Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In June 2008, the band headlined the Bonnaroo Music Festival [72], which was the starting point for Pearl Jam 2008 U.S.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In July, the band performed on VH1, a tribute to The Who, along with Foo Fighters, Incubus and The Flaming Lips [74].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

During the US presidential election, Pearl Jam published a free documentary Vote for Change?


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

, about the band's tour of the same name in 2004 [75].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Reissues and Backspacer (2009—2012)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In March 2009, Ten, featuring Brendan O'Brien, was re-released in four versions, additionally containing a number of remixes, a DVD recording of the band's 1992 performance on MTV Unplugged, and an LP with their concert 20 September 1992 in Seattle [76].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

This was the first collection of planned reprints timed to coincide with the twentieth anniversary of the founding of the band, which was supposed to be performed in 2011 [76].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam also starred in Cameron Crowe's film [77], which was released in the fall of 2011 [78].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In addition, in the spring of the same year, the deluxe versions of Vs.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

and Vitalogy [77].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam began work on the new album back in 2008 [79].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The following year, the band recorded several demo tracks, and music for new songs was also being written at this time [80].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The ninth studio album, called Backspacer, was produced by Brendan O'Brien, who last worked with the band during the recording of Yield [79].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Backspacer peaked at number one on the Billboard chart, repeating the success of No Code, and sold more than 635,000 copies, as of July 2013, Nielsen SoundScan [81].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The sound of the release was close to pop music and the new wave [82].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

According to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic, before Backspacer Pearl Jam “did not want and could not be so relaxed, shameless, frivolous and cheerful” [83].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Commenting on the lyrics of the album, Vedder said: “All these years I've tried to be optimistic, but now I think it's going to be easier” [84].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The song “” was chosen as the first single from the album [85].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam refused to renew his contract with J Records and released the album through its own label in the United States and through Universal Music Group in the rest of the world.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam signed an agreement with Target to publish an exclusive collector's collection in US stores.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The release was also available on the band's official website, independent music stores, online stores, or iTunes [86] [87].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In an interview on San Diego Radio, McCready said that the band could release a new EP in 2010; Vedder later noted that songs from the planned release could only be released on the next full-length album [88].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In August 2009, Pearl Jam was led by [89] and [90].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

They also played five shows in Europe and three in North America [91] [92] [93].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In October 2009, Pearl Jam headlined [94].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

On Halloween night, the band played the final concert of the tour at the Philadelphia Spectrum.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Later, the musicians toured Oceania [87].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In May 2010, the band began a new tour with a performance at.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

After continuing their tour along the east coast, the band ended it on May 21 with a concert in New York [95].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band spent the summer on a European tour, during which they visited Northern Ireland for the first time [96].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In October 2010, Pearl Jam performed at Bridge School Benefit Concert.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

97] On January 17, 2011, the live album Live on Ten Legs [98] [99] was released.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In March 2010, Jeff Ament, in an interview with Billboard magazine, revealed that the band already had 25 songs for a new album, which they began working on in April.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In May, the band began a ten-performance tour of Canada [101].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

On September 8, 2011, the band released a new song, “Olé”.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In November, Toronto released another live album on 11/9/11, which could be downloaded for free from Google Music.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

On November 21, 2011, as part of the PJ20 World Tour, Pearl Jam visited Costa Rica, where their concert was attended by about 30,000 fans [103].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

A month later, the band announced a European tour, which was scheduled to begin in June 2012 [104].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Lightning Bolt (2011—2017)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

On July 11, 2011, the band announced their tenth studio album, Lightning Bolt, which was released on October 14, 2013 worldwide and a day later in the United States.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Also, on October 14, the album released its first single, “” [105].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The second single, “”, was released on September 18, 2013.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In its first week, the Lightning Bolt sold 166,000 copies, making Pearl Jam's fifth album to reach number one on the Billboard 200 [107].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band embarked on the Lightning Bolt Tour, where they played a number of concerts in North America in November and October [108].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam headlined a festival in Australia and New Zealand in 2014 [109] [110].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In February 2015, the band won a Grammy Award for Best Recording Packaging [111].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In November 2015, the band toured Latin America [112].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In January 2016, Pearl Jam announced another tour of the United States and Canada, during which the band performed at the Bonnaroo Music Festival in New Orleans [113].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April 2017.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In August, the band announced the release of a live album and DVD Let's Play Two, which were recorded during the band's performance at Wrigley Field the previous year [115].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Eleventh studio album (2018 — present)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam has planned a big tour for 2018, during which the musicians are going to attend the Lollapalooza festival in Chile, Argentina and Brazil.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band is also going to give two charity concerts in Seattle [116] [117] [118].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Before their first shows in South America, Pearl Jam released a new song, “Can not Deny Me”, taken from their upcoming studio album [119] [120].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Style and influence


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Compared to other grunge bands in the early 1990s, Pearl Jam's style was noticeably less heavy and closer to classical rock music of the 70s [121].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam members refer to many punk rock and classic rock bands that influenced their work, including The Who, Led Zeppelin, Neil Young, Kiss, Dead Boys and Ramones [122] [123].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam's success is due to their special sound, combining “the reefs of stadium rock of the 70s with the courage and anger of post-punk of the 80s, without any neglect of hooks and choruses.”


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Gossard, who plays rhythm parts on the guitar, is known for his sense of rhythm [124], and McCready's solo parts, according to him, inspired by the style of Jimmy Hendrix [125], was called very sensual [126] ].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam tried to experiment on each subsequent disc.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

According to Vedder, the musicians wanted to make the sound less catchy, without hooks.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

He said, “I feel that the more we get popular, the more we feel like we're crushing our heads.”


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The Vitalogy album is dominated by punk rock [127].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The No Code album was deliberately made different from Ten.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The songs from this album contained elements inherent in garage rock and experimental music [2].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Yield sounded similar to the band's earlier works [33].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Later, on the Binaural album, the band added art rock to their music, and folk rock on the Riot Act.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The Pearl Jam album brought the band back to its early sound [61] [62].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The backspacer contained elements of pop and new wave music [82].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Critic Jim Derogatis noted the similarity of Vedder's voice with the vocals of Jim Morrison [128].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In turn, Greg Prato of Allmusic said that “with his unpleasant and confessional lyrics, as well as Jim Morrison's baritone, he became one of the most outstanding rock vocalists” [129].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Vedder's lyrics touch on both personal (“Alive”, “Better Man”) and socio-political problems (“Even Flow”, “World Wide Suicide”).


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Freedom and individualism are also frequent topics [130].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

When the band started, Gossard and McCready were clearly identified as rhythm guitarist and lead guitarist respectively.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

During Vitalogy, Vedder also picked up a guitar and became a second rhythm guitarist.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In 2006, McCready said, “Although there are three guitars, I think we can continue to play this way” [131].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Heritage


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Despite the fact that it was under the influence of Nirvana that grunge ceased to be an exclusively underground phenomenon and became mainstream, Pearl Jam quickly surpassed them [132] and, according to Allmusic, “were one of the most popular rock and roll bands of the 90s” [2].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Laura Sinagra described Pearl Jam as one of the most influential bands for modern rock, highlighting mid-tempo songs such as “Alive” and “Even Flow”, in which “enough melody for the mosher to sing along” [133].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band inspired and influenced a number of bands such as Silverchair, Puddle of Mudd and The Strokes [134] [135].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam's work also affected the development of indie rock in the cities of Pakistan, which have become the centers of rock music in the country [136].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Music critic Jim Derogatis wrote that Pearl Jam “proved their loyalty to fans after the Ticketmaster story” [137].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Eric Weissbred of Spin magazine said: “The band, which has been accused of untrue grunge more than once, is currently such an organic and principled rock band that there is a feeling like them there are no more bands” [3].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In 2005, the band was recognized as the greatest rock band in the United States of all time, according to readers of USA Today [138].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In April 2006, Pearl Jam received the Esquire Esky Music Awards “Best Live Act”.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The Pearl Jam award annotation said that the participants are “rare superstars who continue to play as if every show could be the last” [139].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band's fanbase was compared with fans of Grateful Dead.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

For example, Rolling Stone magazine wrote about this: “Pearl Jam, who constantly traveled on tours and became legends of rock arenas, created a fanatical, Grateful-dead-like cult around them, like the disappearing spirit of Bruce Springsteen, The Who and U2” [4].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

When asked in a 2000 interview about Pearl Jam's legacy, Vedder said, “I think at some point along the way, we started to feel like we wanted to give people faith because each of us had such groups to help when needed. It was a big challenge for us after our first recording and reaction to it. Our goal was to remain musicians, grow and survive watching all this” [140].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Public activities


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Throughout their careers, Pearl Jam has sought to draw attention to social and political issues, from voting to opposition to George W. Bush's presidency.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Vedder is a kind of spokesman for the group on these issues.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The group campaigned for people with Crohn's disease suffered by McCready, opposed monopolization, and supported the protection of the environment and wildlife [141] [142].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Guitarist Stone Gossard was active in environmental activities, was a supporter of a neutral policy of using carbon-containing fuel products to reduce the burden on nature [143].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Vedder advocated a review of the case and also dedicated the song “Army Reserve” (from the Pearl Jam album) to them [144].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band, especially Eddie Vedder, was supportive of the others.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In 1992, Spin published Vedder's article, “Reclamation”, in which he described in detail his views on abortion [145].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

During the MTV Unplugged concert, Vedder wrote “PRO-CHOICE!” , after which the band sang the song “Porch” in protest [3].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band members are members of a number of other organizations, including Voters for Choice [142].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Like members and, the group called on Americans to participate in the US presidential election.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Vedder supported the representative of the Green Party, Ralph Nader, in 2000 [146].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam played a number of concerts as part of the Vote for Change tour in October 2004 in support of presidential candidate John Kerry.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In an interview with Rolling Stone regarding the performances of the Vote for Change tour, Vedder said: “I supported Ralph Nader in 2000, it was a time of crisis. Now we need a new government” [147].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Sometimes between songs, Vedder comments on current political events, often speaking negatively about US foreign policy.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

A number of the band's songs, such as “Bu$hLeaguer” and “World Wide Suicide”, criticize George W. Bush's presidency.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

At the 2007 Lollapalooza Festival, Vedder spoke out against BP Amoco's dumping of waste into Lake Michigan, and at the end of the song “Daughter”, he sang “George W. Bush Leave This World Alone. George W. Bush find another home.”


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

When the band began performing an encore, Vedder invited Thomas Young, a veteran of the Iraq War, to the stage, about whom the film was made [149].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

The band later noticed that some songs critical of Bush were removed from AT&T's webcast, which they believed was censorship. [


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

AT&T later apologized to the musicians, but was accused of censorship [151].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam has held numerous concerts in support of charities.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

For example, in 2001, the band headlined a concert in Seattle in support of the UN's work against hunger [152].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In 2005, the band held a concert at Chicago House of Blues to help victims of Hurricane Katrina; all proceeds went to the charities Habitat for Humanity, American Red Cross and Jazz Foundation of America [153].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

In 2011, Pearl Jam was named Planet Defenders by Rock the Earth for its efforts to protect the environment and large-scale activities to support the reduction of carbon emissions into the atmosphere [154].


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Roster


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Timeline


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Discography


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Ten (1991)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Vs.


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Vitalogy (1994)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

No Code (1996)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Yield (1998)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Binaural (2000)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Riot Act (2002)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Pearl Jam (2006)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Backspacer (2009)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Lightning Bolt (2013)


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Notes


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

References


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Rock groups from Washington State


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category: American alternative rock groups


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:grunge groups


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Epic Records Artists


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category: Musical groups established in 1990


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category: Musical groups of the 1990s


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Music groups of the 2000s


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category: Musical groups of the 2010s


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Pearl Jam


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Grammy winners


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Artists who led the Billboard 200


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:MTV Video Music Awards Winners


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Quintets


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

Category:Universal Music Group Artists


Question: When was Pearl Jam's debut album released?

Pearl Jam

American hard rock groups


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Irish bagpipes (English: uilleann pipes) is a type of bagpipe.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

It is common in Ireland and is used mainly as an instrument for performing Irish folk music.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Due to the fact that the Irish bagpipe chanter (melodic pipe) has a range of two full octaves and can be equipped with valves that make it possible to play halftones, modern Irish bagpipes is a fairly versatile and flexible instrument that can be used in various musical styles.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

History


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The oldest Irish bagpipe, according to the Bregon laws of the V century, was a peasant tool, into the bag of which air was pumped by the mouth.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

In ancient Irish chronicles, there are references to cuisleannach - pipe blowers.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

It is difficult to say exactly when the bagpipes first appeared in Ireland, but it is known that in its early form it resembled modern Scottish.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

In the 17th century, ulnar injection bagpipes, similar to the French musette bagpipes, became popular among the upper and lower classes in Ireland.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

By the 18th century, the slightly improved uilleann pipes had replaced the harp as the leading instrument in most genres of Irish music.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

In the second half of the 18th century, the invention of a chanter (melodic tube) with valves, regulators, as well as, later, other improvements by masters such as Egan (Egan) from Dublin led to the emergence of which is now called the most developed bagpipe in the world.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Irish bagpipes are the most developed and complex type of bagpipe today.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The full set of uilleann pipes includes an air bag, bellows, a chanter, three bourdon and three regulators.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The device and method of playing


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Air is pumped into the Irish uilleann pipes bag by elbow bellows, unlike, for example, the Scottish highland bagpipe, into the bag of which air is pumped by the mouth.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The Irish uilleann pipes chanter range is two octaves; Scottish bagpipes have only 9 tones.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

If the bagpipe chanter is made in key D (re), the range can be even larger — up to C (to) of the third octave.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Chanter has seven holes on the front side and one for the thumb on the back.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Bourdon nozzles — bass, baritone and tenor — are inserted into a common base (drain) and, (when turned on), give a continuous tone throughout the melody.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Regulators (there are also usually three of them: bass, baritone and tenor) lie across the musician's thigh in such a way that their valves can be pressed by the lower part of the palm of his right hand playing chanter.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The arrangement of the valves in a row three allows you to play a simple harmonic accompaniment.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

They play the instrument while sitting.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The musician attaches bellows to his right elbow with a belt, which pumps air into the bag.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The air flow from the bag is controlled by the left elbow, increasing pressure on it achieves a transition to the second (upper) octave.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Chanter's fingering is closed.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Chanter is located above the right thigh.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

The right hand plays the lower notes of the chanter, and her wrist is controlled by the bourdons and the accompaniment is played on the controls.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Irish uilleann pipes has an unusual timbre of sound for bagpipes — it is medium in volume, soft and juicy.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Due to the complexity of the device and the high cost, Irish bagpipes are found in different trim levels, converted one into another as it becomes more complicated:


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

“training kit” practice set — a chanter without valves, with a bag and bellows, for primary education;


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

“half set” half set — a tool with bourdon nozzles, but without regulators;


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

“full set” full set — the tool is fully assembled, with regulators and bourdons, the chanter can be with valves.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Irish military bagpipes


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

There is another type of bagpipe in Ireland — Irish War Pipes.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

In terms of structure and features, it is very similar to the Scottish mountain bagpipes, but has only one bourdon branch pipe (the Scottish one has 3 of them).


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Such bagpipes existed in Ireland as early as the 16th century.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Irish War Pipes is mainly distributed in northern Ireland.


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Category:Bagpipes


Question: What is Ireland's national musical instrument?

Irish bagpipes

Category:Irish musical instruments


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

Gassed (English: Gassed) is a 1919 painting by American artist John Singer Sargent.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

Sargent received an order for the painting from the Committee on British War Memorials, which aimed to preserve the memory of the victims of the First World War with the help of fine art.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

After leaving for the Western Front in July 1918, Sargent arrived at the Guards Division near Arras, and then went with the American Expeditionary Force to the Ypres area.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

After experiencing the hardships of war, Sargent moved away from his original theme of the picture and took a more balanced approach to highlighting the realities of the conflict, unfamiliar to British citizens.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

The giant canvas was completed in March 1919 and exhibited at the Royal Academy.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

The painting depicts the consequences of a gas attack.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

Several groups of wounded soldiers with eyes bandaged after gas poisoning walk along the boardwalk, accompanied by paramedics to the dressing station.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

Each of the soldiers, in order not to get lost, holds his hand on the shoulder of the person in front.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

Poisoned by gases

They are surrounded by many weak and wounded fellow soldiers lying on the ground waiting for help.


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Meanwhile, everyday front-line life is in full swing around: groups of biplanes are engaged in air combat, and several soldiers play football.


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Sargent's work was recognized by the Academy as the “picture of the year”, but not everyone liked it, and there are still disputes around it, which, however, do not detract from the significance of the canvas as an interpretation of the theme of war.


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Currently, the painting is in the collection of the Imperial War Museum in Lambeth (London, UK).


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Context


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John Singer Sargent (1856—1925) was born in Florence to expatriates from America.


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He spent his childhood on constant trips to Europe, mainly to Italy, France, Switzerland and Germany.


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After receiving mainly home education, Sargent completed his studies at the Paris studio of the French painter Carolus-Durand in 1874 and remained with him as an assistant until 1878, devoting himself study of works by Hals, Rembrandt, van Dyck, Reynolds.


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In 1876, Sargent visited America, and the following year he exhibited his first painting at the Paris Salon.


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After traveling to Spain and Morocco from 1879 to 1880, he settled in Paris in 1884, and settled in London the following year.


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From 1890 to 1900, Sargent was a great success as a skillful portrait painter, but later he abandoned all unnecessary portrait orders, focusing mainly on landscapes and watercolors, as well as murals at the Boston Public Library and Museum of Fine Arts.


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Sargent constantly exhibited at the Royal Academy, of which he became an associate member in 1894 and a full member in 1897.


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He was known as a cosmopolitan and bon vivant, who lived mainly abroad, although he valued his American citizenship enough to take the liberty of giving up chivalry.


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Found himself in the circles of the social and political beau monde of Europe and the United States, Sargent painted rather flattering portraits of American presidents, British prime ministers, entrepreneurs, actresses and art dealers, representatives of the aristocracy of the “gilded age” and members of their families, whose boundless optimism will soon be swept away by the First World War [1] [2] [3].


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The history of creation and fate


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In May 1918, Sargent became one of several artists who received from when commissioned to create large paintings for the planned [4] [5] [6] [7].


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Information Minister Lord Beaverbrook, who took office in 1918, drew this idea from the Canadian War Memorials Foundation, which commissioned a number of art works on the war back in 1916.


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Beaverbrook attracted artists such as Percy Lewis, Paul Nash, Henry Lamb, John Nash, Richard Nevinson and Stanley Spencer to work on the project, among whom Sargent looked strange because he was not a representative of modernism.


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The scale of the work was inspired by the triptych “Battle of San Romano” by Ucello and the painting “The Surrender of Breda” by Diego Velazquez [8] [9] [10].


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Previously, 62-year-old Sargent was not very interested in the war, and he was not even honored to read about it in the newspapers or interrupt his creative expedition to Tyrol when hostilities broke out in Austria [11].


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From this period, many sketches of Tyrolean landscapes have been preserved, including images of cemeteries with tombstones, from which we can distinguish the drawing “Cemetery in Tyrol” from 1914 (British museum), as if predicting the future, the death toll in Europe [12].


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A real revolution in the artist's mind occurred when his beloved niece and model, Rose-Marie Ormond Andre-Michel, died on March 29, 1918 while praying for Good Friday in a church in Paris Saint-Gervais from a German long-range artillery shell [11] [13].


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On May 16 of the same year, Sargent received a letter from British Prime Minister David Lloyd-George urging the artist to create a “work on the great and steadfast service of the nation”, which would it can be seen how “British and American troops act in unison” [1] [14].


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He accepted the offer, still mourning the loss of his niece [11], but the choice of plot for the film itself was initially problematic [4].


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On July 2 of the same year, accompanied by artist Henry Tonks, who had experience in military service, Sargent arrived at the Western Front in France, where they were personally greeted by the commander of the British Field Marshal Douglas Hague [1] [6] [15] [14].


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Soldier sleeping on a duffel bagNurses lead the woundSoldiersStanding with riflesLying wounded soldiersSoldier with a duffel bagSketches of soldiers drinking waterFive pairs of nail soldiersLying soldier


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Sargent was located near Arras for some time, and then went with him to the Ypres area.


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He was determined to paint an epic canvas with many human figures and tried his best to find a plot that would involve American and British soldiers [1] [4] [6].


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Sargent spent many hours every day looking for interesting scenes from an artistic point of view, sketching all sorts of soldiers lying, sleeping, bathing, marching and eating, and unable to reflect on canvas pain or torment of war [11].


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Knowing absolutely nothing about military service and affairs at the front, he surprised everyone with his questions about whether they fight on Sundays, and also did not pay any attention to the possible danger when drew on an easel under a large white umbrella, which covered the artist from the sun and at the same time made him a tempting target for German guns [1].


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Sargent of that time can be distinguished by only a few works that only partially touch on the topic of war and therefore did not show the whole


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its bitterness, the loss for his entire generation of that exquisite and pleasant, pre-war life [11].


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Among them (Imperial War Museum) are “On the Street in Arras” [16]: infantrymen rest next to the collapsed wall of someone's private mansion [11]; “Crashed Airplane” [17]: a farmer walks around his field and harvests crops, paying absolutely no attention to the wreckage of the biplane lying behind him [11]; “Destroyed Sugar Factory” [18]: the sugar factory turned into some kind of brutally mutilated iron beast [11].


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From the same series are “Excavated Road to Ransard” [19], “Old Bivouacs” [20], “Tarpaulin over the Dugout, Ransard” [21], “Twisted Tank” [22], “Chateau Gate, Ransard” [23], “Build Horses” [24].


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“On the street in Arras” “Crashed airplane” “Destroyed sugar factory” “Road in excavation to Ransard” “Old bivouacs” “Tarpaulin above the dugout, Ransard” “Twisted tank” “Chateau gate, Ransard” “Build horses”


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In addition to Sargent, several other figures of American culture saw with their own eyes the Western Front, including George Bellows, David Griffith, Edward Steichen, but they kept, or kept them, far away from the battlefields, which is why they faced the problem of visualizing a modern, industrial war [11].


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Thus, Sargent wrote in a letter [4]:


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The Ministry of Information is waiting for an epic — how can you create an epic without masses of people?


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Except for the night, I saw only three beautiful themes with a lot of people — one painful look, a full field of gassed blindfolded men — another series of cars loaded with cannon meat” — and another extensive look at the big road crowded with troops and traffic, and I dare say that based on the latter story, by uniting the British and the Americans, Something to create if it can prevent a possible departure to Derby.


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On August 21, 1918, far beyond the front line near Le Bac du Sud between Arras and Dullan, Sargent witnessed the heartbreaking consequences of a German gas attack against the advancing 2nd Infantry Division and 3rd Infantry Division of the British Army during the Second Battle of Arras [25] [1].


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There, near Arras, his attention was especially drawn to a soldier blinded by mustard gas, who was groping for the way to the dressing station — the very symbol of the elusive appearance of modern warfare [11].


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Later, in a letter to Alfred Yokney Tonks, Secretary of the Memorial Committee, noted [6] [26]:


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After tea, we heard that there were quite a few cases of gas poisoning at the dressing station of the building on the Dullan Road in Le Bac du Sud, so we went there.


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The dressing station was located on the road and consisted of several huts and a few tents.


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The gassed continued to come, led together in batches of about six, in an orderly manner, just as Sargent portrayed them.


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They were sitting or lying on the grass, must be close to a few hundred, obviously suffering very much, mainly, I think, with eyes that were covered with scraps of cotton wool... Sargent was very impressed by this scene and immediately made a lot of sketches.


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It was a very beautiful evening and the sun was going down.


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Sargent's artistic accuracy in depicting the events that took place before his eyes can only be argued by looking at the well-known photograph “The First World War: Gas Attack”, dated 10 April 1918, which shows blind soldiers walking in a column to a dressing station near Bethune during the German “spring offensive” [10] [27] [28].


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The significance of gas attacks from a military-strategic point of view was not so much in the physical weakening of people, but in the fact that the gas blinded and visually disoriented its victims who fell into the thickness impenetrable clouds and vapors through which nothing could be seen [11].


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Since 1914, armies that resorted to killing, injuring and maiming their enemies also began to strive to suppress the feelings of the enemy and thereby reduce their ability to fight effectively.


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Armed with a new arsenal of destructive devices such as tanks, machine guns, fighter jets, bombs, searchlights, flares, barbed wire and poisonous gases, they tried to achieve this goal with everyone in unthinkable and indescribable ways [11].


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Of these new sensory tactics, gas was perhaps the most mysterious and terrifying.


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Invented at the end of the 19th century and banned by the Hague Convention of 1899, the poisonous gas was first used on April 22, 1915 during the Battle of Ypres in Belgium.


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Supporting the advance of their infantry, the Germans launched greenish clouds of chlorine gas on unprepared British, Canadian and French troops, causing panic and chaos, and then their fleeing the battlefield [11].


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After that, the gas was widely used by all parties to the conflict, causing extensive injuries and burns to soldiers during its spraying, as well as destroying nearby vegetation for many years poisoning the land exposed to toxic substances [1] [29] [30].


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At the same time, the productivity of its use fell due to the lack of a proper moment of surprise for the attack and the widespread spread of gas masks [11].


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At the end of September 1918, while collecting materials for work near Peronne, Sargent fell ill with the flu, after which he spent a week with wounded soldiers in a hospital near Roiselle [31].


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Impressed by a field hospital he saw with his own eyes, crowded with moaning soldiers suffering from the consequences of a gas attack, Sargent decided to move away from excessive heroics and change the theme of the future painting [10] [15] [32].


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After four months at the front, Sargent and Tonks returned to the UK at the end of October of the same year [10] [33].


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Sargent discussed his modified plot with members of the Memorial Committee so that the painting would fit into the size of the Hall of Remembrance [4].


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At the same time, he expressed doubts about the possibility of the quality of work of this scale and in a letter to Alfred Yokney dated October 4, 1918 noted that it turns out to be “a picture in a terribly long strip... the picture would be much better and much less difficult to paint if it were half as small” [4].


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Having received permission to change the theme, Sargent intended to express on the canvas his negative attitude to the previously proposed story about combat camaraderie [1] [34].


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In the winter of 1918 and 1919, Sargent continued to work on the painting in his studio in Fulham, with sketches made on the battlefields, as well as detailed sketches of the bodies of professional models [4].


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While World War I posters promoted recruitment to the front and the purchase of war loans, Sargent's numerous drawings show pain and suffering, and therefore another war [ 32].


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For example, nurse Vera Britten, who worked at the dressing station, wrote in a letter home in 1917: “Now we have many victims of gas poisoning who came a day or two ago: there are only Ten people. I think that those people who write so cheerfully that this is a holy war, and speakers who say so verbally that the war will last as long as necessary, will not see at least one victim — and will not tell anything about dozens of others injured in the early stages of mustard gas poisoning — these poor creatures are all burned and covered with large festering blisters, blind with their eyes — when temporarily [sic] and when forever — everyone is sticky and stuck together, and everyone is fighting for life, their voices are a whisper, they say that their throats stick together and they know they will suffocate” [11] [ 35].


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Sargent completed work on the film in March 1919, after which this rectangular canvas nine feet high and twenty feet long, resembling a widescreen movie format, was first exhibited under the title “Gassed” at the Royal Academy in London [36] [11] [37] [1] [6].


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Sargent received only 300 pounds sterling for his work, while William Orpen was paid 3 thousand pounds for the painting “Signing Peace in the Hall of Mirrors” alone, a record amount during the war for a work of art [38].


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Sargent's painting was recognized by the Academy as “Picture of the Year” [25] [39].


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Reviews of the painting were contradictory [40].


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In particular, Winston Churchill praised the canvas for its “brilliant genius and painful expressiveness” [1], while Edward Forster considered it at the same time “Sargent's great military painting” but also too heroic for an artist who switched from glamorous portraits of high society to depicting the “lower classes” [41] [35], while Virginia Woolf, who rejected militarism in any forms, wrote that when looking at the picture, “some nerve of protest, or perhaps humanity, sits down”, emphasizing that the exaggerated step of a wounded soldier is “this little example of excessive expressiveness was the last incision of the surgical knife, which is said to be more painful than the whole operation” [11].


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Despite all the efforts of the artists to this end, the Hall of Remembrance was never built, and the existing paintings, including “Poisoned by Gases”, were transferred to the Imperial War Museum, where are currently [1] [4] [6].


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The simple painted frame with a wide central frieze bounded on the outside and inside by moldings was made for the painting at the C.M. May & Son family business, shortly after this has stopped trading [42].


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It is noteworthy that on the wall of the exhibition hall “Poisoned by Gases” hang between Orpen's works “Signing Peace in the Mirror Hall” and “Peace Conference on the Orsay Embankment” [43].


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Several of Sargent's charcoal sketches are also in the collection of the Imperial War Museum, as well as in the Corcoran Art Gallery [4].


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In 2003, a small sketch of an oil painting measuring 26 × 69, originally owned by Evan Charteris, was sold at Christie's for 162,000 pounds sterling (267,000 US dollars) [4].


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composition


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The painting is painted in oil on canvas and measures 231 × 611 [6].


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In the center of the composition, filled with horizontally directed movement, is a group of eleven soldiers, depicted almost full length.


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Nine soldiers go three in three groups to the guys, hinting at the proximity of the dressing station located beyond the edge of the picture.


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Each soldier holds his hand on the shoulder of the person in front, still carrying behind his back his “Anfield” rifles with useless optical sights and duffel bags with now unnecessary gas masks.


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Soldiers with eyes tied with white fabric stripes, blind due to gas poisoning, are helped to walk by two paramedics.


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Approaching the ascent to the boards, the wounded raise their legs in a rather hypertrophied way, which gives the impression that they are asked to do so by the guides themselves.


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The tall, blond warriors marching in formation seem to form a naturalistic and allegorical, temple ancient Greek frieze with a repeating pattern of woven bodies and rifles that brings into the picture some rhythm and hinting at the similarity of what is depicted with a religious procession.


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In this regard, it can be assumed that soldiers are marching to Christ for redemption earned on the battlefield by their courage and dedication.


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On the sides of the central group lies a large number, about a dozen, helpless and weakened wounded soldiers - they do not enjoy nature, but greedily swallow water from flasks, suffer from vomiting urge or clench their heads and ears with their hands from irresistible pain.


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Far from them, you can see another similar column of eight wounded, accompanied by two paramedics.


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The picture takes place against the background of a simultaneously rising moon and a setting watery sun, creating a pinkish-yellow haze and giving everything around a golden glow, which dramatizes the color soldier's uniform.


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In the empty evening sky, painted with pale lavender, cream and mustard, like gas tones, as if vultures are dogfighting several groups of biplanes, so that you can hear the crackling sound machine guns.


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On the ground, in the gaps between the legs of the wounded, several men in blue and red striped shirts play football.


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One of the players in the shot on the ball bent his leg at the knee, in a pose similar to the step of a blind man in the ranks.


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It seems that these healthy young soldiers remain at first glance indifferent to the suffering around them, the current order of things [1] [4] [10] [34] [40] [11] [35] [35] [35].


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The perception


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The painting “Poisoned by Gases” is rightfully considered one of the masterpieces of Sargent's late work, his most important work on the war and the most exciting artistic interpretation of the theme armed conflict [2] [44] [45].


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The painting is still presented by art critics as an illustration of the horrors brought by technological progress, in particular by depicting the consequences of the use of chemical weapons, the morality of its use is questioned [34].


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In his film, Sargent masterfully depicted the consequences of the gas attack, the behavior of the victims, the relative lack of protective clothing, as well as the routine nature of what happened [6] [34].


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The topic of the gas attack he raised echoes the plot of Wilfred Owen's poem “Dulce Et Decorum Est”, which is the most famous literary work among readers about the horrors of war in English .


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Sargent, who may already be afraid of going blind from his old age, depicted tall and blond soldiers on his canvas who, blind, walk holding on to each other.


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At the same time, young Owen, who could have experienced a gas attack, in his poem plunges the reader into the darkness of the night, in the midst of hostilities, in which the joy of overcoming enemy barriers is replaced by complete panic and confusion at the sight of wounded fellow soldiers crawling on the ground with horror and suffocation [45] [30] [46] [11].


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“Cashmere”, Sargent “The Parable of the Blind”, Bruegel Sr. “Oyster Collectors in Cancale”, Sargent


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The theme of depicting human processions attracted Sargent from the very beginning of his career, as can be seen in Oyster Collectors at Cancale in 1878 (Corcoran Art Gallery) and 1908 years (private collection, USA), as well as in the Danaida series of murals (Boston Museum of Fine Arts).


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Their plots, going back to the idea of the dance of death, which originated in ancient times and continued in the art of the Renaissance, echo the painting “” by Frederick Leighton and by Auguste Rodin's Citizens of Calais sculpture [1] [4] [15].


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Particularly noteworthy is the connection between Sargent's painting and Peter Bruegel Sr.'s The Parable of the Blind, which illustrates Christ's words recorded in the Gospel of Matthew that “” [47].


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Bruegel increased the number of blind people to six, and Sargent to ten.


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At the same time, according to critics, he concluded a new meaning in the proverb — criticism of the war, which consists in the fact that “blind” politicians and generals irresponsibly “blinded” in their incitement to war the soldiers under their command drove them wave after wave to the slaughter like donkeys, not to mention the ordinary people following them like a stupid crowd [11] [4].


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Soldiers follow one another in unison like Bruegel fools, and although Sargent avoided depicting a pit into which they could fall, the viewer could not help but have the sad realization that the old The world order collapsed along with the heroism of the Empire, and this ironic action unexpectedly reveals the last remnants of masculinity [35].


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The facelessness, rigidity and coldness of military figures was emphasized in the film “Generals of the First World War”, made by Sargent during the same period and in its format of a Greek frieze similar to” Gassed” [11] — but the brotherhood of the weak and wounded has nothing to do with the society of the proud and detached [11].


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The amazing similarity between Sargent and Bruegel's works was unwittingly manifested in the 21st century in a photograph showing Marines leading their prisoners to a helicopter during Operation Steel Curtain.


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Smith's work simultaneously speaks of the involvement of civilians in hostilities and the limited scale of modern conflict, unlike the First World War, one episode of which depicted Sargent [48].


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Art critics David Fraser Jenkins and Elaine Kilmurray noticed parallels between the guys going to the tents on Sargent's canvas and the ropes raising the cross in Tintoretto's painting “”, in addition which brings together both works of their wide format.


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The dressing station can be seen as a place of salvation and healing, and the delays coming to it are harbingers of hope or death, emanating from a mysterious and invisible source.


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At the same time, a huge number of lying people, in pain and fatigue tightly intertwined with each other with their knees and elbows, seems to form a frieze framing the picture from below, referring the viewer to ancient Greek a tragedy in which people suffer from blindness and madness, which is why they die in agony at the whim of indifferent gods (it is noteworthy that the word “gas” itself comes from the ancient Greek concept meaning “chaos” ) [11] [4] [10].


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In this regard, it can be noted that the foreground is sin and suffering, the middle plan is redemption, and the background is paradise and salvation [35].


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Meanwhile, both solemn and miserable soldier's procession, as if becoming a parody of a military parade, also resembles an ancient Greek or Roman frieze, so similar to sculptural compositions of the Parthenon or “Altar of Peace” [1] [40] [29].


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Sargent's depiction of a football match, a fairly common sport in the British Army, shows motives for Christian redemption, in addition to a hint of carelessness on the part of the military guides to the suffering of their soldiers and lack of knowledge about the war on the domestic front in Britain [10].


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Thus, Sargent challenged the norms of decency and normality, depicting pleasure right next to suffering in order to make the sensations of the latter more tangible and acute [35].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Here parallels can be drawn with the painting “” by Nicolas Poussin, which shows how the widow of the Athenian commander Phokion collects his ashes on the river bank against the background of a rather frivolous swimming as an act opposed to the unjust death of a person. [35]


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Sargent deliberately chose ordinary soldiers as the characters of his film, who suddenly turned out to be senseless victims of a brutal war, involuntarily inspiring the viewer to think about the meaning and cost of its conduct [34].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Unlike some military artists who profess nihilism and are a generation younger than him, Sargent followed the traditions of the Victorian era, seeing war as nobility and considering it necessary sacrifices made [1].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Perhaps with this picture he wanted to say: yes, war is hell, politicians are liars and generals are idiots, but, nevertheless, those who respond to the call of their country are good, decent people, deserve our sincere respect [11].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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In this regard, Richard Slocombe, senior researcher at the Art Department of the Imperial War Museum, noted that “the painting was supposed to tell about the cost of war, which will lead to a better future, which is the main argument that it is not a terrible waste of life. This painting is imbued with symbolism. Temporary blindness is a metaphor, a semi-religious purgatory for British youth on their way to resurrection. You can see all this in the men marching to the guys of the tents of the field hospital” [30].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Although the dressing station itself is not depicted in the picture, the soldier's procession is like a funeral procession, and they themselves may be going to their deaths [35].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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During the First World War, art kept pace with the horrors of our time, which gave some impetus to such artistic genres as cubism, futurism, vorticism.


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Meanwhile, Sargent's painting belongs to the old tradition of narrative realism, becoming similar in depth and monumentality to the paintings “Haulers on the Volga” by Ilya Repin and “Funeral in Ornan” Gustave Courbet [40] [49] [50].


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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See also


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Works of Mercy is a polyptych by Frederick Kayleigh Robinson depicting the wounded of the First World War (1915—1920).


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Notes


Question: What is the length of the painting “Gassed”?

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Literature


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References


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Category:Paintings by John Sargent


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Category:World War I in culture and art


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Category:Paintings from the collections of the Imperial War Museum


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Leo Hendrik Bakeland (November 14, 1863 — February 23, 1944) was an American chemist and inventor of Belgian origin who invented photo paper (1893) and bakelite (1909) are the first inexpensive and non-combustible plastic of universal use.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Biography


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Early years, Belgium


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Leo Hendrik Bakeland was born on November 14, 1863 in Ghent, Flemish, Belgium.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He was the son of Karel and Rosalia Bakeland, a middle-income Belgian family.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

After entering school at the age of 5, he completed early elementary school and Ateney, a public high school.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

As soon as Leo reached the right age, he entered the Municipal Technical School of Ghent, where he attended evening classes in chemistry, physics, mechanics and economics and received medals in each of the four subjects studied.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Young Bakeland was such a promising student that the city of Ghent awarded him a scholarship to study at Ghent University, where Leo began his studies in 1880, when he was 17 years old.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He was the youngest and most outstanding student in his group.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He graduated from university in 1882 with a Bachelor of Science degree.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Two years later, in 1884, at the age of 21, he received his doctorate, graduating from the University with honors.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

During his studies at the University, Leo, although he received a City Scholarship, maintained his material well-being by assisting with his studies, as well as working as a lecture assistant.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland was so inspired by his activities that he freed his parents from the need to support him, as he later said, after hearing the story of Benjamin Franklin earlier, he learned a lesson from it that a young person, even with a modest income, can make his life path entirely relying on his aspirations and efforts.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

At Bakeland University, he studied natural sciences and specialized in chemistry.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

His adolescent interest in photography was one of the main reasons for his interest in studying this science.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In some early photography experiments, young Bakeland needed Silver Nitrate (I).


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He didn't have the money to buy it, but he had a watch with a silver bracelet that his father gave him.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He took the watch bracelet and dissolved it in nitric acid.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

This solution also contained copper, but young Bakeland developed a method for removing copper from a silver solution, which was his very first chemical experiment.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

August Kekule taught at the University of Ghent, who published his classical formula for the structure of benzene in 1865.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

A few years before joining the University of Bakeland, Professor Kekule left it and left for Bakeland. Bonn, and his chief assistant, Theodor Schwartz, replaced Kekule as Senior Professor of Chemical Sciences.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland studied under Professor Schwartz.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In 1887, Bakeland was appointed Professor of Chemical and Physical Sciences at the Higher Government School of Sciences in Bruges.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He did not stay there long, soon returning to the University of Ghent, where he was offered the position of assistant professor.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He gladly agreed to this offer and was promoted to the post of associate professor at the university shortly thereafter, in 1889.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

One of the reasons Bakeland dreamed of returning to Ghent was his love for Celine Schwartz, the charming daughter of a chemistry professor Theodor Schwartz and his wife Nina (Plateau) Schwartz.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

The young men married on August 8, 1889 and their marriage was extremely happy.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In the following years, at a meeting in his honor, Bakeland said:


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Today you are talking about my many discoveries.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

But you didn't mention my greatest discovery, a discovery I made when I was a student.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

This greatest discovery is the woman who is here with us tonight is my wife.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In addition to Mrs. Bakeland's contribution to her husband's success, she also gained a certain independent fame for her oil paintings.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In a competition among graduates of four Belgian universities who had graduated within the previous three years, Bakeland won first place in chemistry in 1887.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Thanks to this, he received the title of laureate in chemistry, a gold medal and a scholarship to attend educational institutions in other countries.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Thus, in 1889, at the age of 26, Bakeland visited University College London, Oxford University and the University of Edinburgh.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

After that, Bakeland and his young wife sailed to the United States, where he planned to spend some time continuing his research, in particular, on chemical processes in photos [1].


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Getting Started in the U.S.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Upon arrival in New York, Bakeland met Richard A. Anthony from E. &N. T.Anthony and Company”, a producer of photographic materials.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In turn, Richard Anthony introduced it to Charles Chandler, a professor of chemistry at Columbia University, who was a chemistry consultant at E. &N. T.Anthony and Company” and as an enthusiastic amateur photographer, was added to the Photographic Bulletin published by this company.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Professor Chandler, extremely impressed with Bakeland's abilities, convinced him to stay in the United States and use his talent to solve problems in the chemical industry.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

After accepting Professor Chandler's offer, Bakeland telegraphed his resignation to the Faculty of Ghent University.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

The Minister of Education of Belgium, accepting Bakeland's resignation, allowed him to retain the honorary title of junior professor at the University of Ghent.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In 1891, “E. and N. T.Anthony and Company (a manufacturer of dry plates and bromide paper for photographs, which later merged with Scoville Company to create the Ansco Company) offered Bakeland the position of chemist at his factory, he accepted the offer.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

However, in 1893, two years after Bakeland began working for E. & N. T. Anthony and Company”, he resigned and began independent consulting and research in chemistry.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He mainly planned to devote his time to improving the chemical processes he developed, and as he later said, he made the mistake of diverting his attention to too much number of items at a time.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

But at this stage of his life, he suffered a serious illness.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

This led to a decision that Bakeland expressed in the following words:


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

As long as I am in the “between life and death” position, my entire fortune has disappeared and there is an unpleasant feeling from rapidly growing debts, I have had enough time to think about it soberly.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

It dawned on me that instead of keeping too much iron on fire, I should concentrate on one thing that would give me the best chance of getting the fastest possible result.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Starting a business


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

After his resignation, Bakeland decided to establish the Nepera Chemical Company in Yonkers, with the financial and administrative support of Leonard Jacobi, and start producing paper and chemical reagents for photos on a small scale.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

One type of such security was called “Velox” [2] [3] [4], later it was intended to become widely used and bring financial profit, which made Bakeland free and gave him the opportunity to make other outstanding discoveries.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Due to the difference in the printing process, Velox paper was in demand, but at first it did not arouse widespread interest, as a result of which, due to the depression of 1893, the new company went through a very difficult period.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland once said that this period was like “several years of hard work without a single day of rest and constant doubts about whether I would go through it all or not.”


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In addition, he said:


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

I was too optimistic about my belief that photographers were willing to abandon the old slow way of printing photos.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

I had to find out how difficult it was to teach something new to people who, after the first attempt to use something new, continue to use the old methods.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

... Even my best friends dissuaded me from continuing my hard attempts.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

I also had to anticipate the difficulties in production, but I gradually overcame them.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Largely thanks to amateurs who, as Bakeland said, “having difficulty reproducing, have finally begun to follow our print instructions” — selling the new photo paper gradually grew, and by 1899 the business was so successful that Eastman Kodak Company bought out the shares of Bakeland and Jacobi on very generous terms.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Financial freedom


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

After selling his share of the photo paper business to Eastman, Bakeland bought a house for his family and land on a North Yonkers estate known as Snug Rock ).


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

The house, located high above the Hudson River, could be seen through the coastal cliffs from the west bank.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland said the following about this period of his life:


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

So, at the age of 35, I found myself in a comfortable financial environment, a free person, ready to devote myself to my favorite research.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

In fact, the happiest period of my life is beginning.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

I converted one of the buildings at my residence in Yonkers into a modest but well-equipped laboratory.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

From that moment on, I was ready to work on various issues of my own choice.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

So I enjoyed life for several years, this great good, the pleasure of not being interrupted while doing my favorite job.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

From time to time, Bakeland hired several assistants for his work, but the most prominent of his assistants was his wife, who took responsibility for preserving his achievements, and which he consulted on many of the problems and cases he faced.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

At this time, Bakeland became interested in electrochemistry.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

This happened because he began to face electrochemical phenomena — this field of science in his student years was limited to the phenomenon of the deposition of several metals from an aqueous solution with using electric current and has since become an important branch of the chemical industry.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Later, this method was used as the basis for processes such as the separation of aluminum from aluminum ore, the production of silicon carbide and graphite, the production of calcium carbide, the production of sodium and simplification production of important complex compounds from this metal, such as sodium cyanide.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Due to Bakeland's interest in this field, in 1900 he decided to visit Germany for what he called a “reminder” of the science of electrochemistry.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He spent the whole winter there in the Electrochemistry Laboratory of the Charlottenburg Institute of Technology, refreshing his knowledge of the subject.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

And when he returned to Yonkers, he installed electrochemical equipment in his laboratory for further research.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

These events coincided with the invention of the electrolytic cell by Townsend (see section 2.2).


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland later purchased the Coconut Grove estate in Florida, where he lived most of the winter.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Continuation of entrepreneurial activity based on new inventions.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Patents


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

After the invention of bakelite (see section 2.3), Bakeland thought about commercially profitable production of a new material for those who needed it and said:


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

“I was determined to avoid a repeat of the occupation of business, as happened with the Velox material.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Therefore, instead of self-production, I planned to grant production rights to existing companies, mainly with experience in the production of plastic.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

But soon I was faced with a repeat of my previous experience with Velox: it was very difficult to teach people who were used to doing their job in the old routine way, new methods of work.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Preparing a new resinous liquid and casting an alloy from it, which seemed to me to be very simple processes, turned out to be very difficult and inexplicable for others.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Reluctantly, I had to start producing raw materials at a sufficiently advanced stage so that users could only complete the casting and polymerization process.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Thus, bakelite resin produced for retail sale could become soft when heated, but with a further increase in temperature, it became a solid and insoluble substance, with excellent electrical insulation properties, resistant to high temperatures and chemicals.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Because of this, the material has become very important for use in various fields, mainly as a replacement for ebonite (hard rubber) and amber in the electrical industry and industrial graphics in areas where their use yielded unsatisfactory results.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

For example, in the manufacture of an ignition system for cars, bakelite has served as a very useful material for the manufacture of such a necessary part of it as a distribution head.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Before bakelite, ebonite was used to cast distribution heads, which caused problems whenever ambient conditions caused the heads to heat up.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

The distribution heads cast from bakelite were durable and did not change their properties when the temperature changed [5].


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Although the first bakelite products were manufactured in Yonkers, a company called the General Bakelite Company was founded in Perth Amboy in 1910 (later Bakelite Corporation), which was organized for the production and distribution of raw materials for the manufacture of bakelite in stages and where Bakeland has been president and raised the spirit of the company since its formation and until 1939, when it merged with Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Nevertheless, thanks to a well-thought-out organization and careful selection of partners, Bakeland had enough freedom from routine tasks and business problems, thanks to which he could devote his time to research, and as well as to the numerous scientific, patriotic and educational needs that it faced.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

With the exception of the Velox case, Bakeland received patents for his discoveries for their protection — more than a hundred patents in total, including domestic and foreign patents.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He believed in the value of the patent system and was very interested in the proper system for obtaining them.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He was a member and one year chairman of the Patent Committee of the National Research Council, and a considerable number of articles he published were related to the belief in the need for modification U.S. Patent System [6] [7] [8] [9] [10].


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland said the following about his experience with patents:


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

One of the proofs of the success of a patent is the violation of the rights of the creator.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

So I had to go through the experience of almost every successful inventor, defending my rights in court.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Fortunately, I won all the lawsuits.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Moreover, I was happy to see great people among my rivals, whom I consider today my dear friends and the most impeccable employees...


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland was a long-time member of the US Navy Advisory Committee [11]; a member of the US Nitrate Supply Commission in 1917; Chairman of the Patent Committee of the National Research Council in 1917; a board member of the Institute for International Education for many years; and a member of the Chemical Division Advisory Committee of the U.S. Department of Commerce for several years from 1925 onwards.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He has received so many honors and insignia that they are listed in a separate section (see section 3).


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

During World War I, Bakeland participated in the development of less explosive aviation fuel conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines as a member of the Navy Advisory Committee.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

When, after an extensive program of testing engines on hydrocarbons of various types, Charles Kettering laboratory staff proposed the production of cyclohexane as the basis for improved aviation Bakeland was against these attempts, as he considered them impractical.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Emphasizing his opinion, he suggested giving a group of researchers a wooden medal if they could make a pint of cyclohexane.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

An attempt to produce cyclohexane by catalytic hydrogenation of gasoline was still made.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

And after careful research, this attempt was more feasible and successful than Bakeland had previously thought.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Knowing that Bakeland's passion for sports was great, Charles Kettering's laboratory staff officially handed him a liter bottle of cyclohexane from the first batch produced in a chic package mahogany box.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Along with a sample of cyclohexane, they provided him with an exemplary catalysis scheme to receive the wooden medal he promised the researchers.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland liked the result so much that a bottle of cyclohexane became one of his valuable possessions, and he kept it on his desk long after that.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

That he was so pleased when his predictions were wrong was due to his long experience in industrial chemistry and consultancy work that taught him, as he once put it in words “obediently obey facts even if they don't agree with my favorite theories.”


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

All his own success in research, Bakeland also said, was in the presence of his own source of discrepancy between the facts obtained from the experiment and the generally accepted is currently a theory.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

End of life


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Leo Hendrik Bakeland came to the end of his long, eventful and incredibly productive life on February 23, 1944, at the age of 81.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Leo Bakeland is buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York City.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Scientific and inventive activity


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Photo paper manufacturing technology


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland's hometown, Ghent, was a center for the production of dry records for photographs, which were started by Van Monkhoven in 1880.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Young Bakeland was very interested in Monkhoven, and thanks to his assistance, Leo began to experiment with photography early on, study the chemistry of this process and expand his knowledge in the field.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

It was then that Bakeland began his research, which ten years later led to the creation of the Velox paper.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

When Bakeland was still a student in Ghent, he could not even imagine the importance of his discoveries.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

And the discovery was that in the process of preparing a photoemulsion of silver chloride, the usual oxidation process and the subsequent purification process have a detrimental effect on the emulsion in terms of its tone and general shades of the resulting image, especially in places where there is a shadow.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

When preparing silver chloride under special colloidal conditions, completely eliminating the final purification process, Bakeland created undoubtedly more advanced photographic paper, which allowed print images much faster than previous types of photographic paper.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Images were printed by short-term exposure to artificial light and then developing the image at a short distance from the same light, which significantly improved the printing process compared to the previously used slow and unreliable method of so - called “solar printing”.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

While Bakeland was a producer of photographic paper in the 1890s, he pioneered air conditioning, which contributed to chemical processes.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

He found that atmospheric conditions, in particular the moisture contained in the air, affect many processes for the production of photo paper [12].


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Previously, only cooling (freezing) was used to cure the paper coating.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

But this process was harmful, making the surface brittle, so Bakeland developed and installed a system to remove moisture from the ambient air by passing air through the cooling device and subsequent heating to the desired temperature, passing it through evaporating spirals until it enters the coating zone.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

This ensured rapid drying of the emulsion without the appearance of brittleness of the coating.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

However, in winter, there was a problem of static electricity generation on paper, so Bakeland also installed a system in which silver chains were stretched over paper in machines along applying a surface to capture the charge through the frame.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

At the presentation of the paper in 1903, Bakeland said: Photographic paper factories should take into account the hygrometer and electroscope indicators as often as the thermometer.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Electrochemical studies


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

When Clinton P. Townsend invented his electrolytic cell for the production of caustic soda and chlorine from salt, Elon N. Hooker asked Bakeland to undertake a preliminary study of this cell before it use on an industrial scale.


Question: When did Leo Hendrick Bakeland invent photo paper?

Leo Bakeland

Bakeland took up this issue together with the inventor and several assistants who understand electrolysis.