microwave intensity from the planet are likely to be caused by changes in deep tropospheric circulation, because thick polar clouds and fogs can interfere convection [106].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

When the autumnal equinox approaches, the driving forces change, and convection can proceed again [95] [106].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Uranus Formation


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

There are many arguments that the differences between ice and gas giants originated during the formation of the solar system [107] [108].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

It is believed that the solar system was formed from a giant rotating ball of gas and dust known as the Protosolar Nebula.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Then the ball condensed, and a disk with the Sun in the center was formed [107] [108].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Most of the hydrogen and helium went to form the Sun.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

And dust particles began to gather together to later form protoplanets [107] [108].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

As the planets grew, some of them acquired a gravitational field strong enough to concentrate residual gas around them.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

They continued to collect gas until they reached the limit, and grew exponentially.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The ice giants managed to collect significantly less gas — only a few masses of the Earth.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Thus, their mass did not reach this limit [107] [108] [109].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Modern theories of the formation of the solar system have some difficulties in explaining the formation of Uranus and Neptune.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

These planets are too large for the distance they are from the Sun.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

They may have been closer to the Sun before, but then somehow changed their orbits [107].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

However, new methods of planetary modeling show that Uranus and Neptune could indeed form in their current place, and thus their real dimensions according to these models are not are an obstacle to the theory of the origin of the solar system [108].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Uranus' moons


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Twenty-seven natural satellites have been discovered in the Uranus system [109].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The names for them are chosen after the names of the characters in the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope [52] [110].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Five main largest satellites can be distinguished: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon [52].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Uranus's satellite system is the least massive among the gas giant's satellite systems.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Even the total mass of all these five satellites will not be even half the mass of Triton, the moon of Neptune [48].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The largest of Uranus' moons, Titania, has a radius of only 788.9 km, which is less than half the radius of the Earth's moon, although larger than that of Rhea, Saturn's second largest moon.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

All moons have relatively low albedos, ranging from 0.20 for Umbriel to 0.35 for Ariel [5].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

The moons of Uranus are made up of ice and rocks in a ratio of about 50 to 50.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus

Ice may include ammonia and carbon dioxide [60] [111].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Ariel seems to have the youngest surface among the moons, with the least number of craters.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Umbriel's surface, judging by the degree of craterization, is most likely the oldest [5] [60].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Miranda has canyons up to 20 kilometers deep, terraces and a chaotic landscape [5].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

One theory explains this by the fact that Miranda once collided with a celestial body and fell apart, and then “gathered” by the forces of attraction again [60] [112].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Uranus Research


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Chronology of discoveries


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Research by automatic interplanetary stations


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

In 1986, NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft crossed the orbit of Uranus along a flying trajectory and traveled 81,500 km from the surface of the planet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

This is the only visit to the vicinity of Uranus in the history of astronau


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Voyager 2 was launched in 1977, and studied Jupiter and Saturn (and later Neptune) before flying past Uranus.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

The device studied the structure and composition of the atmosphere of Uranus [82], discovered 10 new satellites, studied unique weather conditions caused by an axial roll of 97.77°, and studied the ring system [5] [113].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

The magnetic field and structure of the magnetosphere and, in particular, the “magnetic tail” caused by transverse rotation were also studied.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Two new rings were discovered and 5 of the largest satellites were photographed [5] [60].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

NASA is currently planning to launch the Uranus orbit and probe in the 2020s.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

A proposal submitted to the European Space Agency by a group of 168 scientists describes a journey to the outer part of the solar system, in which the ultimate target is the planet Uranus [114].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

The mission is named Uranus Pathfinder.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

It will allow you to study the unique chemical composition of the planet, its rings and satellites, as well as reveal some of the most important secrets of the planet.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

This mission, in turn, will contribute to increasing our knowledge of the solar system.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

The project manager said that the motivation for this mission is to study the giant outer regions of the solar system, about which we know very little.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Depending on the size of the ship, a mission can take 8 to 15 years to reach its destination.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

The team hopes that the Uranus Pathfinder mission can be launched in 2021 [115].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Uranium in culture


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Three years after its discovery, Uranus became the scene of a satirical pamphlet [116].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Since then, Stanley Weinbaum, Ramsey Campbell, Larry Niven [117], Sergey Pavlov, Georgy Gurevich and others have been included in the storyline of his science fiction works [118].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Uranus was chosen as the setting for Journey to the Seventh Planet [118], as well as individual episodes of Space Patrol [119] and Dalek Master Plan (an episode of the television series” Doctor Who”) [120].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

The planet is also mentioned in several comics, anime and computer games.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

In astrology, Uranus (symbol —) is considered the steward of the sign of Aquarius [121].


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

See here. Uranus in astrology.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Notes


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Literature


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

References


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Russian-language links


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

G. Burba.


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

//Popular science article in the magazine “Vokrug Sveta”


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

in the news


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

English language links


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Recommended articles from arXiv.org


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Websites


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

upon


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

— Press release with photos of rings, satellites and clouds


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

News from December 22, 2005 about the discovery of new moons and rings:


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

, Space.com


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

, MSNBC


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory photo magazine


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

In the news


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

(in English)


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Category:Uranus


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Category:Gas giants


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Category:Astronomical objects discovered in 1781


Question: What is Uranus's temperature?

Uranus (planet)

Category:Solar System Planets


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The Secret Intelligence Service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Great Britain (SIS/MI-6) (English: Secret Intelligence Service, SIS/Military Intelligence, MI6) is a British Foreign Intelligence Service [1].


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The intelligence service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is part of the government apparatus [2] and is simultaneously subordinate to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Government's Joint Intelligence Committee.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The head of the SIS is a member of the board of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Secretary of State with the rank of deputy minister) and the only known civil servant in the intelligence system


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Since 1994, the central office of the SIS has been located in the government district of Westminster, in building No. 85 on Embankment.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Prince Albert, c. London.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The main legal framework for the UK's intelligence activities is the Intelligence Services Act of 1994. (Intelligence Services Act 1994), before the publication of which the existence of foreign intelligence was officially denied at the government level.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Education


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The Joint Foreign Intelligence Service of Great Britain originates from the Secret Service Bureau of the Government Defense Committee and the General Directorate of Intelligence of the Army.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

It was formed in 1909. The RU of the Defense Committee included intelligence and counterintelligence departments with a small apparatus.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

On the recommendation of the RU of the Navy [3], Captain 2nd Rank M. Cumming, Security Department — Major General V. Kell.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Due to the financial and personnel difficulties of maintaining several parallel special services, the RU of the Defense Committee was merged with the GUR of the Ground Forces.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Captain 2nd Rank M. Cumming became Chief of the 6th, and Major General V. Kell is 5th management.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The reconnaissance of the Ground Forces at that time had 19 functional departments.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

General Intelligence Directorate of the Land Forces


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Structure


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Leadership


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In connection with the tradition of the leadership of state agencies to mark documents with their initials, the first head of the 6th department M. Cumming marked the documents with his initial “C” [note 1] in green ink.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Subsequently, the initial “C” became an unofficial designation for the post of head of foreign policy intelligence [1].


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The head of military counterintelligence (5th Directorate), Major General V. Kell marked the management documentation with the initial “K”, but was not as famous as the conspicuous disabled M. Cumming.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

World War I


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Attempts by the GUR of the Ground Forces during the First World War to create an agent network in Germany were suppressed by the active work of counterintelligence both in Germany itself and in the front-line zone.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Most of the most important military-political information was obtained through work in neutral countries (Switzerland, the United States), in parts of the occupied territories (the Benelux countries) and in Russia [9] [note 2].


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Reorganization of Ground Forces intelligence


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In 1916, for political and financial reasons, it was decided to reassign the special services of the Ground Forces to civilian departments.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The 1st Directorate was transferred from the Ministry of Land Forces to the General Staff of the Navy (Admiralty), the 6th to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the 5th to the Ministry of Internal Affairs with funding intelligence agencies through the budgets of the Navy and two civilian ministries, and not the Ground Forces.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The GUR of the Ground Forces remained in charge of the departments of military propaganda, special operations and work with prisoners of war.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In 1920, the directorates withdrawn from the GUR of the Ground Forces received the designations:


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

1st — “School of Encryption Service” of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

5th — “Security Services” of the Ministry of Internal Affairs


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

6th — “Intelligence Services” of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Intelligence Service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

1920s and 30s


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

After the end of the war, the GUR of the Ground Forces and the departments of decryption service, intelligence intelligence and security withdrawn from it experienced a serious reduction in budget funding and a reduction in the number of personnel, which was largely forced to move to the private and banking sectors.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In connection with the subordination of the Foreign Intelligence Directorate to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, measures were taken to give the resident apparatus status as part of embassies in independent states and colonial institutions in Asia and Africa.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In 1919, permission was obtained from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to give intelligence officers the status of so-called “Passport Control Officer” with diplomatic immunity.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In 1923, after the death of Captain 1st Rank M. Cumming from the post of Chief of the RU Navy to the post of Head of the Foreign Intelligence Service, Admiral Kh.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Sinclair.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Under his leadership, the expansion of the foreign policy intelligence apparatus began, including the creation of new departments:


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

5th (foreign counterintelligence) with the tasks of obtaining information on the structure of foreign intelligence services and working in contact with the Security Service of the Ministry of Internal Affairs


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

7th (economic intelligence) with the tasks of obtaining information in the field of world trade and finance, as well as the economic security of the colonies


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

8th (operational radio communication) with the tasks of organizing secret foreign radio communication networks


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

9th (anti-Comintern) with the tasks of countering the Comintern in Europe and the metropolis [11] [12]


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

“C” (intelligence information), with the tasks of sending assessed information to government agencies (including the Ministry and General Staff of the Land Forces and the General Staff of the Navy)


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

“D” (special operations) with the task of both organizing sabotage operations abroad and civil defense in case of invasion of the metropolis [10] [13].


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

This department was the first duty station of former international journalists K. Philby (The Times) and G. Burgess (BBC) [14].


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

“N” (diplomatic mail perlustration)


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

“Z” (illegal intelligence) with the tasks of organizing intelligence from any position not related to official foreign missions of Great Britain


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Illegal Intelligence Directorate “Z”


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

ICU resident in Rome in the 1930s, Lieutenant Colonel K. Dancy noted that by the time he took office, the cover of intelligence officers at the embassy as “passport officers” was largely disclosed by the enemy, and his position as a resident did not cause doubts among Italian counterintelligence.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

In addition, many professionals of the General Staff of the Ground Forces worked in political intelligence residences, who were competent intelligence analysts, but did not always have a reliable command of methods clandestine work abroad.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

After returning from Italy and his appointment to the post of deputy head of service, Lieutenant Colonel Dancy suggested that management focus on the use of business ties in the world rather than embassy a business that has not been subjected to such close attention of counterintelligence, including attracting businessmen who had friendly US citizenship, and not British citizenship, to work.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

At the suggestion of Dancy, the ICU organized the illegal intelligence department “Z”, which used the cover of both international trading firms and individual entrepreneurs in its work abroad and financiers.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

By 1936, the personnel and intelligence staff of the Z Directorate numbered up to 200 people.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Among the employees of the Z department were, for example, the British director of Hungarian origin A. Korda, whose international film studio London Films was often used as an unofficial cover for intelligence officers.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Change of ICU leadership


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Admiral Kh.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Sinclair died after a long illness just before the war, and in 1939 he was replaced as chief of foreign intelligence by his long-term deputy, lieutenant colonel of the General Staff of the Land troops of S. Menzies.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Seizure of ICU residency in the Netherlands


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

SIS Major R. Stevens


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

SIS Captain S. Best


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

General Staff Lieutenant D. Bug


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Place of seizure of ICU's Hague residency


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The most important European intelligence centers of ICU were the residences in The Hague and Brussels, which were the main points of contact between other European points and the London center.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

The residency in The Hague had two senior officers, one of whom, being an employee of the Z Directorate without diplomatic cover, had connections in government circles and the royal family of the Netherlands, and the senior officer of the embassy residency provided the connection of European points with the Center.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Trying to find an approach to the ICU residency in the neutral territory closest to Germany, in September 1939, the counterintelligence department of the SS security service under the leadership of Major V. Schellenberg, allegedly in order to avoid a pan-European war, made a proposal to start negotiations on the removal of A. Hitler peacefully or violently, stopping the invasion of Poland and transforming the current regime with the help of the allies.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

From the very beginning of the negotiations, the goal of the SS counterintelligence officers was to capture British intelligence officers in the German-Dutch border zone, for which it was not possible, since the staff of the station appeared in the border area only when accompanied by intelligence and police officers from the Netherlands.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

A month after the start of negotiations, both employees of the Hague residency and an employee of the 3rd [16] Directorate of the General Staff of the Netherlands at one of the meetings in the border city of St. Venlo was captured by a group of SS special forces and taken to Germany.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

A seriously wounded employee of the 3rd Directorate of the General Staff of the Netherlands died in a hospital on German territory in St. Dusseldorf.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Employees of the ICU Hague Residency were convicted by a German military court for espionage and served time in a concentration camp, from where they were released only with the Allied offensive in 1945. Thus, one of the main European residences of the ICU was completely paralyzed at the very beginning of the Second World War in Europe.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

An important point during the first phase of the war was that Hitler's Germany received a formal pretext for occupying the territory of the neutral Kingdom of the Netherlands due to the fact that it was actively British intelligence agencies are working.


Question: Where is the main ICU building located?

The Secret Intelligence Service

Working in the Western Hemisphere