Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

He interpreted the evolutionary development of endothermy in archosaurs and synapsids like this: primitive mammals or advanced therapsids were forced to become smaller as archosaurs began to occupy dominating niches in large and medium size categories.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The reduction in size has made mammals more vulnerable to heat loss, as it has reduced their heat capacity.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, this forced mammals to increase internal heat generation on a permanent basis and thus become full-fledged endotherms.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

On the other hand, dinosaurs were able to maintain an intermediate type of metabolism, which, at first glance, would provide them with many advantages: a low level of metabolism and the production of endothermic heat at rest, which would reduce their energy consumption and allow more nutrients to be used for growth; largely the use of inertial endothermia; the ability to control heat loss by expanding and compressing blood vessels, as many modern reptiles do; maintaining high blood pressure due to the four-chambered heart; a high level of metabolism during activity and the resulting ability to rely heavily on aerobic metabolism [44].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

It is known that modern leatherback turtles, tegu and monitor lizards during activity are able to raise body temperature by more than 10° C (in a leatherback turtle, which increases body temperature due to high muscle activity and preserving it due to the layer of subcutaneous fat - up to 18° C) above ambient temperature [65] [79] [80], and in female pythons, the release of a large amount of metabolic heat serves to maintaining the incubation temperature of egg laying [63].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Other mesothermic animals that are phylogenetically more distant from dinosaurs include herring sharks (although usually only the stomach is significantly heated in sharks [81]), some teleosts, such as tuna, and partly single-pass mammals [82].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, only a small number of animals nowadays have an intermediate type of metabolism, despite the existing potential.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, it is likely that this strategy is not as effective as it may seem at first glance, and it seems unlikely that dinosaurs could dominate large size categories of 150 million years, relying mainly on mesothermy [83] [84].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Bone histology


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Armand de Riccles, having studied the structure of bone tissue of dinosaurs, discovered Haversian canals in it and decided that they are evidence of endothermy in dinosaurs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

These channels are common in warm-blooded animals and are associated with rapid growth and an active lifestyle because they help the body quickly build bone mass during growth and heal damage caused by stress or injury [85].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Dense secondary Haversian bone is found in many modern endotherms during bone remodeling, as well as in dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and therapsids.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Secondary Haversian channels correlate with size and age, the amount of mechanical stress and the turnover of nutrients.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The presence of secondary Gaversian channels suggests comparable bone growth rates in mammals and dinosaurs [86].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker argued that the presence of fibrolamellar bone (rapidly produced and fibrous) in dinosaur fossils also indicates endothermia [9].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, as a result of subsequent studies, a number of authors considered bone structure to be an unreliable indicator of metabolism in dinosaurs, mammals and reptiles.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaur bones often contain stunted growth lines (LAG) formed by alternating periods of slow and rapid growth; in fact, many studies count growth rings to estimate age of dinosaurs [70] [72].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Growth rings in modern reptiles are usually due to seasonal changes in temperature, and this seasonal effect is sometimes seen as a sign of slow metabolism and ectothermia.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, growth rings are found in polar bears and are common in mammals that are characterized by wintering [87] [88].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Based on these and other examples, the relationship between slow growth lines and dependence on seasonal growth remains unresolved [89].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Fibrolamellar bone is quite common in young crocodiles and sometimes occurs in adults [90] [91].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Haversian bone was found in turtles and crocodiles, but is often absent in small birds, bats, shrews and rodents [92] [91].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, de Riccle continued to study the histology of bones of dinosaurs and other archosaurs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In mid-2008, he co-authored an article that examined in detail bone samples from a larger number of archosaurs, including early dinosaurs and Triassic terrestrial crocodilomorphs, and he came to the conclusion that even the earliest archosaurs were capable of very rapid growth, which indicates a fairly high metabolic rate.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Although it is more difficult to draw conclusions about the earliest archosauromorphs based on the anatomy of later forms, since species-specific variations in bone structure and growth rate are very likely, the risk analysis errors were minimized [93].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Subsequent studies also identified clear differences between the bone histology observed in endotherms from that in ectotherms, taking into account the many possible variations that allow a large accurately determine the growth rate and expected metabolic status of the animal [79].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Archosaurs were divided into three main groups during the Triassic: ornithodirs and remained adherents of rapid growth; crurotarzes also mainly maintained rapid growth, although in crocodilomorph lines, more close to modern crocodiles, there was a tendency to move to more “reptilian” slow growth rates; and most other Triassic archosaurs had intermediate growth rates [93].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Metabolic rate, blood pressure and blood flow rate


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Endotherms are highly dependent on aerobic metabolism and have a high level of oxygen consumption during activity and rest.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The oxygen required by tissues is carried by blood and, therefore, the blood flow rate and blood pressure in warm-blooded endotherms are much higher than in cold-blooded ectotherms [94].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The minimum blood pressure in dinosaurs can be estimated by measuring the vertical distance between the heart and brain, because this blood column must have a lower pressure equal to hydrostatic pressure calculated on the basis of blood density and gravity.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This pressure is supplemented by what is required to move blood through the circulatory system.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In 1976, it was pointed out that due to the considerable distance from the heart to the head, many dinosaurs already had a minimum blood pressure in the range of that of the endotherms, and that they must there was a four-chamber heart that separates the high-pressure flow from the low-pressure flow [95].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

A recent analysis of tiny holes in the fossilized bones of dinosaur limbs has provided additional data on blood flow velocity, already directly related to metabolic rate.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The holes are called nutrient holes, and the nutrient artery is the main blood vessel that passes through the inside of the bone, where it branches into tiny vessels of the Havers canal system.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This system is responsible for replacing old bone tissue with new one, thereby restoring microdamages that naturally occur during locomotion.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Without this recovery, microfractures will increase, leading to stress fractures and, ultimately, catastrophic bone destruction.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In accordance with the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, the size of the feed hole provides an indicator of the blood flow passing through it.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Of course, the size of the hole is also related to the size of the animal's body, so this effect is removed by allometry analysis.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The blood flow index of the feeding opening of the femur in modern mammals increases in proportion to the maximum metabolic rate of animals measured during the maximum prolonged locomotion.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The blood flow index of mammals is about 10 times higher than that of cold-blooded reptiles.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Ten species of fossil dinosaurs from five taxonomic groups perform even higher than mammals when body size is taken into account, indicating a very high activity of these animals.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, high blood flow, high blood pressure, a four-chambered heart and stable aerobic metabolism are consistent with the endothermy of dinosaurs [96].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Growth rates


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Despite the fact that they hatched relatively small, dinosaurs grew very quickly and could gain a weight of several tons in their first years of life.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

A natural interpretation of this fact is that young dinosaurs digested food very quickly and used nutrients for growth, which requires a fairly rapid metabolism and frequent feeding [97].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Developing bones belonging to young individuals are clearly porous, which is due to vascularization and a high rate of nutrient supply to the bone.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This indicates growth rates of dinosaurs close to those observed in modern birds [98].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, some studies of the relationship between adult size, growth rate and body temperature have shown that large dinosaurs had higher body temperatures than smaller ones; An estimated 12,979 kg apatosaurus, the largest dinosaur in the sample, had a body temperature above 41 °C, while the smallest dinosaur in the sample, 12 kg psitacosaurus, was estimated to have a body temperature of only only about 25°C.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Based on these calculations, the researchers concluded that large dinosaurs were inertial homeotherms (their temperature stabilized due to size) and that dinosaurs released less heat than mammals, at least until they moved and digested food [99].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

At the same time, body temperature was calculated on the basis of data on the relationship between the size of dinosaurs and their growth rates [71] [70].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, growth rates can be related not only to the level of metabolism.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Studies of sauropodomorph Massospondylus and early theropod Megapnosaurus show growth rates of about 3 kg/year and 17 kg/year, respectively, much slower than those calculated for Mayasaurus and are observed in modern birds.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This may be due to the degree of development of care for offspring, higher in birds and the Mayasaurus [100].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the very methodology for estimating the growth rate of dinosaurs may be unreliable, since so-called “tree rings” on a cut of dinosaur bones can actually be laid more than once in year, which is characteristic of modern endotherm [75].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, the estimate of the growth rate of dinosaurs is directly related to estimates of body weight, which can vary greatly in the works of different authors.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Oxygen isotope ratio in bones


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The ratio of 16O and 18O isotopes in bones depends on the temperature at which the bone is located: the higher the temperature, the more 16O.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In 1999, oxygen isotope ratios were analyzed in two large and highly developed theropods that lived in temperate regions with seasonal temperature fluctuations: Tyrannosaurus (USA) and Giganotosaurus (Argentina).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The dorsal vertebrae of both dinosaurs showed no signs of seasonal variability, indicating that their temperature in the depths of the body was constant, despite seasonal fluctuations in air temperature.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the ribs and bones of the hind limbs in both dinosaurs showed greater variability in isotope content and a lower average temperature as the distance from the vertebrae increased.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The authors concluded that both dinosaurs were warm-blooded, but had a lower metabolic rate than modern mammals, and that inertial homeothermy was an important thermoregulatory factor in adults [101].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

A similar analysis of some Late Cretaceous birdwatching dinosaurs in 1996 showed a similar picture [102].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, this opinion was soon questioned.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

the study indicates homeothermy, but by itself cannot prove a complete endothermy.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, bone development may not be continuous in the limb area - in allosaurid skeletons, slow growth lines are rare or absent in the large bones of the extremities, but occur in the fingers.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Although there is no strong evidence that stunted growth lines are related to temperature, they can mark a time when bones stopped growing for one reason or another.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

If this is the case, data on the ratio of oxygen isotopes would be incomplete, as this method is not reliable for assessing temperatures, unless it can be shown that bone growth was equally continuous in all parts of the animal.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Predator-prey population ratio


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker argued that cold-blooded predators need much less food than warm-blooded predators, and therefore the same biomass of prey can support more cold-blooded predators, than warm-blooded ones.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

At the same time, the ratio of the total mass of predators to the total mass of prey in the ecosystems of dinosaurs, earlier archosaurs and therapsids was closer to the ratio of modern or recently extinct ecological communities with warm-blooded predators than the attitude of modern or extinct ecological communities.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

with cold-blooded predators.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This may indicate that the predatory dinosaurs were warm-blooded.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

And since the earliest dinosaurs (for example, Staurikosaurus and Herrerasaurus) were predators, all dinosaurs were originally supposed to be warm-blooded [103].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This argument has been criticized for several reasons, and is not considered by some authors.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Weight estimates for dinosaurs vary widely, and even a small change can significantly affect the calculated predator/prey ratio.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker received his marks by referring to museum samples, but they have a bias against rare or well-preserved specimens and do not reflect the complete picture of the fauna preserved in the paleontological chronicles.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Even the fossil layers themselves may not accurately convey the number of actual populations due to conservation conditions and incompleteness of the paleontological chronicle.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

For large ectothermic predators, with the exception of Komodo monitor lizard, there is no qualitative data on the ratio of the number of predators and their prey.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Large ectothermic herbivores are completely absent in our time.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

For this reason, Becker had to compare the predator-prey ratio of mammals to that of fish, small reptiles and invertebrates, where the life expectancy of organisms is much shorter, and other differences may also distort the comparison.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This argument suggests that predator populations are limited only to the availability of prey, although there are other factors, such as lack of nesting sites, cannibalism, competition or predation with sides of other predators that can keep predator populations below the limit imposed by the prey's biomass.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Many environmental factors that may have influenced the ratio of the number of predators and their prey in dinosaur communities are unknown: some predators may specialize in certain species prey, including at different stages of growth; the number of victims can be affected by disease, parasites and hunger, which will reduce their number before predators can hunt them [104] [105].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Pose and gait


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The limbs of the dinosaurs were parasagittal, that is, they were at right angles to their bodies, as in birds and most mammals, and were not apart, as in typical cold-blooded animals like lizards and newts.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This is evidenced by the angles of the joint surfaces, as well as the attachment points of muscles and tendons on the bones.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

All early attempts to reconstruct dinosaurs with limbs apart led to reconstructions with dislocated hips, knees, shoulders and elbows [106].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

There is the so-called Carrier restriction, which states that atmospheric air breathing vertebrates that have paired lungs and bend their bodies sideways when moving have difficulty to move around and breathe at the same time.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This greatly limits their stamina and makes them spend more time resting than moving around.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The limbs located on the sides of the body require lateral bending during locomotion (with the exception of turtles, whose body mobility is limited by a shell that greatly reduces mobility).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, despite Carrier's limitation, the limbs located on the sides are energetically and functionally beneficial for cold-blooded animals that do not have long periods activity; in particular, they minimize the time and energy required to get back on your feet from a lying position.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Parasagittal limbs increase the cost and time it takes to lie down or stand up, but are one way to bypass Carrier's restriction and overall increase in movement speed, also requiring high energy consumption [107].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, the structure of the dinosaurs limbs indicates that they were active animals, since otherwise they would not benefit from straightened limbs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

An active lifestyle, in turn, requires a high metabolic rate, which makes it possible to make significant use of aerobic metabolism.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Other evidence of dinosaur endothermia includes limb length (many dinosaurs have relatively long limbs adapted to fast running) and bipedalism, which in our time occurs only in endothermic animals [108].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Many bipedal dinosaurs had gracile limb bones with short hips relative to the length of the lower leg.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This, as a rule, is an adaptation to active running, characteristic of endotherms, which, unlike ectotherms, are able to produce sufficient energy during activity, and reduce the harmful the effect of anaerobic metabolism on muscles [109].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Bakker and Ostrom pointed out that all dinosaurs had straight hind limbs and that all quadcopal dinosaurs had straight forelimbs; and that among living animals, only warm-blooded mammals and birds have straight limbs (Ostrom admitted that the semi-parasagittal position of the limbs in crocodiles was a partial exception).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Bakker argued that this was clear evidence of endothermia in dinosaurs, while Ostrom considered it weighty, but not convincing enough [110] [9].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

A 2009 study confirmed the hypothesis that endothermy was widespread in at least large non-bird dinosaurs, and that it would be plausible even for foolish ancestors of dinosaurs, based on the biomechanics of their running [111].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Feathers


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In conditions of sudden changes in temperature, warm-blooded animals tend to develop insulating covers, such as wool, feathers, or subcutaneous fat.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

At present, there is no doubt that many theropod species had feathers, including Shuvuuia, Sinosauropteryx, and Dilong.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

They were interpreted as insulating covers and, therefore, indicate warm-blooded [112] [113] [29].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

But feather prints were found only in coelurosaurs, and therefore currently feathers, as a type of insulating cover, do not provide any information about endothermia in other large groups dinosaurs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In fact, fossilized skin prints of carnosaurs (such as Allosaurus and Carnotaurus), as well as very large coelurosaurs (such as tyrannosaurids) show scaly skin [114] [115].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, it is worth noting that all these dinosaurs have an adult mass of more than 1 ton, and mammals of this size may have short hair or not at all (for example, elephants and rhinos).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Large animals have a large heat capacity and can retain heat due to their large size.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In a mild climate without a sharp change in temperature, there may be smaller endotherms that do not have effective insulating covers (for example, humans and babiruses).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Skin prints of Pelorosaurus and other sauropods show large scales, and some other sauropods, such as Saltasaurus [116], also had bone plates.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

The skin of ceratops consisted of large polygonal scales, sometimes with scattered round plates [117].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

“Mummified” remnants and skin prints from hadrosaurids also show scaly scales.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

It is unlikely that ankylosaurids, such as Euoplocephalus, had insulating outer covers, as most of their body area was covered with osteoderms.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Similarly, there is no evidence of insulating covers in stegosaurs [118].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, the appearance of insulating covers may have been limited to some theropods (although other dinosaurs may have had different mechanisms for preserving heat, including large size or even subcutaneous fat).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

It is worth mentioning that feather-like fibers have been found in three species of small bird dinosaurs: Psittacosaurus, Tianyulong and Kulindadromeus, but at the moment they cannot be are classified as feathers.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Polar dinosaurs


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaur fossils were found in areas that were close to the poles at that time, especially in southeastern Australia, Antarctica, and northern Alaska.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

There is no evidence of major changes in the position of the Earth's axis, so polar dinosaurs and the rest of those ecosystems had to cope with extreme changes in duration daylight hours during the year that occur today at similar latitudes [119] [120] [121].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Fossil vegetation studies show that northern Alaska had a maximum temperature of 13° C and a minimum temperature ranging from 2° C to 8° C in the past 35 million years of the Cretaceous.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

It is expected that no fossils of large cold-blooded animals, such as lizards and crocodiles, which were distributed further south, were found in these places.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

This suggests that at least some non-bird dinosaurs have been adapted to the cold climate, which requires warm-blooded.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

It was also suggested that polar dinosaurs may have migrated to warmer regions as winter approached, which allowed them to inhabit such cold habitats even when cold-blooded [122 ].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, such long migrations would require more energy than cold-blooded terrestrial vertebrates accumulate [123].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

In a 2008 article on dinosaur migration, the authors suggested that most polar dinosaurs, including theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurs, and hypsilophodonts, probably wintered, although hadrosaurids, such as Edmontosaurus, being warm-blooded, were probably able to migrate to distances of up to 2,600 km [124] [125].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

It is more difficult to determine the climate in southeastern Australia, 115 to 105 million years ago.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

These deposits indicate permafrost and bumpy soil formed by the movement of underground ice, which suggests an average annual temperature of -6° C to 5° C; Studies of oxygen isotopes in these deposits give an average annual temperature of 1.5 °C to 2.5 °C.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the diversity of fossil vegetation and the large size of some fossil trees exceeds what is seen in such cold environments today.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Annual migration from southeastern Australia and back would be very difficult for fairly small dinosaurs like Leaellynasaura, because in the north, the transition to warmer latitudes was blocked small sea routes [119].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Leaellynasaura and Timimus bone samples provided evidence that the two dinosaurs had different ways of surviving cold, dark winters: the Timimus sample had stunted growth lines and it could hibernate; but the Leaellynasaura sample did not show signs of stunted growth lines and therefore could remain active throughout the winter [126] [127].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

A 2011 study on the bones of hypsilophodonts and theropods also showed that these dinosaurs were likely to remain active in winter [128].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Evidence for behavioral thermoregulation


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's Dinosaur Renaissance?

Dinosaur physiology

Some dinosaurs, such as Spinosaurus and Ouranosaurus, had “sails” on their backs supported by vertebral outgrowths.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Such dinosaurs could use these sails for thermoregulation, including heating by using sails as solar panels, or vice versa, for rapid cooling.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

But the sails had very few known dinosaur species.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, it is not entirely clear in which dinosaurs these structures really formed a kind of sails and were not hidden under the skin.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

For Spinosaurus, the version that the sail served as a gyrostabilizer seems more justified.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The thermoregulatory function was also assumed for plates on the backs of stegosaurs [129], however, if this could be relevant for stegosaurs with large plates, such as Stegosaurus, others Stegosaurs such as Wuerhosaurus, Tuojiangosaurus and Kentrosaurus had much smaller plates with a smaller surface area.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Recently, the very idea of using plates for heat exchange in any stegosaurs has been questioned [130].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Other evidence


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Since endothermy makes it possible to increase the size of the brain, which requires a lot of energy, some authors believe that an increase in brain size indicates increased activity and thus endothermy.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The brain mass to body weight ratio (EQ) in different dinosaurs varies by species.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The EQ of coelurosaurs is often close to that in mammals and birds, while other theropods and ornithopods occupy an intermediate position between birds and cold-blooded reptiles, and other dinosaurs resemble cold-blooded reptiles in this regard [131].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

A study published by Roger Seymour in 2013 provided an additional argument for the fact that dinosaurs were warm-blooded.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

After studying combed crocodiles, Seymour found that even if their large size can provide stable and high body temperature, during activity, the ectothermal metabolism of crocodiles produces low aerobic abilities and, with a body weight of about 180 kg, generates only 14% of the total energy generated by the muscles of endothermic mammals of the same size before complete fatigue.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Seymour concluded that dinosaurs would have to be endothermic, as they would need better aerobic abilities and higher total energy generation in order to dominate mammals as active terrestrial animals throughout the Mesozoic era [132].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

However, further studies have shown that in fact, the aerobic abilities of crocodiles and their total energy generation in this study could be significantly underestimated [133].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The metabolism of early archosaurs and the origin of crocodile ectothermia


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Apparently, even the earliest dinosaurs had anatomical features that underlie the arguments about the warm-blooded dinosaurs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Two explanations for the presence of these traits in primitive representatives of this group of archosaurs are proposed:


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The ancestors of the early archosaurs were cold-blooded, and real warm-blooded began to develop only in the orntodir line.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

This means that dinosaurs have developed many warm-blooded traits in a very short period of time, perhaps less than 20 million years.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

But in the ancestors of mammals, the development of warm-blooded blood seems to have taken much longer, starting with the development of the secondary bone palate at the beginning of the Middle Permian period [134] and continuing possibly before the Early Triassic [135] [136].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The ancestors of the early Archosaurs were at least partially warm-blooded, and the dinosaurs only continued to develop in the same direction.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Two main problems arise in this case: (A) The early evolution of archosaurs is still very poorly understood; (B) Crocodiles also come from early archosaurs, but they are cold-blooded (see below).


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Crocodiles are a kind of mystery when compared to dinosaurs as active animals with a constant body temperature.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Crocodiles represent a parallel line of evolution of archosaurs — crurotarsis, which developed shortly before dinosaurs and are their closest relatives after birds.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

But modern crocodiles are cold-blooded, although they have semi-parasagittal limbs, as well as a number of anatomical features of the circulatory and respiratory systems, usually associated with warm-blooded [137] :


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

4-chamber hearts.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Turtles and lepidosaurs have functionally three-chambered hearts (with rare changes that make them functionally close to four-chambered) that are less effective in maintaining a high level of metabolism substances, because they allow arterial and venous blood to mix, leading to a decrease in metabolic levels.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

The four-chambered hearts of crocodiles, however, are smaller relative to body size than in mammals and birds, and provide less blood pressure.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

They also seem that the earliest dinosaurs had traits that underlie arguments for warm-blooded dinosaurs, especially limbs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

have a Panitsa hole, which allows controlled mixing of arterial and venous blood, thereby making the crocodile's heart functionally three-chambered when it is underwater [138].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

A formation resembling a mammalian diaphragm that participates in breathing.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

A secondary bone palate that allows the animal to eat and breathe at the same time.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Hepatic-piston mechanism of lung ventilation.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

It differs from the ventilation mechanisms of the lungs of mammals and birds, and apparently was independently developed by the ancestors of crocodiles.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

In the late 1980s, it was suggested that the ancestors of crocodiles were active and warm-blooded predators, as well as the fact that their ancestors, archosaurs, were also warm-blooded.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Robert Becker also mentioned the possible secondary cold-blooded crocodiles in passing in his article “The Renaissance of the Dinosaurs”.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

These ideas are also supported by bone histology [93] [79] and many paleontological findings demonstrating that many crocodilomorphs were easily built, actively running animals and completely straightened limbs.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Research in embryology shows that crocodile embryos first develop full-fledged four-chambered hearts, and then form modifications that cause their hearts to function as three-chamber when immersed under water.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Using the principle that ontogeny repeats phylogenesis, the researchers concluded that the ancestors of crocodiles had completely four-chambered hearts and therefore could be warm-blooded, and that later some crocodilomorphs have undergone significant physiological and anatomical changes, returning to their aquatic habitat.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Since the ecology of crocodiles is directly related to the expectation of production at the water's edge and long dives, the low level of metabolism and traditionally considered “primitive” signs of cold-blooded animals turned out to be more profitable for them than warm-blooded [139] [55] [140].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

However, many other crocodilomorphs did not return to the aquatic environment and continued to develop as active terrestrial animals along with dinosaurs [79].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Studies of the concentration of oxygen isotopes and bone histology (showing very high and continuous growth rates) in the developed archosauromorph Erythrosuchus africanus, basal in relation to archosaurs also gave convincing evidence that it was a warm-blooded animal capable of long periods of terrestrial activity [136] [141].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Moreover, these research methods indicate a slight increase in the metabolic level from the standard “reptile” level in proterosuchia [141].


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

If this opinion is true, the development of warm-blooded archosaurs and synapsids took a comparable amount of time.


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

See also


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Notes


Question: In what year was Robert T. Becker's “Dinosaur Renaissance”?

Dinosaur physiology

Category:Dinosaurs


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan is a series of events carried out by the Soviet authorities on the territory of modern Kazakhstan (in the Kyrgyz ASSR, the Kazakh ASSR, the Kazakh ASSR, the Kazakh SSR) in national issue.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization was expressed in the preparation and promotion of Kazakhs to senior positions, the introduction of the Kazakh language in office work, education, encouragement of the publication of media and literature in the Kazakh language, in the creation of an education system in the Kazakh language, as well as in the deportations of the non - Kazakh population (especially Slavic) and the seizure of land from them in favor of the Kazakhs.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As part of the Kazakhization, workers of industrial enterprises being created in Kazakhstan were trained.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the 1920s and early 1930s, the intensified and longest Kazakhization took place as part of the all-Union policy of rooting.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the second half of the 1940s and mid-1980s, Kazakhization was mainly “personnel” - in the form of nomination of ethnic Kazakhs to senior positions in the Kazakh SSR, filling places in universities .


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

At the same time, no attempts were made to translate office work and education into Kazakh during this period.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization faced a number of obstacles, primarily the absence on the territory of Kazakhstan by the time of the establishment of Soviet power of a significant intelligentsia who spoke the Kazakh language.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization was adversely affected by the policy of translating the Kazakh language in a short period of time from Arabic to Latin, and then to the Cyrillic alphabet.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

An obstacle to Kazakhization was a huge influx into the territory of Soviet Kazakhstan in the 1920s and 1960s of the Russian-speaking population from other republics of the USSR and the migration in the early 1930s of a significant part of Kazakhs to China.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Since the 1930s, Kazakhstan has been one of the few (along with the Kyrgyz and Karelian-Finnish SSR) Union republics where the “titular” nation was a minority.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

By 1989, the Russian language prevailed in Kazakhstan, Russian-speaking people made up the majority of senior personnel, and paperwork in the Kazakh language was practically absent.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization gave a limited result in the form of the formation in the Kazakh SSR of a significant layer of Russian-speaking educated cadres from Kazakhs.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Soviet Kazakhstan on the eve of Kazakhization (early 1920s)


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the 1920s, most of modern Kazakhstan was part of the RSFSR as an autonomous republic.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The peculiarities of this republic were as follows:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

A significant rural Russian-speaking population, formed due to the influx of Russian-speaking peasants in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

During the period 1897—1917, the number of Russians on the territory of Kazakhstan increased from 505 thousand people.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

up to 1281 thousand people


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As a result of the active resettlement of the Russian-speaking population in some counties, Kazakhs have become a national minority.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For example, in Kostanay Uyezd in 1923, Kazakhs accounted for 37.4% of the population, although in 1897 they absolutely prevailed there [2];


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The urban population is small and mostly non-Kazakh.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

By 1913, the largest cities in Kazakhstan (Aktobe, Uralsk and others) numbered only 20-30 thousand inhabitants [1];


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

There are extremely few Kazakh-speaking educated personnel and illiteracy of the vast majority of the Kazakh population.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

A. S. Yelagin estimated the number of Kazakhs who had higher education in 1914-1915 at about 20 people [3].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

According to V. K. Grigoriev, there were about 120 Kazakhs with higher and incomplete higher education, as well as about 700 Kazakhs who graduated from mektebs, schools and teachers' seminaries [3].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Thus, the number of Kazakhs who had education above primary education did not exceed 1 thousand people;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

An underdeveloped education system.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

There were no higher educational institutions on the territory of Kazakhstan at all.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Primary and secondary education was represented by Russian-Kazakh schools created by the tsarist administration, as well as spiritual mektebs.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Their number and the number of Kazakhs studying in them were small.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

By 1913, there were 157 Russian-Kazakh schools and 267 aul mektebs on the territory of modern Kazakhstan (on average, according to data for 1905, 20-25 children studied in one mekteb) [4];


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The absence of strong statehood at the time of the establishment of Soviet power


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In December 1917, the autonomous Kazakh entity Alash-Orda was proclaimed, which actually controlled only certain areas inhabited by Kazakhs in Western Kazakhstan and Semipalatinsk regions [5].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

By November 1918, Alash-Orda had small armed formations, but in December 1919 it finally went over to the side of Soviet power [5].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

At the beginning of 1920, the Revolutionary Committee for the Management of the Kyrgyz Territory (Kirrevkom) held negotiations with the Alashevtsy, after which it annulled all legislative decisions of the Alash-Orda, arrested its property and ordered the Alashevtsy to disarm, transferring control over the steppe areas to the Tatar revolutionary units, and the Alashevsky leaders became part of the Soviet bodies [6].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The weakness of the Alash-Orda differed from Transcaucasia, where national republics (Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan) arose during the Civil War and from Central Asia, where statehood existed (Khiva Khanate and Bukhara Emirate);


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The predominance of the nomadic population among Kazakhs and the problem of returning Kazakh lands given to Russian-speaking farmers in the pre-revolutionary period [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization in the form of rooting (1920s — 1930s)


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the 1920s and 1930s, the Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan took place within the framework of all-Union rooting.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

At this stage, Kazakhization was carried out centrally as an official policy, which included attempts to translate all paperwork into the Kazakh language, the establishment of percentage rates for ethnic Kazakhs in the bodies authorities, the return to the Kazakhs of part of the lands previously seized from them by the tsarist authorities, attempts by regulatory enactments to oblige the predominantly Russian - speaking party and Soviet apparatus to study the Kazakh language.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

By the end of the 1930s, the policy of rooting had failed: it was not possible to translate paperwork into Kazakh, Kazakhs were still a minority in the party and Soviet apparatus, prepared Kazakh intelligentsia was small in number.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The result of Kazakhization at this stage was the formation of a small Kazakh intelligentsia, as well as the involvement of some Kazakhs in industrial production.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The reasons for the failure of the policy of Kazakhization were Stalinist repressions, which led to the death of a significant part of the small Kazakh intelligentsia, the famine that turned the Kazakhs into an ethnic minority Soviet Kazakhstan, the resistance of the Russian-speaking part of the population.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In addition, experiments with Kazakh writing played a negative role: it was translated from Arabic into Latin in a short time, and then into Cyrillic.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

This made it difficult to introduce the Kazakh language into office work.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Ideological basis


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

AND. IN. Stalin in 1920 called for the following:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Recruitment of national personnel to all Soviet authorities in the national outskirts.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Stalin wrote that “all Soviet bodies on the outskirts, the court, administration, economic bodies, direct authorities (as well as party bodies) were compiled, if possible, from local people who know everyday life , customs, customs, language of the local population, so that all the best people from the local masses are involved in these institutions, so that the local labor masses are drawn into all areas of government, including here is the area of military formations, so that the masses can see that the Soviet government and its bodies are a matter of their own efforts, the embodiment of their aspirations” [7];


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Introduction of national languages into office work.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Stalin noted that “to put a school, court, administration, authorities in their native language means to implement Soviet autonomy in practice, because Soviet autonomy is nothing more than a sum all these institutions, clothed in Ukrainian, Turkestan, Kyrgyz, etc. forms” [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Periodization


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakh historian S. SH.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kaziev divided the indigenization in Soviet Kazakhstan into the following periods [7]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

1923-1926 — the rooting of the administrative apparatus.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

During this period, norms are established on the percentage share of Kazakhs in the administrative apparatus, and the Kazakh language is being introduced into office work;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

May 1926 — 1929 — “functional” rooting;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

autumn 1929 — early 1933 — the rooting of production, accompanied by the cleansing of the party-state apparatus as part of the fight against “national evasion”;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

spring 1933-1936 — a new percentage rooting of the party-state apparatus.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Since Kazakhs on the territory of Kazakhstan were the most numerous indigenous ethnic group, in relation to Kazakhstan, rooting meant Kazakhization.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Other indigenous ethnic groups — Tajiks, Uzbeks, Turkmens and Uighurs — were few in Soviet Kazakhstan at that time.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Their languages were not introduced into the paperwork.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For them, the rooting was mainly reflected in the creation of a small number of national schools.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization authorities


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization was carried out by a whole system of organs created in 1923.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Since the end of 1923, the Republican Commission for Rooting operated on the republican body, which had provincial and district units [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

These organs did not last long.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

On May 20, 1926, the Presidium of the CEC of the Kyrgyz ASSR liquidated the Republican Commission on Rooting [8].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

On January 17, 1928, the session of the KazCEC transferred the responsibility for rooting from the republican level to the local apparatus [9].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Alash-Orda and Kazakhization


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the 1920s, the authorities of Soviet Kazakhstan attracted Alash-Orda residents to Kazakhize.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The reason was the extreme lack of educated personnel who spoke the Kazakh language.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

But in 1928, 44 “bourgeois nationalists” were expelled from Soviet Kazakhstan, including Alash-Orda, the creators of the modern Kazakh literary language A. Baitursynov, M. Dulatov M. Zhumabayev and Zh. Aimautov [10].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Creation of the Kazakh working class (kazakhization of production)


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Soviet government stimulated the training of not only senior personnel from Kazakhs, but also sought to Kazakhize workers.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The training of indigenous workers was an all-Union practice.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In August 1929, the STO of the USSR obliged the Supreme Council of the USSR to involve the indigenous population in areas with a predominance of national minorities in industrial production by training workers in schools of the Federal Law Institution [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Training of workers among Kazakhs was also carried out in technical schools.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the early 1930s, construction workers (masons, plasterers, painters and carpenters) were trained from former nomads, training them in special courses lasting 1 and 3 months [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The creation of the Kazakh working class was stimulated by the “great construction site” — Turksib.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

About 8,000 Kazakhs worked on the construction of this railway in 1931 (out of the total number of people working on it — 21,000 people) [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the period 1927-1936, a significant layer of Kazakh workers was actually formed, both among men and women.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1927, there were only 66.4 thousand Kazakhs among workers and employees, and as of January 1, 1936, 246.9 thousand workers and employees were Kazakhs [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the early 1930s, Kazakhs prevailed in some industries.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

According to Kazsovprof of the KASSR, as of December 1933, the number and share of Kazakhs among persons who are on trade union registration was [11]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Oil industry — 3,260 people.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Mining industry — 1,722 people


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Coal industry — 3,216 people.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Meat canning industry — 1451 people


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Railway workers — 24068 people


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakh women were trained to work in the textile industry, at garment factories.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

This led to the fact that at some enterprises Kazakh women accounted for the majority of workers in the early 1930s.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For example, at the Almaty garment factory in the spring of 1933, 65% of workers were Kazakh women [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Kazakhization of production met with resistance on the ground: there were cases of dismissal of Kazakhs, calculation and beatings, non-payment of salaries to them.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

All this led to mass layoffs of Kazakhs from industrial facilities.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For example, in Karaganda mine No. 3 for the period from August to October 1933, the number of Kazakh miners decreased from 500 people.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

up to 80 people


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Translation of office work into Kazakh


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

On November 22, 1923, the CEC of the Kyrgyz ASSR adopted a decree that provided for the translation of all official paperwork in Kazakh volosts into Kazakh in the period from January to July 1924 [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

However, it was not possible to achieve such results.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

During the period of collectivization of 1929-1933, the question of the Kazakh language was actually postponed.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

We came back to him after F. AND. Goloshchekin as head of Soviet Kazakhstan was replaced by L. AND. Mirzoyan.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Resolution of the Bureau of the Kazkraikom of the All-Union Communist Party (b) issued in 1933 provided for the following [11]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

During 1933, official paperwork in the Kazakh Central Executive Committee, the People's Commissariat of Education, the People's Commissariat of Health, the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, the People's Commissariat of Land and in the apparatus SNK of the Kazakh ASSR;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

All other people's commissars were obliged to conduct business correspondence in Kazakh and Russian.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

All applications and letters submitted in the Kazakh language were required to be answered only in the Kazakh language;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

It is recommended to switch to the Kazakh language of instruction in educational institutions.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The translation of office work into Kazakh was hampered not only by the influx of the Russian-speaking population to Kazakhstan.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The problem was the frequent change in the graphics of the Kazakh language, which in 1929 was translated from Arabic to Latin, and on January 10, 1940 into Cyrillic.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Those who studied Kazakh in Latin could not understand the Kazakh texts of the 1920s written in Arabic script.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In addition, each time we had to translate the paperwork to a new schedule of the Kazakh language.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1931, it turned out that the local apparatus of the southern regions of Soviet Kazakhstan was not going to switch to the Latin alphabet [12].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In September 1931, the Resolution of the Regional Control Committee and the People's Commissariat of the Russian Language was issued, which condemned the practice of ignoring the practice of ignoring the new Latinized alphabet of the Kazakh language [12].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

It was ordered to organize training of Kazakh workers in the Latin alphabet “in parallel” with the training of “Europeans” in the Kazakh language [12].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Those who do not attend training courses were ordered to apply “appropriate measures of administrative, trade union and party influence” [12].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization of education


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1923, education in the Kazakh language was poorly distributed.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1923, only 9% of Kazakh children were enrolled in school [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1925, there were only 42 secondary educational institutions in the republic, in which 1,790 Kazakhs studied [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Since 1920, the Kazakh Institute of Public Education has been operating in Orenburg, where Kazakh teachers taught in the Kazakh language [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Since 1930, Vseeducation has been implemented in Soviet Kazakhstan, which, according to the People's Commissariat of Education of the KASSR, as of January 1, 1934, covered 98.3% of children aged 8 to 11 years [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the 1940-1941 academic year, there were 7,790 schools in Soviet Kazakhstan (4,428 Kazakh), with a contingent of students 1,138 thousand children (including 441,000 Kazakh students) [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1920—1930, most Kazakhs received only primary education.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Few people have completed a full 10-year high school.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the 1939-1940 academic year, there were only 701 tenth graders Kazakhs in Soviet Kazakhstan [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Most teachers also had only primary education.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1935, 73.8% of teachers in Soviet Kazakhstan had education at the level of grades 1-2 of primary school [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Most schools in the 1930s were aul schools.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1935, the Kazkrayk of the All-Union Communist Party (b) and the Council of People's Commissars of the KASSR adopted a resolution “On streamlining the structure of schools in Kazakhstan and growing Kazakh secondary schools”, which provided [14]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Liquidation of “dwarf” aul schools;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Prohibition of admission to technical schools and universities of persons who do not have incomplete and complete secondary education.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

There were few Kazakhs among university students (including those located on the territory of Soviet Kazakhstan) in the 1920s and 1930s.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For a long time, there were no universities in Soviet Kazakhstan at all, and Kazakh personnel were trained in a small number by the Central Asian State University in Tashkent.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1926, out of 1.1 thousand students at this university, only 22 were Kazakhs and another 20 were Uzbeks [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The bulk of Kazakh personnel with secondary and higher professional education in the 1920s were graduates of universities in the central part of the USSR.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1930, there were 503 engineers and technicians of Kazakh nationality, and all of them graduated from central universities and technical schools [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The first university on the territory of Soviet Kazakhstan (not counting the unsuccessful attempts to create a Kazakh University and a Polytechnic Institute in Orenburg in 1921) was the Pedagogical Institute opened in 1928 [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1937, there were already 18 universities on the territory of the Kazakh SSR, where 1,453 Kazakh students studied (according to data for the 1937-1938 academic year) [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the academic year 1939-1940, the number of Kazakh students in universities of the republic was already 2,675 people< [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The first Kazakhstani universities were created by professors sent from central universities, as well as by young Kazakhs who received education at central universities [14].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization of the party-state apparatus


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Kazakhization of the party-state apparatus in the 1920s faced the problem of a shortage of educated personnel among Kazakhs.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhs had a generally lower level of education in the 1920s than that of the “European” peoples who inhabited Kazakhstan.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1923, the literacy rate of the Kazakh population (in the provinces of the Kyrgyz ASSR) ranged from 1.7% to 9.9% [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For comparison, the literacy rate among Russians in the provinces of the Kyrgyz ASSR in 1923 ranged from 24.4% to 30.3% [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

There were very few Kazakhs in the party organization of Soviet Kazakhstan in the early 1920s.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1922, there were 1,481 Kazakh-communists, which accounted for 8.9% of the party organization of the Kyrgyz ASSR [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1924, a “Lenin draft” was announced to the party.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As a result, the number of Communist Kazakhs in the Kyrgyz ASSR increased sevenfold: from 1,539 people in 1924 to 11,634 people as of January 1, 1926 [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

A significant part of the new members of the party from among the Kazakhs were alphabetically illiterate.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1926, out of 4,432 Kazakh communists (38%) out of 11634 Communist Kazakhs were illiterate [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

At the same time, as of January 1, 1926, only 4% were illiterate among the Russian communists of Kazakhstan [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Lenin's appeal made it possible to increase the share of Kazakhs in the republican party organization (it was part of the RCP (b)).


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

However, Kazakhs were still a minority among the Communists.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1926, the national composition of the party organization of Soviet Kazakhstan was as follows [13]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Russians — 15399 people;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhs — 11634 people;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

representatives of other nationalities — 6,225 people.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The percentage rates of the Kazakhization of the state apparatus were also not fulfilled (except for the highest level) [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The second session of the CEC of the Kyrgyz ASSR demanded 100% rooting of states in areas inhabited by the Kazakh population and 50% rooting in areas with a mixed ethnic population [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1926, Kazakhs accounted for 40.2% of heads of organizations at the republican level, 22.6% of heads of the provincial level and 48.7% of heads of the district level [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

But Kazakhs prevailed in the top leadership of the republic by January 1, 1926.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1926, there were 12 Kazakhs, 2 Russians, 1 Karakalpak and 1 Uzbek in the Presidium of the Central Election Commission of the Republic [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1926, 11 Kazakhs and 5 persons from the non-Kazakh population held leading positions in the Council of People's Commissars of the Kyrgyz ASSR [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1925, the share of Kazakhs in the republican people's commissars ranged from 0% to 28% [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The requirement of 50% Kazakhization of local councils mixed by ethnic composition was also not met.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Despite the protests of the “National Communists”, mono-ethnic local councils began to be created [15].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In August 1926, there were 3,319 councils in Soviet Kazakhstan, of which 1,929 were Kazakh (57.8%) and 1,351 were Russian (40.7%) [15].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Appointed at the head of Soviet Kazakhstan, F. AND. Goloshchekin was a supporter of the rooting of only the state apparatus, believing that party cadres should be selected by the Union Central Committee [8].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Since May 27, 1926, functional rooting has been going on — the creation of a nomenclature of positions occupied by either Kazakhs or persons who were fluent in the Kazakh language [8].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

According to the directives of the KazCEC and the Kazraikom of the All-Union Communist Party (b), 13 thousand places in the apparatus were allocated to be rooted [8].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

However, non-Kazakh cadres continued to prevail in the staff.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

By March 1927, 2,567 (23.2%) out of 11968 planned positions were rooted in the local apparatus, 195 (23.7%) were rooted in the regional apparatus out of 840 positions [8].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1928, the situation changed.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In May 1928, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (B) decided to clean the party and state apparatus of Soviet Kazakhstan [10].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As a result of the purge, 116 people in the offices of district committees were removed from their posts [10].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

During the collectivization of 1929-1933, the share of Kazakhs among the local party leadership decreased.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

If in 1931 Kazakhs accounted for 58% of the responsible employees of the district committees of the party, in 1933 - only 48% [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Despite the reduction in the number of Kazakhs during collectivization under L. AND. Mirzoyans were rooted in the cadres of Soviet institutions.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the period from 1932 to 1934, the share of Kazakhs in the apparatus of the KazCEC, the Council of People's Commissars of the KASSR, the People's Commissariat of Justice and the Supreme Court of the KASSR increased from 29.8% to 37.2% [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

At the same time, attempts to resist rooting were severely suppressed.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For example, in the fall of 1933, the director of the Kazkomvodukravlenie Svistunov and member of the board of the People's Commissariat of Seno Shakurin [


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The indigenization covered not only the central, but also the local Soviet apparatus.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1936, Kazakhs accounted for 67% of KazCEC, 64% of the leadership of the republican people's commissars, 53% of executives of executive committees, 56% of chairmen of regional executive committees, 69% of district executive committees, 65% chairmen of aul councils [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the party organization of Kazakhstan, the share of Kazakhs also approached 50%.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

As of January 1, 1937, the ethnic composition of the party organization of the republic was as follows [11]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhs — 46.8%;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Russians — 32.9%;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Ukrainians — 9.7%;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Uzbeks — 1.6%;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Uighurs — 1.1%.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhization of culture


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

For a long time, the share of Kazakhs among cultural workers was small.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

According to Kazprof of of the KASSR, as of January 1, 1933, 202 art workers of Kazakh nationality (15.2% of the total number of art workers registered) were on the trade union register [11].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Return of pre-revolutionary lands to Kazakhs


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the pre-revolutionary period, about 45 million acres of land were seized from Kazakhs for the needs of Russian-speaking immigrants [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Kazakhs wanted to return them, especially since the seized land sometimes blocked their access to water sources [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In 1920—1921, the Soviet government took a number of measures to limit the resettlement of Russian-speaking residents to Kazakhstan, as well as to return part of the seized land to the Kazakhs.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the Kyrgyz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of November 8, 1920 banned unauthorized peasant resettlement [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The decrees of February 2, 1921 and April 19 of the same year returned the following lands seized from them to the Kazakhs [7]:


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Not developed by immigrants until February 1921 in Akmola, Kostanay, Turgay, Semipalatinsk and Ural provinces;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Long term leases to nobles, capitalists and monasteries;


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Transferred by the imperial authorities for eternal use for service to the Siberian and Ural Cossack troops.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In addition, the problem was the return of land left by the Kazakhs, who fled to Xinjiang after the suppression of the uprising of 1916.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Kazakhs who returned in the early 1920s discovered that settlements of the Russian-speaking population had appeared on the abandoned lands.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The authorities of the Kazakh ASSR evicted the Russian-speaking population, transferring land with buildings to the Kazakhs.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

A total of 120 Russian and Ukrainian villages, 32 farms, 95 loans were liquidated and 6,466 farms were evicted (almost half of them in the Dzhetysu province) [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The outbreak of mass famine led to the fact that land management work was curtailed [7].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The famine led to the flight of people outside Kazakhstan.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

If in 1920 4,781,000 people lived on the territory of the republic.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

, in 1922 it was only 3,796,000 people.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

After the end of the famine, the authorities of Soviet Kazakhstan (its top leadership began to be dominated by ethnic Kazakhs) resumed the seizure of land from the non-Kazakh population.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

On April 19, 1925, the V All-Kazakh Congress of Soviets banned unauthorized resettlement to Kazakhstan, while excluding from the land management procedure all immigrants who arrived in Kazakhstan after August 31 1922 of the year [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The following procedure was established for granting land plots: first to Kazakhs, then immigrants who arrived in Kazakhstan before 1918, then to unauthorized immigrants who arrived before August 31 1922 and, last of all, to unauthorized immigrants who arrived in the period from August 31, 1922 to August 7, 1924 [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In the second half of the 1920s, on the territory of Kazakhstan, the seizure of land from Russian-speaking immigrants became widespread and was accompanied by their departure.


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

Official statistics in 1929 reported that the “European” population was being squeezed out, as a result of which the number of farms in the whole republic decreased by 14%, and the Russian and Ukrainian population Soviet Kazakhstan decreased by 700 thousand people [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In Kostanay province, the number of farms decreased by 26.2%, in the Dzhetysu province by 22.3% [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

The Russian-speaking population resisted — complaints were sent to Moscow (including requests for the creation of a Russian autonomy directly subordinate to the central government), and clashes with the Kazakhs were noted [13].


Question: What is the main tool of “Kazakhization” as a national policy?

Kazakhization of Soviet Kazakhstan

In part, their requirements were met.