Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Narimanov Avenue (Ulyanovsk)) and the square in Ulyanovsk.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Narimanovo Airport [57] in Astrakhan (Russia).


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

House of Culture in Shatura.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Central Park in Qusar (Azerbaijan).


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Populated places in Azerbaijan


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Narimanli villages in Shamkir and Goranboy


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Narimankend in Bilasuvar, Gobustan, Gadabay and Sabirabad


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Narimanabad is an urban-type settlement in Lankaran [54] and a village with the same name in Yevlakh districts of Azerbaijan.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Collective farms in the Kulinsky district of Dagestan and the Volodarsky district of the Astrakhan region.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

City secondary school No. 9 in Yevlakh district of Azerbaijan.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

School No. 2 named after Nariman Narimanov in the city of Khudat.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Narimanov School No. 5 in Karakol, Kyrgyzstan


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

The following were named after Narimanov:


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

In 1981, his name was given to a village in Uzbekistan [52] (now the city of Payaryk).


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Baku shoe factory.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Monument in Narimanov (Astrakhan Oblast, Russia).


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Monuments to Nariman Narimanov


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

A monument to Narimanov in front of the House of Culture, which bears his name.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Sumgayit.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Sculptor Mir-Ali Mir-Kasimov


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

The monument in Kusary


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Monument in Baku


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Monument in Tbilisi


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

The image of N. Narimanov in feature films


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

1971 — Stars don't go out (dir. A. Ibragimov) — Vladimir Samoilov.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

1981 — The day after tomorrow, at midnight (dir. A. Babayev) — Melik Dadashev.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

In philately


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Postage stamp of the USSR, 1973


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Postage stamp of Azerbaijan, 1997


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Awards and titles


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Bronze medal (1897) — for conscientious work in the gymnasium [2]


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Order of Stanislav III class (1899) [2]


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Order of the Red Banner (1921) [58]


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Honorary Proletarian Badge of the Azerbaijan SSR [59]


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Honorary Citizen of Dagestan ASSR [60]


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Notes


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

References


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Gusterin P. IN.


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Literature


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Azerbaijani playwrights


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:19th-century playwrights


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:20th-century playwrights


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Azerbaijani writers


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category: 19th-century Russian writers


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:20th-century Russian writers


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category: Soviet writers


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Heads of Government of Azerbaijan SSR


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Azerbaijani communists


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Marxists


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Russian revolutionaries


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Azerbaijani revolutionaries


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Bolsheviks


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Deaths from heart failure


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category: Burials in the necropolis near the Kremlin wall


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Chairmen of the Central Election Commission


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Candidates for the CPSU Central Committee


Question: When was Nariman Kerbalai Najaf ogly Narimanov born?

Nariman Kerbalai Najaf oglu Narimanov

Category:Personalities on postage stamps


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The State Optical Institute (SOI) is a research and production enterprise for the research, development and implementation of optical devices and technologies.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It was founded in 1918 on the initiative of the famous Russian physicist D. S. Rozhdestvensky, who was the director and scientific director of the SOI until 1932.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In 1951, the SOI was named after S. AND. Vavilova [1].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Since November 2012 — Open Joint-Stock Company “State Optical Institute named after S. AND. Vavilov”, in April 2015 it was transformed into JSC.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It was created through the transformation of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Research and Production Corporation” State Optical Institute named after S. AND. Vavilova “” [2].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It is part of the holding of Shvabe JSC of the State Corporation Rostec as a leading scientific organization.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

History


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Establishment of the Institute


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The organization and deployment of the SOI took place in several stages, which took a total of about a year.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The leading role in this process was played by D. S. Rozhdestvensky, who at that time was head of the Physical Institute of Petrograd University and at the same time chairman of the optical engineering department of the Commission for the Study of Natural Productive of Russia (KEPS) at the Russian Academy of Sciences [3].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Department of Optical Engineering was established in April 1918, and in May, at the initiative and request of Rozhdestvensky, a computer bureau and an experimental optical workshop were established under it [4].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Later, D. S. Rozhdestvensky associated the formation of the institute with these events and said that the GOI “originated” in May 1918 [3].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

On December 15, 1918, under the chairmanship of D. S. Rozhdestvensky held the first organizational meeting of the Academic Council of the SOI


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It adopted the Regulations on the Institute and a note on the goals and objectives of the institute, intended for submission to the People's Commissariat of Education.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In addition, a number of organizational issues were considered.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The note provided an overview of the state of optical science and technology in Russia and in leading Western countries, it justified the need to unite optics specialists in an organization that uses broad support from the state, and


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

the main tasks of the newly created institute for the near period of its activity were formulated.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It was emphasized that the institute should become a new type of organization, in which scientific and technical tasks would be inextricably linked.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The note ended with the words: “An Optical Institute is needed” [3].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Regulations on the State Optical Institute stated [3]:


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The State Optical Institute has the task of:


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

(a) Scientific research on all issues related to radiant energy, especially those related to infrared, visible and ultraviolet rays;


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

b) scientific research of the production and properties of optical glass;


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

c) assistance to the optical industry in Russia by organizing a computer bureau and an experimental optical workshop;


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

d) dissemination of optical knowledge among specialists and the masses by giving lectures, courses, setting up a museum, creating a magazine, books, brochures, etc.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In accordance with the Regulations, the Institute initially consisted of two departments: scientific and technical.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The scientific department was supposed to deal with “exclusively scientific tasks”.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The technical department consisted of a computer bureau, experimental optical and mechanical workshops.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The regulation provided that the management and management of the activities of the institute belonged to the board of the institute, which included the director, heads of departments, heads of large installations of the scientific department, heads of institutions of the technical department and members of the scientific council.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The director was obliged to “organize the management of the institute in economic and administrative relations in accordance with the decisions of the board”.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Institute received the right to receive duty-free from abroad any items necessary for its activities.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

December 15, 1918 is traditionally and officially considered the founding day of the SOI.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The initiative of D. S. Rozhdestvensky was supported by the government, and on December 15, 1918, the board of the People's Commissariat of Education decided to create the GOI.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The final registration of the decision took place when the People's Commissar IN. Lunacharsky and Head of the Petrograd District Commissariat of Education M. P. Christie signed a decree establishing the GOI, which on May 6, 1919 was published in the newspaper Severnaya Kommuna.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The actual financing of the SOI activities began in November 1918 [4] [5].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Formation and development


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Despite the difficult conditions of the first post-revolutionary years, after the foundation of the institute, its rapid development took place.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Initially, the SOI was entirely located in several rooms of the Physical Institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The first building, the transfer of which Rozhdestvensky achieved to the GOI, was the house No. 4 on the Birzhevaya Line, which was previously engaged in the nationalized chocolate factory by that time A. AND. Kolesnikova.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

After the reconstruction in 1923, almost all departments of the institute moved into it.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Continuing to expand, during the first ten years of its existence, the GOI also occupied the following houses located along the Birzhevaya Line, including large house No. 14 [6].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In 1921, the government allocated significant funds for the purchase of instruments and equipment abroad.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The purchase commission worked abroad for two years, the devices, according to Rozhdestvensky's words, “flowed in hundreds of boxes”, and by 1923 the SOI became one of the most well-equipped scientific institutions of the world [7].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Soon the institute gained international fame.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It was visited by such major scientists of that time as N. Bohr, Frederic and Irene Joliot-Curie, P. Langevin, J. Perrin M. Plank, Ch. Raman P. Ehrenfest and others [6] [8].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

To solve the acute personnel problem, unusual measures were resorted to: in 1918, 12 of the best first and second year students of Petrograd University were hired at the GOI in the so-called” a group of laboratory assistants” [9] and underwent particularly intensive training at the university.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The training program for each of them was personally Rozhdestvensky [10].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

This approach paid off: later, two of them — A. N. Terenin and V. A. Fock became full members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

F. Gross and S. E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Frisch — corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Seven more former laboratory assistants became doctors of science [5] [7].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

By 1923, five years after the founding of the GOI, a scientific department worked in its composition (headed by D. S. Rozhdestvensky), a computing bureau (headed by A. AND. Tudorovsky), Department of Geometric Optics (Head S. O. Meisel) and the Optical Glass Laboratory (headed by I. IN. Grebenshchikov).


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Research was carried out by an experimental optical workshop, a mechanical workshop and a library.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The number of books in the library reached almost three thousand, several dozen titles of foreign and domestic magazines were subscribed, and the library purchased all specialized books published in the military and post-war period.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In general, according to Rozhdestvensky, the GOI library of that time was “the most complete library for modern optics and physics in general in Petrograd” [4].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In May 1922, an optical circle was formed at the GOI, which was then transformed into the Russian Optical Society in 1925, the purpose of which was to unite specialists working in the field of optics.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In the following decade, the dynamic development of SOI and the expansion of its field of activity continued.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

If at the beginning of its activity SOI had 24 researchers, by 1933 there were more than 250 of them.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

By 1936, the total number of employees reached 600 people [11].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The qualifications of employees have increased: 3 academicians and 4 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, professors and associate professors worked at the institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Postgraduate studies were created and worked [12].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

By this time, the Institute had established and functioned units that, with their research, covered almost all areas of optics that existed at that time: spectroscopic, optotechnical, computing, photometric and photographic sectors, the applied physical optics sector, the physiological optics laboratory and the color laboratory, and the chemical sector.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

There was a publishing group and a library [12].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In 1931, SOI began publishing the magazine “Optical-Mechanical Industry”.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Institute closely cooperated with enterprises of the optical and glass industries, providing them with a variety of methodological, scientific and technical assistance.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Thanks to the joint work of SOI employees (D. S. Rozhdestvensky IN. Grebenshchikov, A. A. Lebedev A. AND. Tudorovsky, etc.) and the Leningrad Optical Glass Plant (LenZOS) by 1927, the country launched the production of optical glass.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The production volumes and range of glasses produced (18 grades) were sufficient to meet all the needs of the country, which allowed the Government in 1927 to decide to stop imports optical glass from abroad [6] [13].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In 1933, 200 tons of optical glass were produced, while only 3 tons were produced until 1917 [7].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

There have also been setbacks in solving various organizational problems.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Thus, due to lack of funds, the SOI during this period was forced to part with the pilot plant created at the institute to ensure the design and experimental work carried out in it [7].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Disagreements that arose between Rozhdestvensky and the industry management over the degree of participation of the institute in solving the current problems of the plants and overcoming their daily difficulties, led to the fact that he submitted a request to release him from his duties as director.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

His resignation was accepted, and in March 1932 Rozhdestvensky left the post of director, after which he was the head of the scientific department until the end of 1939 [14].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Leaving administrative work, Rozhdestvensky recommended S.I. Vavilova.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

However, at the insistence of the leadership of the All-Union Association of the Optical and Mechanical Industry (VOOMP), the recommendation was accepted only partially: S. AND. Vavilov was appointed Deputy Director for Scientific Affairs, and I. AND. Orlovsky, who worked in this post for a very short time [10].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The activity of S. AND. Vavilov as scientific director of the GOI, which lasted until 1945, brought great benefits: thanks to him, it was possible to first preserve and then develop fundamental research conducted in institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Fruitful ties with SOI S. AND. Vavilov retained him later after his election as President of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1945).


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

At the end of 1939, Rozhdestvensky left the post of head of department at the GOI and transferred his scientific work to the university, remaining at the GOI only as a consultant.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The reasons for Rozhdestvensky's departure from the GOI are associated with the policy pursued by the then director of the GOI D. P. Chekhmataev, regarding Rozhdestvensky and his research [15] [16].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Years of war


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

During the Great Patriotic War, most of the GOI was evacuated to Yoshkar-Ola, where it was provided with the premises of the Forestry Engineering Institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

SOI employees have independently done a lot of work to adapt the premises for placing laboratories and production units in them.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In the face of a shortage of materials and electricity, the institute carried out work aimed at equipping the army and navy with the necessary optical devices [17].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

These works were assessed by the then Deputy People's Commissar of Armaments V. N. Novikov were “extremely important” [18].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In Leningrad, at that time, a branch of the GOI operated in the premises of the institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The branch carried out work to ensure the blackout of the city and ships of the Navy.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Under his leadership, Smolny, Vitebsky Railway Station, Astoria Hotel and many other objects of the city received blackout.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Employees of the branch helped to hide the battleships October Revolution and Marat, the cruiser Kirov and other military vessels from enemy aircraft.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A number of other special works were carried out on separate tasks and requests from the command of the Leningrad Front and the Baltic Fleet [18].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The branch developed and manufactured aerial photo lenses, tank observation devices, upgraded anti-aircraft rangefinders and stereoscopic altimeters.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It repaired and restored various optical military devices, such as stereo tubes, binoculars, sights, sights, etc. [19] [20].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

On December 15, 1943, by decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the GOI was awarded the Order of Lenin for outstanding services and successful 25-year activity.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In connection with the 25th anniversary of the SOI, celebrated in 1943, S. AND. Vavilov published a large article in which he presented an overview and analysis of theoretical work performed at the SOI.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In the article, he states that Rozhdestvensky's idea of the continuity of scientific and technical problems has been practically embodied in the SOI, and expresses the opinion that “theory as a necessary condition solving practical issues is and should remain at the Institute a necessary condition for its work” [21].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Subsequent time


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A characteristic feature of the style of leadership of the institute, which for many years was carried out by Deputy Director for Research E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. Tsarevsky and Director M. M. Miroshnikov, there was a clear understanding of the role of the leading scientific institution in the industry.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It was expressed in the implementation of the principle of division of labor: employees of the research sector of the Institute (NIS) conducted exploratory research work (R&D), the result of which was not always predictable, and workers in the industry they supervise were engaged in development (R&D), the ultimate goal of which is to introduce, or at least achieve, only positive effect, as well as mass production.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Researchers enjoyed the relative freedom of scientific research, which was approved by the leadership of the institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

An example of a promising direction started on the personal initiative of a researcher was holography, the beginning of work in which was the research of the future academician of the


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. Denisyuk.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In this regard, the topic of research was much broader than the subject of R&D, which made it possible to quickly connect to solving unexpectedly opening areas in applied optics or problems of industrial production.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The lack of utilization of production capacities by performing mass production allowed the well-and comprehensively equipped Pilot Production of the Institute to switch relatively quickly to orders related to the provision of research work.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

An important role in timely information on the development of world and Soviet optical science and applied sections of optics was played by the work of the Scientific and Technical Information Department of the Institute — ONTI GOI.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The same role was played by scientific seminars held regularly and organized by the Scientific Secretary of the Institute.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

As a rule, they ended with a discussion of the report, and the speaker was asked questions about the prospects and limits of feasibility of practical application.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

This feature of the leadership style has enabled the Institute to take a leading position in the development of such promising areas as, for example, fiber optics and lasers.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

By the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of February 24, 1976, for high performance in the field of scientific developments, active participation in the creation and development in mass production of devices and scientific SOI equipment was awarded the Order of the October Revolution [19].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In 1998, in honor of the State Optical Institute and its first director D. S. The Christmas small planet of the Solar System No. 5839, discovered on September 21, 1974 at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, was named “GOI” [22].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

CEOs


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Directors


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

D. S. Rozhdestvensky, Director and Scientific Supervisor (1918—1932)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

AND. AND. Orlovsky (1932—1933)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

M. O. Atrashevich (1933—1933)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

L. A. Olbert (1933—1936)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. A. Tikhomirov (1936—1937)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

D. P. Chekhmatayev (1937—1950)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. L. Nikitin (1950—1966)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

M. M. Miroshnikov (1966—1989)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

L. B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Glebov (1989—1990)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. Yermakov, gen.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Director (1990—1992)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. AND. Puchkov (1992—1994), gene.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

principal


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

G. T. Petrovsky, gen.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Director (1994—2001)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Karasev (2002—2008)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. A. Deadlocks (2008—2011)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

M. A. Lobin (2011—2012)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

R. F. Kurunov (2012—2014), gen.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

principal


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

S. E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Shevtsov (2015—2016), gen.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

director)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

YU.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

YU.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Zaplatkin (2016—2017), gene.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

principal


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

YU.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

M. Marinchenko (since 2017), a temporary gene.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

principal


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Kuznetsov (since 2017), temporary gene.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

principal


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. R. Fatal (since 2018), a temporary gene.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

principal


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

First Deputy Directors for Research


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

S. AND. Vavilov, Scientific Supervisor (1932—1945)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. N. Terenin (1945—1956)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. Tsarevsky (1956—1981)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. Yermakov (1981—1990)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

P. A. Mikheev (1998-2002)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. N. Vasiliev, Scientific Supervisor (2005—2008)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

G. N. Gerasimov (2008—2011)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

S. A. Dimakov (2011—2012)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Puisha (2012-2014)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Shilov (2014—2017)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

L. N. Arkhipov (since 2017)


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Contribution to science and technology


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Institute has made and continues to make a significant contribution to optical science and instrument making.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

His achievements in the field of atomic and molecular spectroscopy, luminescence, photochemistry, glassy theory, computational optics, nonlinear optics, microscopy, theory are generally recognized light field and photometry, astronomical optics and many other classical branches of optics and optical engineering.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The groundwork in traditional areas of optics allowed GOI to quickly and very fruitfully participate in the development of new promising areas, such as holography, iconics and image processing, optics atmosphere and ocean, physics and technology of lasers, power, adaptive, fiber and integrated optics, thermal imaging.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In the 21st century, the Institute successfully develops such areas as the theory and creation of effective photo-controlled optical media, photo and nanotechnologies.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Applied areas


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

SOI works in the following applied areas of optics and optical instrument making:


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

creation of optical materials with new, as a rule, unique characteristics — glass, crystals, ceramics,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

products based on fiber optics or non-traditional materials, such as beryllium, etc.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Among the achievements of SOI are thin optical technologies that make it possible to create a variety of coatings (multilayer, controlled, protective) and optical adhesives for any region of the spectrum; rifled diffraction arrays for high-resolution spectral equipment; sources, converters and receivers of optical radiation, including multi-element ones, operating at ultra-low temperatures.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The name of the institute was fixed in the name of the material for grinding and polishing surfaces widely used in the manufacture of the element base of optical instrumentation - GOI paste.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Optical devices and optoelectronic systems


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The SOI has created dozens of models of laboratory and medical microscopes,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

the country's first electron microscope, a ruby laser and a mixture of He-Ne gases,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

high-precision measuring instruments, including laser ones,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

a family of medical and industrial thermal imagers,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

experimental samples of hydrooptical equipment,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

large-sized lens and mirror lenses for spacecraft,


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

unique installations for generating and studying temperature and laser radiation.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A base has been created for comprehensive testing of optical systems, including stands for simulating various climatic conditions, pressure and temperature drops up to outer space conditions.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

An essential and distinctive aspect of the SOI's activities has always been its close connection with industry.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Institute was directly involved in the creation of most large optical enterprises and design bureaus in the territory of the former USSR, as well as in the creation of most large optical products industry.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

And since consumers of optical products are almost all sectors of the national economy and the defense complex, GOI has established contacts not only with optical, but also with many medical, environmental, agricultural, military and other organizations.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

SOI fruitfully cooperates with a number of physical institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, compensating to some extent for the absence of a wide profile optical institute in the Academy system.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Many outstanding academics worked at SOI — D. S. Rozhdestvensky IN. Grebenshchikov, A. A. Lebedev V. P. Linnik A. N. Terenin, Y.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. Denisyuk, and I. IN. Obreimov G. T. Petrovsky, V. A. Fok, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. M. Bonch-Bruevich, N. N. Kachalov T. P. Kravets, D. D. Maksutov A. AND. Tudorovsky, P. P. Feofilov, S. E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Frisch.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Particularly close is cooperation with the Physico-Technical Institute named after A.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. F. Ioffe RAS: for example, Academician Yu.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. Denisyuk combined, and academician E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Alexandrov still combines work at the GOI.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

S. AND. Vavilov and at the PTI them.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. F. Joffe.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov, academician, President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR from 1945 to 1951, worked at the institute and was its scientific supervisor from 1932 to 1945, whose name is the GOI.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Traditionally, SOI cooperates especially closely with the St. Petersburg State University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics (ITMO SPbU).


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

On the basis of this cooperation, a special faculty of optical informatics and photonics has been created, one of the tasks of which is to replenish scientific laboratories and departments of the SOI with young specialists.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Four universities in St. Petersburg have created 6 basic departments at the GOI to more effectively prepare students for future scientific activities.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

SOI participates in five projects within the framework of the federal program “Integration of Higher Education and Fundamental Science”.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In the 21st century, contacts between SOI and research centers and research units of large firms abroad (USA, Great Britain, Germany, France, Canada, China, South Korea, etc.).


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

An important role in establishing and maintaining scientific contacts is played by the Optical Society named after D. S. Rozhdestvensky”.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Despite the difficulties of recent times, the GOI has preserved high-tech experimental production of optical devices and optical materials, which makes it possible to carry out developments in the form of of small-scale products.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

It was also possible to preserve the necessary design capabilities, and in such an area of design as the calculation of optical systems, significant progress was made.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

An important role in preserving the team of outstanding scientists and specialists was played by the concept of “scientific schools” characteristic of the SOI, headed by leading scientists.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Of great importance is the training of highly qualified personnel on the basis of the SOI - postgraduate studies, the work of specialized councils for the defense of dissertations, and the encouragement of applicants.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Alexandrov, Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences M. M. Miroshnikov and N. N. Rozanov, about 100 doctors and candidates of science.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Throughout its history, SOI has repeatedly experienced organizational and structural transformations due to the logic of its development and the requirements of the time.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Since 2005, the main organizational form of the SOI has been the Research and Production Corporation “State Optical Institute named after V.I. S. AND. Vavilov “” (NPK GOI), formed on the basis of the leading departments of the SOI and the Institute of Laser Physics previously separated from its composition.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In December 2012, SOI was transformed into an open joint-stock company, and in 2015 into a joint-stock company.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

The Institute conducts research and development in the interests of creating optoelectronic systems, optical devices, materials and technologies of a new generation.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

These include the calculation of optical systems, physics and optics of lasers, space optics, analysis and processing of optical images, detection and observation systems for various purposes, laser rangefinders, hydrooptical equipment, nonlinear optics, nanophotonics, holographic optical elements, sources and receivers of optical radiation, optical devices for various purposes and much more.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

In 2009, “GOI im. S. AND. Vavilov” was approved by the leading research organization of the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Russian Federation in the field of the military-industrial complex of Russia in the direction of “Optoelectronic Devices, Systems and Complexes”.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

SOI is part of the Shvabe holding, which unites the main Russian research institutes, design bureaus and industrial enterprises of optoelectronic instrumentation.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Editions


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

SOI takes part in the international exchange of scientific information.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

For many decades, he has been publishing Proceedings of GOI (since 1919) and Optical Journal [23] (from 1931 to 1991 - the magazine “Optical-Mechanical Industry”), the last since 1966 is translated into English and reprinted in the United States under the name “Journal of Optical Technology” [24].


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Editor-in-chief since 2017 — member.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

-cor.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Russian Academy of Sciences Nikolay Nikolaevich Rozanov.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Employees of the Institute are members of the USSR Academy of Sciences and RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

B.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Alexandrov, Academician of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

S. AND. Vavilov, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

AND. IN. Grebenshchikov, Academician of the USSR Academy


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

YU.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. Denisyuk, Academician of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. A. Lebedev, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. P. Linnik, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

AND. IN. Obreimov, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

G. T. Petrovsky, Academician of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

D. S. Rozhdestvensky


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. N. Terenin, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. A. Fok, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

AND. M. Frank, Academician of USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. M. Bonch-Bruevich, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

G. A. Gamov, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

F. Gross, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

IN. S. Ignatovsky, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. N. Kachalov, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

T. P. Kravets Corresponding Member of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

L. N. Kurbatov, Corresponding Member of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

D. D. Maksutov, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

M. M. Miroshnikov, Corresponding Member of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

N. N. Rozanov, Corresponding Member of RAS


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

A. AND. Tudorovsky, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

P. P. Feofilov, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

S. E.


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Frisch, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

See also


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

GOI paste


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Notes


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

comments


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Sources


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

References


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Organizations awarded the Order of Lenin


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Organizations awarded the Order of the October Revolution


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Optics manufacturers


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Photographic equipment manufacturers


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Research institutes in Russia


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:establishments in 1918


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Shvabe Holding


Question: What is the address of the State Optical Institute?

State Optical Institute

Category:Companies of Saint Petersburg


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The Tour de France [1] (several; French: Le Tour de France) is a multi-day road cycling race, one of three grand tours.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The most famous and prestigious bicycle race in the world, held in France for more than a hundred years [2].


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The unofficial name is “Big Loop”.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

History


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The Tour de France was originally established as an advertising project for the newspaper L'Auto (the ancestor of the current L'Équipe), its editor and co-founder, Henri Desgrange, and was called compete with the Paris-Brest-Paris cycling race (sponsored by Le Petit Journal) and the Bordeaux-Paris cycling race.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The idea of creating the French loop belongs to L'Auto journalist Géo Lefèvre, with whom Henri Desgrange dined at Café de Madrid in Paris on November 20, 1902 (exact date).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The success of the Le Tour de France race was also a great success for L'Auto, whose number of subscribers grew in 1903 from 25,000 (before Tours) to 65,000 after the Tours; in 1908, the newspaper's subscribers exceeded 250,000, and during the Tour de France in 1923, the newspaper sold 500,000 copies a day.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The newspaper reached a record circulation during the Tour de France of 1933 — 854,000 copies per day.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Today, the Tour is organized by the Tour de France Society, a branch of the Amaury Sport Organization (ASO), which is part of a media holding that includes the newspaper L'Équipe.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The tour, which takes place in France and neighboring countries, takes place annually for three weeks in July.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

It was only during the First War (1915—1918) and World War II (1940—1946) that the tour was canceled.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The cycling race is conducted by Amaury Sport Organization (ASO), which also holds the Dakar Rally.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Race principles


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The Tour de France consists of 21 stages.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Each stage lasts one day.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Each rider must complete a stage in order for their time to be registered and accumulated.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The total length of the race is between 3000 and 4000 km (the track and the length of the stages change every year).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The longest race took place in 1926 with 5,745 km [3].


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

General classification is the ranking of riders according to the accumulated time.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner of the entire Tour is the rider whose total time (that is, the sum of times of all stages) is the smallest among all participants.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

It is possible to win the entire Tour without winning a single stage (Greg Lemond did it in 1990 and Chris Froome in 2017).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Winning the Tour stage is considered a great achievement of the cyclist, regardless of his final position in the general classification.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

In addition to the time test, there are other nominations:


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

best sprinter;


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

the best mountain racer;


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

the best young racer.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Leaders in these nominations compete in certain colored T-shirts, which will be described below.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Classifications


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

General classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The yellow jersey symbolizes the leader of the Tour de France.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The yellow jersey is worn by the Time Tour leader and is the most expensive among all prize T-shirts.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The color of the leader's yellow jersey was originally associated with the newspaper that sponsored the Tour (the newspaper had yellow pages).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winners of the yellow jersey at the end of the race are the winners of the Tour de France


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1903 — M. Garen


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1904 — A. Cornet


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1905 — L. Trussel


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1906 — R. Pottier


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1907 — L. Petit-Breton


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1908 — L. Petit-Breton


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1909 — F. Faber


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1910 — FR. Lapiz


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1911 — G. Garrigo


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1912 — FR. Defre


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1913 — F. Tees


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1914 — F. Tees


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1919 — F. Lambo


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1920 — F. Tees


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1921 — L. Sierre


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1922 — F. Lambo


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1923 — A. Pelissier


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1924 — FR. Bottekchia


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1925 — FR. Bottekchia


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1926 — L. Busse


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1927 — N. Franz


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1928 — N. Franz


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1929 — M. de Valais


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1930 — A. Leduc


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1931 — A. Mane


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1932 — A. Leduc


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1933 — G. Speicher


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1934 — A. Mane


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1935 — P. Mac


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1936 — P. Mac


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1937 — P. Lapebi


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1938 — D. Bartali


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1939 — P. Mac


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1947 — W. Robich


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1948 — D. Bartali


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1949 — F. Coppy


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1950 — F. Kubler


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1951 — X.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Coble


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1952 — F. Coppy


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1953 — L. Bob


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1954 — L. Bob


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1955 — L. Bob


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1956 — P. Valkowiak


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1957 — W. Anquetil


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1958 — SH.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Gol


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1959 — F. Baamontes


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1960 — G. Nenchini


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1961 — W. Anquetil


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1962 — W. Anquetil


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1963 — W. Anquetil


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1964 — W. Anquetil


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1965 — F. Gimondi


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1966 — L. Aymar


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1967 — P. Pinzhon


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1968 I AM.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Janssen


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1969 — E.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Merckx


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1970 — E.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Merckx


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1971 — E.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Merckx


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1972 — E.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Merckx


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1973 — L. Okana


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1974 — E.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Merckx


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1975 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Thevene


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1976 — L. Van Imp


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1977 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Thevene


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1978 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Ino


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1979 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Ino


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1980 — TH.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Zotemelk


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1981 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Ino


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1982 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Ino


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1983 — L. Fignon


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1984 — L. Fignon


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1985 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Ino


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1986 — G. Lemond


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1987 — P. Roch


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1988 — P. Delgado


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1989 — G. Lemond


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1990 — Y. Lemond


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1991 — M. Indurain


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1992 — M. Indurain


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1993 — M. Indurain


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1994 — M. Indurain


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1995 — M. Indurain


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1996 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Riis


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1997 — ME.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Ulrich


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1998 — M. Pantani


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

1999 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2000 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2001 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2002 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2003 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2004 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2005 — L. Armstrong [4]


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2006 — FR. Pereiro


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2007 — A. Contador


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2008 — K. Sastre


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2009 — A. Contador


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2010 — A. Schleck


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2011 — K. Evans


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2012 — B.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Wiggins


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2013 — K. Frome


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2014 — C. Nibali


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2015 — K. Frome


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2016 — K. Frome


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2017 — K. Frome


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

2018 — G. Tomas


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Spectacle classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Classement par points has been played as part of the Tour de France since 1953.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner is determined by the sum of points scored at the finishes of the stages and at the intermediate finishes.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

This is considered to be a sprinter competition.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The classification leader wears a green jersey (French: Maillot vert), which has become a metonym for spectacle classifications.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Mountain classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Grand Prix de la montagne has been played as part of the Tour de France since 1933.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner is determined by the sum of points scored at mountain finishes and is called the “mountain king”.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The leader of the classification wears a white T-shirt with red polka dots called simply a pea tank top (French: maillot blanc à pois rouges.), which appeared in 1975.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Youth classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Classement du meilleur jeune has been played as part of the Tour de France since 1975.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The classification is calculated in a similar way to the general one [5], currently taking into account the results of riders under the age of 25 as of January 1 of the year in which the race is held.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The classification leader wears a white shirt (French: Maillot Blanc).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Most Aggressive Racer Award


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Prix de la combativité has been played as part of the Tour de France since 1952.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

It is awarded to the most aggressive racer who has shown the greatest morale and team, attacking style, courage, courage.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner of the previous stage and the entire classification receives a red number (French: dossard rouge).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Team classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Classement d'équipes has been played as part of the Tour de France since 1930.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner was determined by the sum of the three best times of the team members shown at each stage.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The leader of the classification receives a yellow number (French: dossard jaune) and a yellow helmet.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Combined classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Classement du combiné was played as part of the Tour de France from 1968 to 1989.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner was determined by the sum of places occupied in the general, mountain and sprint classifications.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The leader of the classification wore a combined T-shirt (French: maillot du combiné).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Intermediate sprints classification


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

French: Classement des sprints intermédiaires was played as part of the Tour de France from 1971 to 1989.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The winner was determined by the sum of points scored at intermediate finishes.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

The leader of the classification wore a red French: Maillot rouge T-shirt).


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Cash awards


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Since 2007, the following cash prizes have been in place:


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

€450,000 gets the winner of the race.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

Owners of green and pea T-shirts (best sprinter and best in mountain stages) receive €25,000 each


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

€20,000 for the best young athlete at the end of the race.


Question: What is the length of the Tour de France race?

Tour de France

€8000 — rewards for the winners of each stage.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

€800 is a prize for the winner of the interim sprint.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

€350 — daily award for the owner of the yellow jersey.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

€300 — daily award for holders of green, white and pea T-shirts.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

€20,000 is an award for the super aggressive racer of the entire loop.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

€2000 is a daily award for the most aggressive racer.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Traditionally, the winnings are divided equally among all team members [3].


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Tour de France owners and directors


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

From 1903 to 1939, the Tour de France was organized by the sports newspaper L'Auto, whose editor-in-chief Henri Degrange became the first director of the race.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

After the war, Count Albert de Dion sold his stake in L'Auto to Victor Goddé, the financial administrator of the Tour de France in his early years.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

After the latter's death in 1926, his eldest son Maurice Goddé became the main shareholder of the newspaper, while Henri Desgrange remained the director of the Tour.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

He takes Jacques Goddé, Victor's second son, under his wing, who, after his first Tour in 1928, entered the newspaper L'Auto to participate in the organization of the race.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

After the liberation of France, L'Auto is prohibited from leaving, and all its assets, including the Tour de France, are sequestered by the state.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

The race was sold to Parc des Princes under the control of Jacques Goddé, who succeeded with Desgrange at the head of L'Auto.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

He entrusted the organization of the Tour with new daily newspapers, the sports L'Équipe and the public Le Parisien.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

He remained at the head of the Tour de France until 1987.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

From 1962 to 1987, his assistant was Felix Levitan, head of the sports department of Le Parisien.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

In 1965, Éditions Philippe Amaury, owners of Le Parisien, bought L'Équipe.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Thus, this publishing house became the owner of the Tour de France, still organized by L'Équipe and Le Parisien, until 1973.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

In 1973, the Tour was entrusted to a subsidiary of the publisher.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

In 1993, it became a subsidiary of the Amaury Sport Organization, a subsidiary of the Amaury Group, specializing in organizing sporting events.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

The Société du Tour de France then teamed up with ASO to become a bicycle division.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

After a brief leadership of the race by Jean-François Nacket-Radiguet (1987) and Jean-Pierre Courcoll (1988), Jean-Marie Leblanc became director of the race in 1989.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

In 2007, he is replaced by Christian Prudomme.


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Henri Desgrange


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Jacques Goddé


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Felix Levitan


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Jean-Marie Leblanc


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Christian Prudhomme


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Notes


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

References


Question: How long is the Tour de France race?

Tour de france

Category:Cycling in France


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

The five good emperors are the five successively ruling Roman emperors from the Antonin dynasty: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius (at first his co-ruler was Lucius Verus).


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

During their reign (96-180 AD), which was stable and free of repression, the Roman Empire reached its peak.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Origin of the term


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

The term was coined by Edward Gibbon, who wrote:


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

“If anyone were asked during what period of world history the situation of the human race was the happiest and most prosperous, he should not hesitate to name the period which ran from Domitian's death to Commodus's accession to the throne.”


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Nicolo Machiavelli has similar thoughts:


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

“In addition, after reading the history of the Roman emperors, the sovereign will see how it is possible to form a good monarchy, for all the emperors who inherited power, with the exception of Titus, were bad; the same of them Those who gained power by adoption turned out to be good; an example of this is the five emperors from Nerva to Mark; when imperial power became hereditary, it fell into disrepair.”


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Characteristics of the era


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

In domestic politics, the emperors were reconciled with the Senate.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Senators were not subjected to repression and land confiscation.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

The Senate was actively replenished with provincial nobility and largely lost its old aristocratic traditions.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

The autocratic view of imperial power was finally recognized.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

In foreign policy, the empire has achieved its maximum expansion.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Under Trajan, as a result of victorious wars with the Dacians and Parthia, Dacia, Arabia, Armenia and Mesopotamia were annexed.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

However, Adrian had to abandon the last two provinces and move from offensive to defense at the borders.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Inheritance


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Succession to power was secured in a bloodless way.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

During his lifetime, each emperor adopted (adopted) a successor, who was chosen by him with the approval of the Senate and the army from among authoritative military leaders or administrators.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

This tradition was laid by Nerva, who faced the discontent of the army and, in order to avoid a new civil war, adopted the commander Trajan.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Historian Dion Cassius wrote:


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

“So Trajan became Caesar and later emperor, despite the fact that Nerva had blood relatives. However, he put the security of the state much above family ties. His decision also failed to shake the fact that Trajan was Spanish by birth, not Roman or even Italian, and that until then no foreigner had ever ruled Rome; for he firmly believed that a person should be evaluated by his abilities, and not by origin” [1].


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Marcus Aurelius violated this principle by proclaiming co-ruler his own son, Commodus, who was unable to rule the country.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

By his tyrannical actions, he caused universal hatred and was killed in 192.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

After that, Rome was plunged into a long series of wars between various contenders to the throne (cf. The crisis of the III century and Soldier Emperors).


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Grades


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Roman historians, who clearly divided all emperors into “good” and “bad”, considered the Antonins to be good and compiled their biographies exclusively in laudatory tones.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

The nerve, in Tacitus's words, managed to combine the incompatible — the principate and freedom.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Trajan became the measure of success for the Romans, and subsequent emperors wanted to be like him.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Antoninus was nicknamed Pius — the Pious.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

And Marcus Aurelius embodied the ideal of ruler by becoming a philosopher on the throne.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Modern researchers, agreeing with many facts, nevertheless tend to exalt this era with greater caution, since all the information that has survived about it reflects the point of view only upper class of Roman society.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Mark Coccei Nerva


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Mark Ulpiy Nerva Traian


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Publius Elius Traian Adrian


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Titus Elius Caesar Antonin (Antonin Pius)


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Marcus Aurelius Antonin


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Notes


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Literature


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Johannes Pasquali: Die Adoptivkaiser.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Das römische Weltreich am Höhepunkt seiner Macht (98-180 n. Chr.), projektverlag, Bochum 2011, ISBN 978-3-89733-229-4


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Oliver Schipp: Die Adoptivkaiser — Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Mark Aurel und Lucius Verus.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2011.


Question: How many good Roman emperors were there?

Five good emperors

Category:Historiography of Ancient Rome


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The armored craser is a class of cruisers that existed in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

They were the second strongest class of warships of the leading fleets after battleships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The most characteristic feature of armored cruisers was an armor belt along the waterline.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

As a rule, they were inferior to battleships in firepower and protection, but were superior in speed and range [1].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Ships of this class were entrusted with the tasks of fighting on communications, conducting squadron reconnaissance, and at the last stage of development, they still had to form the high-speed wing of the main forces of the fleet.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The development of armored cruisers stopped before the First World War due to radical changes in naval technology.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Their role was taken over by battlecruisers and heavy cruisers.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The first armored cruisers


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The idea of an armored cruiser


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

In the 1860s, the leading maritime powers began mass construction of armored ships.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Since the new classes were not yet established, a wide variety of ships fell into the category of armored ships, ranging from more than 10,000 tons to less than 1,500 tons [2].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

They were called differently: battleships, armored frigates, armored corvettes and even armored sloops.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

However, none of these ships could be called a cruiser due to insufficient speed and range [2].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Unarmored steam ships - frigates, corvettes and clippers - were intended for operations on communications.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It was believed that high speed in itself would ensure their safety.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The failure of this concept was first revealed in 1877, when two powerful British cruisers could not cope with the small but armored Peruvian monitor Huascar, and they themselves did not suffer only due to the ineptitude of the enemy's commanders [3].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The vulnerability of the unarmored cruiser has become quite obvious.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

There are two ways to solve the problem.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The first of them was to cover the vital components of the cruiser with an armored deck, later with bevels: it led to the appearance of armored cruisers [3].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The second option was to install an armor belt on the ship's hull, protecting the board along the waterline.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

For the first time, this idea was put forward in 1868 by Admiral of the Russian Navy A. A. Popov.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The Russian championship in this matter is not accidental.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Since the beginning of the 1860s, the Russian fleet has been actively preparing for the struggle on British communications, and due to the geographical location of the empire, it needed high-speed, highly autonomous ships capable of make crossings from the Baltic to the Far East [3].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Due to the fact that the potential enemy had a fleet of incomparably larger numbers, the need to increase the combat stability of Russian cruisers seemed obvious.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

The first ships of this type were often called booked, or belted cruisers (English: belted cruiser), as the narrow armor belt left many vital parts of the ship unprotected.


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

Further evolution of the class led to the appearance of an armored deck superimposed on the upper edge of the belt [3].


Question: When did the development of battleships stop?

Armored cruiser

It should also be noted that originally the term “cruiser” meant only the tactical purpose of the ship, and not its class.