Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

The decision of the Supreme Administrative Court is final and is not subject to appeal in appeal and cassation proceedings [53].


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Tymoshenko herself linked her decision to withdraw the lawsuit with the court's refusal to consider evidence of electoral fraud and interrogate witnesses, expressing the opinion that “it became clear that this is not a court, and that this is not justice” and “Yanukovych was not elected a legitimate president” [54].


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Notes


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

References


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

(in Ukrainian)


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

(in Ukrainian)


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

(in Ukrainian)


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

(in Ukrainian)


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Chart: (in Ukrainian)


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Category:Viktor Yushchenko


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Category:Viktor Yanukovych


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Category:Presidential elections in Ukraine


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Ukraine


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine

Category:2010 in Ukraine


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine


Question: By what margin did Zelensky win the elections in 2019?

2010 presidential election in Ukraine


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Iran-Byzantine War of 602—628 was the last war between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire, which lasted 26 years.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The previous war ended in 591, after Emperor Mauritius helped Sassanid Shahinshah Khosrov II regain the throne seized by usurper Bahram Chubin.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 602, Mauritius was killed during the uprising of commander Phocas, who became emperor.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrow declared war on Foke, ostensibly in order to avenge the death of Mauritius.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The first phase of the war, which lasted from 602 to 622, was successful for the Persians, who conquered most of the Levant, Egypt and Anatolia.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Only Emperor Heraclius I, who ascended the throne in 610, despite initial defeats, managed to turn the course of hostilities in his favor.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persian campaign of Heraclius, which took place in 622-626, changed the balance of power and forced the Persians to go on the defensive.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

United with the Avars, the Persians made their last attempt to take Constantinople in 626, but were defeated.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After that, Irakli invaded the Persian power in 627, forcing the enemy to ask for peace, which was concluded early the following year.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

By the end of the protracted conflict, both sides were severely depleted and exhausted their human and material resources, which allowed the Arabs to quickly conquer the entire Sassanid Empire, as well as the Byzantine Levant, Egypt and North Africa.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Russian historian L. N. Gumilyov called this war the “World War of the 7th Century” [1].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Background


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After several decades of unsuccessful battles, Emperor Mauritius ended the Byzantine-Persian War of 572-591 by assisting the expelled Sassanid Prince Khosrov (the future King Khosrov II) in the return of the throne, which was usurped by General Bahram Chubin.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In gratitude for this, the Sassanid Empire ceded the northeastern part of Mesopotamia and most of Armenia, Caucasian Iberia to the Byzantines (the exact details of the agreement are unknown) [2] [3] [4].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Even more important for the Byzantine economy was that from now on the empire did not have to pay annual tribute to the Persians; Mauritius then launched new campaigns in the Balkans to stop the invasion Slavs and Avars [5] [6].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The military campaigns of Mauritius's predecessor Tiberius II Constantine and his generosity greatly depleted the treasury inherited from Justine II [7] [8] [9].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

To replenish the imperial treasury, Mauritius took strict financial measures and reduced soldiers' salaries, which led to four military riots [10].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

A new riot, which turned out to be the last for the emperor, occurred in 602 due to the fact that Mauritius ordered the army to stay after the campaign for the Danube in the Transdanubian lands for the winter [11].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

As a result, the soldiers proclaimed Thracian centurion Phoka emperor [12] [13].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Mauritius tried to defend Constantinople by arming representatives of the Blue and Greens, the two main parties of the racetrack, but this measure was ineffective [14].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor fled, but was soon captured and killed by Phocas's soldiers [15].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The beginning of conflict


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After the assassination of Mauritius, the Byzantine governor in Mesopotamia and military master, revolted against Phoca and captured Edessa, the main city of Byzantine Mesopotamia [16].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then Phocas instructed his commander Herman to besiege Edessa, which prompted Narses to seek help from King Khosrov.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persian ruler, who was ready to help avenge Mauritius, his “friend and father”, used the death of the emperor as an excuse to start a war.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The conflict was beneficial to him, as he hoped to recapture Armenia and Mesopotamia from Byzantium [17] [18].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Herman soon died in a battle against the Persians.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The army sent by Phoka against Khosrov was defeated near the fortress of Dara in Upper Mesopotamia.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 605, this important Byzantine stronghold, after a long siege, was captured by Khosrov's troops, who built a high rampart in front of the city walls that allowed Persian soldiers to penetrate Dara [19] [ 20].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After that, Narses escaped from the eunuch sent by Phoca to negotiate with him [21].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then the new commander of the Comite besieged him in Hierapolis, Syria and after long negotiations persuaded Narses to return to Constantinople to discuss the terms of peace, but Foca treacherously captured captured the enemy and burned alive in a copper bull [22].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The execution of Narses, along with the victory of the Persians, had a negative impact on Phoca's reputation [23].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After a two-year siege, the Persians took the fortress of Hesna de Kefa (Hisn Kaifa) in 607 [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov's success in the war with the Byzantines is explained not only by military and economic factors, but also by the population's dissatisfaction with Phocas's policy and the mild attitude of the Persians towards the defeated peoples [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The rebellion of Irakli


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shortly thereafter (in 608), the commander and exarch of Africa Irakli the Elder, at the instigation of Phoca's son-in-law, the excuvitor comite, rebelled [24].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He proclaimed himself and his son, who bore the same name, co-consuls, thereby claiming the throne, and also minted coins, where they were both depicted in consular clothes [25].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Around the same time, the rebellion began in Syria and Palestine Prima, which was a continuation of the uprising of Irakli [26].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Patriarch Anastasius II of Antioch died in 609 or 610.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Many sources claim that Jews took an active part in the hostilities, although it is unclear where they were representatives of certain factions and where they were simply opponents of Christians [27] [28].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Foca responded by appointing Bonos a comite of the East and sending him to suppress the riots [27].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Bonos punished the Green Party in Antioch for its active participation in the rebellion of 609 [27].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After that, Irakli the Elder equipped an army led by his nephew to attack Egypt.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Bonos tried to stop Nikita, but was defeated on the outskirts of Alexandria [27].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nikita managed to seize the province in 610 and strengthen the power of Heraclius with the help of Patriarch John V the Merciful, elected with the support of Nikita [29] [30].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The rebels expected to inflict the main blow to Constantinople with the help of the navy led by Heraclius the Younger, who was supposed to become the new emperor instead of Phoca.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The hastily organized resistance against Irakli was soon suppressed, Phoca was extradited to him by Patrick Prob (Photius) [31] and executed [32].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

It is known that Irakli asked Phocas before his execution:


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The deposed emperor answered him this way:


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

References to Irakli the Elder disappear from sources shortly after this event; he is believed to have died, but the exact date of his death is unknown [33].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After his wedding to the kingdom as a patriarch and his marriage to Fabia Evdokia, thirty-five-year-old Irakli I moved on to solving the main problems facing the empire.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Foka's brother, a military master who commanded significant forces in central Anatolia, posed a significant threat to the power of Irakli, but he was killed by Armenian commander Justine [34].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, the transfer of troops to another commander was postponed, which allowed the Persians to advance further deep into Anatolia [35].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Trying to increase revenues and reduce costs, Irakli limited the number of state-paid clergymen in Constantinople and did not pay salaries to new officials from the imperial treasury [36].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor used various ceremonies to legitimize his rule in the eyes of the people [37]; in addition, he monitored the impeccable administration of justice in order to strengthen his power [38].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Persian invasion


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persians took advantage of the civil war between Phoca and Irakli and conquered many border cities in Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia [39] [40].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 609, the Persian army crossed the Euphrates and captured Mardin and Amida [24] [41].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 610, Edessa was taken, which was legendary, as if it was protected by Jesus Christ himself, and therefore the enemy could not capture this city [42] [43].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Around the same time (in 609 or 610), the strategically important city of Feodosipol, located in Armenia, was surrendered by a man who claimed to be the eldest son and co-ruler of the deceased Emperor of Mauritius, who fled to Persia, under the protection of Khosrov [42] [44].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 608, the Persians conducted a successful raid on Anatolia and reached Chalcedon [45], from where Constantinople was visible through the Bosphorus [46] [47].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persian conquest was a gradual process; by the time Heraclius ascended the throne, the Persians had captured all Roman cities east of the Euphrates and in Armenia and were preparing to move to Cappadocia, where Persian commander Shahin took Caesarea [42] [48].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Phoca's son-in-law Prisk, who called Heraclius and his father to revolt, began a siege of the city to lure the Persians into a trap; the siege lasted a whole year [49] [50].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli's ascension to the throne practically did not reduce the threat from the Persian power.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli began his reign by trying to conclude a truce with the Persians, as Phocas, whose actions led to the declaration of war (casus belli), was overthrown [51].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, the Persians rejected all attempts by the Byzantines to start negotiations, as their army won numerous victories [51].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to the Byzantinist historian, the true goals of the Persians were to restore the borders of the Achaemenid Empire (or even expand them) and destroy the Byzantine Empire, but due to the loss of Persian archives it is impossible to confirm or refute this assumption [51].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to the established tradition, the Byzantine emperors never personally led the army during the campaign [52].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Heraclius became the first ruler to ignore the tradition, joining the siege of Caesarea of Cappadocia, which was led by his commander Prisk [53].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, Prisk pretended to be sick to avoid meeting the emperor.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

This was a veiled insult to Irakli.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor hid his dislike for Prisk and returned to Constantinople in 612 [54].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Meanwhile, Shahin's troops escaped the blockade and, to the great discontent of Irakli, burned Caesarea [54].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Therefore, Prisk was soon removed from command of the army, like all military leaders during the reign of Phoca [54].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Philippicus, who served under the Emperor of Mauritius, was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern Army (Military Master) of the East, but he was incompetent in the fight against the Persians, as he diligently avoided any collision with the enemy [55].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then Irakli, disillusioned with his commanders, personally led the army and appointed his own brother Theodore as an assistant to strengthen control over the army [56].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Persian king Khosrov II Parviz skillfully took advantage of the incompetence of the imperial commanders and sent an army on a campaign to the Byzantine province of Syria, led by commanders Farrukhan Shahrvaraz and Shahin [57].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli tried to stop the attack on the Syrian capital Antioch; despite the blessing of the saint, the Byzantine army under the command of Heraclius and Nikita suffered in battle with the army of Shahin [56].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The details of this battle are unknown [58].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After this victory, the Persians took and looted the city and enslaved many residents, taking them to Persia [59].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Trying to defend the area north of Antioch and the Cilicia Gate, the Byzantines lost the fight again, despite some initial success [60].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persians captured Tars and the Cilicia Plain [60].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

As a result of this defeat, the empire was divided in half — land passages from Anatolia to Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the Exarchate of Carthage were blocked [60].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Persian domination


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The capture of Jerusalem


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Resistance to the Persians in Syria and Palestine was not strong; despite the fact that local residents built fortifications, in general they were determined to negotiate with the enemy [60].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Syrian cities of Damascus, Apamea and Emesa quickly surrendered to the conquerors in 613, giving the Persians the opportunity to strike further south.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nikita continued to resist their advance, but his army was defeated at Azri'at.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, he managed to inflict a slight defeat on the Persians near Emesa, where both sides suffered heavy losses, with a total death toll of twenty thousand people [61].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After the capture of Caesarea by the Palestinian, the Persian army marched towards Jerusalem [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

When the Persians approached Jerusalem, they began negotiations with the rulers of the city to surrender it; they agreed, but the population was outraged and killed the Persian ambassadors [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Byzantine army, which stood near Jericho, refused to strike the Persians, afraid of their large number [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Byzantine garrisons in Syria were too small, which allowed the Persians to capture Jerusalem in three weeks, despite the strong resistance of the citizens [62].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After the capture of Jerusalem, Persian soldiers massacred the city, killing between 55,000 and 66,500 people; another 35,000 were enslaved, including the Patriarch of Jerusalem [63].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Many city churches (including the Church of the Holy Sepulcher) were burned down, and numerous relics (for example, the Life-Giving Cross, Longinus's Spear) were taken to the Persian capital Ctesiphon [64].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The loss of these relics discouraged Christians, who considered their loss a clear sign of God's wrath that fell on the Byzantines [64].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Many considered Jews to be the culprits of all misfortunes, including the loss of Byzantine lands [65].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

There were reports that they had taken over some Syrian cities and tried to slaughter Christians in settlements already conquered by the Persians, but their plans were allegedly revealed and thwarted.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Most likely, these rumors were greatly exaggerated due to the general hysteria [60].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Conquest of Egypt


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 616, an army under Farrukhan Shahrvaraz invaded Egypt, a province where hostilities had not been conducted for three and a half centuries [66].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Numerous Monophysites who lived in Egypt and were repressed after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 had no desire to help the imperial troops, so they willingly supported Khosrov [67] [68 ].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

At the same time, however, they did not resist the Byzantines after the defeat of the Persians, as many of them did not like the Persian occupation [69] [70].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

General Nikita organized resistance to the Persian invaders in Alexandria.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After a year-long siege, Alexandria fell (presumably due to the betrayal of a citizen who told the Persians about the drained canal through which they managed to enter the city) [71] .


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to another version, the Persians entered the city together with fishermen returning there [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nikita fled to Cyprus together with Patriarch John V the Merciful, his main supporter in Egypt [72].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nikita's fate is unknown, as references to him disappear after the capture of Alexandria, but Irakli seems to have lost his trusted commander [73].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The loss of Egypt dealt a serious blow to the economy of Byzantium — most of the grain was delivered to the capital from Egypt, thus losing the empire's main granary.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In this regard, the free distribution of grain in Constantinople (previously grain was also distributed in Rome) was canceled in 618 [74].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After the conquest of Egypt, Khosrov sent Irakli a letter with the following content:


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Conquest of Anatolia


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The situation became even more threatening for the Byzantines when Chalcedon, dangerously close to Constantinople, was taken in 617 by Shahin [75].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahin politely received the Byzantine delegation, whose purpose was to conclude peace [76].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, the hopes of the Byzantines did not come true: the Persian commander said that he had no right to participate in peace negotiations and sent a delegation to Khosrov, who rejected Irakli's proposal [ 77] [78].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, the Persians soon left Chalcedon and focused on the more important conquest of Egypt [18] [79].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Sassanid army still had an advantage.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 620 or 622, it captured Ankira, an important military base in central Anatolia [80].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Another equally important naval base on Rhodes may have been taken by the Persians in 622 or 623, thereby posing the threat of an attack on Constantinople from the sea, although this event is difficult to confirm [81] [ 82].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli was so desperate to defeat the enemy that he intended to move the capital to African Carthage, and only Patriarch Sergius I of Constantinople dissuaded him from this venture [83].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The horse breeding areas in Anatolia, if not captured by the Persian army, were most likely subjected to its raids [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The empire lost the provinces in which the main human and material resources were concentrated [19], and was on the verge of destruction.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Byzantines response


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Force reorganization


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov's letter II, however, did not frighten Irakli, but prompted him to retaliate against the Persians [84].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor carried out decisive transformations in the part of the empire that remained under his control to allow the Byzantines to fight their enemies.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

By that time, the Balkan provinces were devastated by the Avars, in Spain the Visigoths took Byzantine fortresses conquered by Justinian I [19], and in Italy, the Lombards slowly took over the cities of the empire [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 615, a new, lighter (weighing about 6.82 grams) silver Byzantine coin was minted with images of the emperor and his son Constantine Irakli and the inscription “Deus adiuta Romanis” (Russian: May God help the Romans); Kedzhi believes that this clearly shows the desperate situation of Byzantium at that time [85].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The copper follis also lost about 2-3 grams (the weight changed from 11 to 8-9 grams).


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Due to the loss of many areas, the revenues of the imperial treasury fell catastrophically; in addition, in 619, an epidemic of plague broke out, which reduced the population of the empire and increased fear of the divine retaliation [86].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Only a decrease in the quality of minting allowed the Byzantines to maintain treasury expenditures at the same level in the face of declining incomes [87].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli raised taxes, began to take forced loans, halved the salaries of officials and began to charge them with bribery fines in order to finance the counterattack [88].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Byzantine clergy, who condemned the emperor for his incestuous marriage to his niece, nevertheless strongly supported him, declaring that raising money to fight the Persian invaders was it is the duty of all Christians; moreover, the clergy gave Irakli a lot of gold and silver utensils [89].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Almost all precious items were seized from Hagia Sophia [90].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

This military campaign was considered by some historians (starting with the medieval chronicler Wilhelm of Tyre) as the first “Crusade” or at least as a prerequisite for the Crusades [84] [ 91].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Other researchers, such as Keji, disagree with this statement, as religion was only one of many causes of the conflict [92].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Thousands of volunteers were equipped and trained with the money of the church [84].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor decided to personally lead the Byzantine army.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Thus, the Byzantine army was now replenished, re-staffed, and also had a competent military leader and a full treasury [84].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Georgy Ostrogorsky believed that volunteers were gathered by dividing Anatolia into four femes, where they were given an inalienable right to land subject to hereditary military service [93].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, modern scientists have rejected this theory, referring the creation of fem to the reign of Constant II, the successor of Irakli [94] [95].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Counterattack


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

By 622, Irakli was ready to launch a counteroffensive.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

To raise the morale of the army, Irakli used the idea developed by Armenian clergymen during the uprising of 450-451.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He insisted that war was sacred, and death in battle would bring the crown of martyrdom to the deceased and the reward of going to paradise [96].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He left Constantinople the day after the celebration of Easter, Sunday, April 4, 622 [97].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

His young son, Constantine Irakli, remained in the capital as regent, who is in the care of Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople and Patrick [98].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor sent his army to the harbor of Pyla (the location of this point is controversial, most likely, the Pilas were located in Astakos Bay near Nicomedia), where he built a fortified camp and began training recruits [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He spent most of the year preparing warriors for the march.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then, in order to threaten the enemy army in Anatolia and Syria, Irakli sailed along the Ionian coast to Rhodes, then east to Cilicia, and landed near Issa, where Alexander The Macedonian defeated the Persians in 333 BC [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In autumn, Irakli crossed to Cappadocia, threatening Persian routes stretching to Anatolia from the Euphrates Valley [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahrvaraz was defeated in several skirmishes [19], and this forced the Persian army to retreat from Bithynia and Galatia to Eastern Anatolia to block the Byzantines from entering Persia [100].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Further events are quite difficult to reconstruct.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

It is known for sure that Irakli won a decisive victory over Shahrvaraz in 622 in [101].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The key factor was that Irakli discovered the Persian units in ambush, and then made a false retreat.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persians left shelter to pursue the Byzantines, after which elite units of the optimates attacked them and fled [102].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Thus, the emperor saved Anatoly from being captured by the enemy.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nevertheless, Heraclius was forced to return to Constantinople due to the threat of Avar invasion hanging over the European regions of Byzantium, leaving the army to spend the winter in Pontus [99] [103].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Avar Threat


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

While the main attention of the Byzantines was focused on the Persian border, the allied tribes of the Avars and Slavs invaded the Balkans, capturing several cities, namely Singidunum (now Belgrade), Viminacium ( modern), Naissos (present-day Nis) and Serdika (present-day Sofia), and completely destroyed Salona in 614 [104].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, numerous attempts by the Slavs and Avars to take Thessalonica, the most important Byzantine city in the Balkans after Constantinople, ended in failure - the empire retained a strategically important pivotal item in this region [105].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Other small towns on the Adriatic coast, such as Iadera (now Zadar), Tragurium (present-day Trogir), Butua, Skodra and Lissus (now Lezha), also managed to survive the invasion [106].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Isidore of Seville, however, claims that the Slavs completely captured Greece [107].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, the Avars began a campaign to Thrace, threatening imperial trade and agriculture, and reached the very gates of Constantinople [108].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Because of the need to protect themselves from these invasions, the Byzantines could not afford to use all their forces in the war against the Persians.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then Irakli sent ambassadors to the camp of the Avar Khagan and offered him to conclude peace on the condition that the Byzantines would pay tribute to the Avars in exchange for the departure of this people for the Danube [84].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Kagan wished to meet with the emperor on June 5, 623 in the Thracian city of Heraclea, where the Avar army was stationed; Heraclius agreed to this meeting and went to negotiations accompanied by all his courtiers [102].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Kagan, however, organized an ambush on his way to Heraclea, hoping to capture the emperor and demand a ransom for him [109].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli, warned in time about this, managed to escape; the Avars pursued him all the way to Constantinople.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Many of those who accompanied the emperor were captured and killed by the Khagan soldiers; perhaps 70,000 Thracian peasants who wanted to see the ruler suffered the same fate [110].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Despite this betrayal, in exchange for the conclusion of peace, Irakli was forced to pay an impressive tribute of two hundred thousand solids to the Avars and give hostage to his illegitimate son, his nephew Stephen and illegitimate son Patrick Bon [109].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The truce with the Khagan gave Byzantium the opportunity to fully focus on the defense of the eastern border, where battles with the Persians took place [111].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Hike to Persia


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

There is an assumption that in 624 Irakli offered Khosrov to make peace, otherwise threatening to invade Persia, but Khosrov rejected this offer [112].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Therefore, on March 25, 624, Irakli left Constantinople to attack the center of the Persian power.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

To achieve this goal, he abandoned any attempts to protect the rear and establish communications by sea [113].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After wintering, the Byzantine army moved through the territory of Armenia and Arran to strike at the very center of enemy lands [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Historian Walter Keji suggests that the number of Irakli's army did not exceed forty thousand people; most likely, it ranged from twenty to twenty-four thousand soldiers [114].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Before moving to the Caucasus, the emperor visited Caesarea, neglecting the message of the Persian king [115].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Armenians were one of the key players in the wars between the Roman and Persian empires [116].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Following the Araks River, the Byzantines approached the capital of Persian Armenia, Dvin, took and destroyed this city, and then moved further south [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Probably, Dvin was torn due to resistance [117].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, Nakhichevan and Urmia were destroyed [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Having reached the Atropaten city of Hansac, the imperial army destroyed both the city itself and the famous fire temple Takht-e Soleiman, an important sanctuary of Zoroastrian Persia [118].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Byzantines even reached Gaishavan, Khosrov's residence in Atropaten [119].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then Irakli returned to Caucasian Albania for the winter, where he gathered forces for the next year's campaign [120].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov, of course, did not want to give the enemy a break and sent three armies against him under the command of Shahrvaraz, Shahin and to try to trap the emperor and destroy his troops [121].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahraplakan conquered Persian territory to Syunik in Armenia in order to seize important passes; he also recaptured fifty thousand Iranian prisoners from the Byzantines [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahrvaraz was sent to block Irakli's retreat through Caucasian Iberia, and Shahin was to block the Bitlis passage.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli decided to defeat each of the three armies separately, but first he had to stop the unrest among his allies — the Lazs, Iberians and Abkhazians [122].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor sent two soldiers to Shahrvaraz, pretending to be deserters, with a false message that the Byzantines had fled after learning of Shahin's approach [122].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Since there was rivalry between the Persian commanders, Shahrvaraz hurried to arrive at the scene with his army so that he would also win the glory of the winner.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He spread the camp north of the Byzantines — in Kagankatuyk, in Gardman; Shahin was located to the south, near Tigranakert (Martiropol) [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The imperial army was surrounded.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then Irakli attacked the combined army of Shahin and Shahraplakan and defeated the Persians in battle [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahin lost his entire wagon train; Shahraplakan may have been killed (but, according to some sources, he appeared in the historical arena later) [122] [123] [124].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After this victory, the emperor hastily crossed the Araks and camped on the plains on the opposite bank of the river.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahin and, probably, Shakhraplakan with the remnants of their troops joined Shahrvaraz, who rushed in pursuit of Irakli, but the swamps slowed down their advance [125] [126].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In Shahrbaraz, he divided his forces, sending about six thousand people forward to ambush Irakli, and stationed the rest of the army in Archesh [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, the Byzantines, during a night attack in February 625, killed an ambush detachment of Persians, then attacked Archesh from three sides and set fire to the city [125].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahrbaraz hardly escaped, losing his entire wagon train, harem and soldier [125].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli spent the rest of his winter on the northern shore of Lake Van [125].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 625, he made an attempt to return to the Euphrates.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Within seven days, the emperor circled Mount Ararat and walked 300 kilometers along the Aratsani River to capture Amida and Martiropol, important fortresses on the Upper Tigre [99] [127] [128].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He then continued his march along the Euphrates, pursued by Shahrvaraz.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to Arab sources, he was overtaken by the Persians in the upper reaches of the Satidama River, or, and defeated them in the battle that began; however, Byzantine sources did not mention this [129].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After that, for some time the Persians did not attack the army of Heraclius [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

A few kilometers from Adana, near the Sar River, the Byzantines saw an enemy army lined up on the opposite bank [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

There was a small bridge nearby; tired of a long crossing, the Byzantines immediately attacked the Persians and fell into a well-prepared ambush by Shahrvaraz.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Iranian commander depicted a retreat [99]; then Irakli, together with his guard, rushed into the thick of the battle, ignoring the hail of Persian arrows [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahrvaraz, admiring his courage, said to the Greek defector: “Look at your emperor! He is no more afraid of arrows and darts than an anvil!” [99] The Battle of Sarah ended with the victory of the Byzantines and was glorified by panegyrists [130].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After the battle, the Byzantine army went to Trabzon for the winter [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The culmination of the war


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Siege of Constantinople


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov, seeing that in order to defeat the Byzantines, he needed to launch a decisive counteroffensive, gathered two new armies, recruiting all combat-ready men as soldiers and even resorting to hiring foreigners [ 99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahin with 50,000 troops remained in Mesopotamia and Armenia to prevent Irakli's invasion of Persia; a smaller army under the command of Shahrvaraz crossed unprotected by the Byzantines sector of the front and headed for Chalcedon, a Persian base on the Bosphorus [131].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov coordinated his actions with the Avar Khagan to launch a joint offensive against Constantinople from Europe and Asia [131].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persian army remained in Chalcedon, while the Avars attacked the Byzantine capital and destroyed the Valenta Aqueduct [132].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Since the Byzantine fleet fully controlled the Bosphorus Strait, the Persians could not send troops to the European coast to help their allies [133].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

This significantly reduced the effectiveness of the blockade, because the Persians were experts in the field of siege [134].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, Iranians and Avars had difficulty communicating through the well-guarded Bosphorus, although they undoubtedly maintained some communication with each other [131] [135].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The defense of Constantinople was commanded by Patriarch Sergius and Patrick Bon [136].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Upon learning of the attack by the Persians and Avars, Heraclius divided his army into three parts; although he decided that the capital was relatively safe, he still sent reinforcements to Constantinople to boost defenders' morale [137].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor sent another part of the army under the command of his brother Theodore to the corps of Shahin, and Irakli left the third, the smallest, under his leadership, intending to invade the the heart of the Sassanid Empire [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

On June 29, 626, a joint assault on the walls of Constantinople by the Allied forces began.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

At that time, there were about twelve thousand well-trained Byzantine cavalrymen (presumably dismounted) in the city, defending the city from the 80,000-strong army of Avars and Slavs [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Despite the constant bombing for a month, the morale of the Greeks remained high due to the religious zeal of Patriarch Sergius and his processions along the city walls with the icon of the Virgin, which convinced Byzantines that the city is under divine protection [138] [139].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

On August 7, the Persian army attempted to raft across the Bosphorus, but was surrounded and destroyed by Byzantine ships.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Slavs under the command of the Avars tried to attack the walls off the coast of Zolotoy Rog Bay, and the main troops of the Avar Khagan attacked from the land [140].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then galleys under the command of Patrick Bon rammed and destroyed Slavic boats; the Avar attack from land (August 6-7) also failed [141].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Having received the news that Irakli's brother Theodore won a decisive victory over Shahin (presumably after that Shahin died, unable to withstand a crushing defeat), the Avars retreated deep within two days The Balkan Peninsula and never again seriously threatened Constantinople [142].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Although Shahrvaraz's army was still encamped in Chalcedon, the threat to the capital passed [137] [143].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In gratitude for the lifting of the siege and the patronage of the Most Holy Theotokos, an unknown author (possibly Patriarch Sergius or George Pisida) wrote the famous akathist [144] [145] [146].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Byzantine-Turkic Union


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

While the Avars and Slavs besieged Constantinople, Irakli made an alliance with Zievil, who ruled a people whom Byzantine sources call Turks or Khazars [147].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Most likely, the Khazars made up the bulk of the army, and Zievil was the Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate Tun-Jabgu Khan, whom the Byzantines persuaded to make peace in exchange for the fact that porphyrogenite will marry him [148].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Earlier in 568, the Turks, under the command of Yabgu Istemi Kagan, established relations with Byzantium when their relations with Persia deteriorated due to trade disagreements [149].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In 626, Turks based in the Caucasus sent forty thousand soldiers to ruin Persia, which marked the beginning [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Under the walls of Tiflis, they met with the army of the emperor, which came from Lazika [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The combined forces began to besiege Tiflis.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Byzantines used trebuchets to destroy walls; this was the first use by the Greeks of such siege weapons [150].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then Khosrov sent a thousand horsemen under the command of Shahraplakan to strengthen the city [151], but this detachment was defeated, probably at the end of 628 [152].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Zievil died at the end of the same year, thereby saving Epiphany from the need to marry a barbarian [99].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Despite the fact that the siege continued, Irakli was also engaged in strengthening the base on the Upper Tigre [137].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Battle of Nineveh


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In mid-September 627, leaving Zievil to continue the siege of Tiflis, Irakli went with the army to the south, to the Dvin and further, to the ancestral Persian lands [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Edward Luttwak describes Heraclius's retreat during the winters of 624-626 and the unexpected campaign to Ctesiphon in 627 as “a big risk regarding the entire theater of operations”, because these maneuvers taught the Persians to strategically ineffective raids, which forced them to abandon the transfer of border troops to defend the central regions [153].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Byzantine army numbered from 25 to 50 thousand people, not counting reinforcements from 40 thousand Khazars, who quickly left the emperor due to unfamiliar natural conditions and constant persecution by Persians [154] [155].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli advanced very quickly, but was tracked down by the Persian army under the command of an Armenian, which faced difficulties in supplying — the Byzantines devastated the entire neighborhood as they moved south to Assyria [156] [157].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After that, the enemy troops began to maneuver; in the end, Rahzad perceived the movements of the Byzantines as a retreat and began to pursue [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

As a result, the Persian commander lost time, thereby allowing Irakli to bypass his army [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Seeing that the emperor was going to Ctesiphon, the Persians rushed in pursuit and, after a difficult march, still caught up with the Greeks at the ruins of the ancient city of Nineveh [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli decided to fight the Persians before reinforcements approached them [158].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The battle of Nineveh took place in heavy fog, thereby reducing the Persian advantage of the presence of horse archers.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli depicted a retreat, luring the Persians to the plains, and, to their great surprise, quickly deployed his troops into battle formation [159].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After an eight-hour battle, the Iranians suddenly retreated to the nearby foothills, but did not flee [160].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

During the battle, approximately 6,000 Persians were killed [161].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Patriarch Nikephoros's “Brief History” reports that Rahzad challenged Irakli himself during the battle, and the emperor accepted the challenge and killed Rahzad on the first strike; two other opponents attacked him and also were defeated [162].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli himself was wounded with a “spear in the lip” [163].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to Sebeos, after the battle, the emperor released all prisoners [164].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The end of war


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persian army no longer existed.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nothing could stop Irakli on his way to Ctesiphon.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Shahrbaraz and his own forces were returning too slowly from Asia Minor; the armies of Shahin and Rahzad were defeated and suffered serious losses.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Therefore, the remnants of the army of the deceased Rahzad withdrew to the capital to protect it from the Byzantines [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In January 628, Irakli crossed the Torna River and devastated the royal palaces of Beklal and Bebdah [163].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then he looted the residence of Khosrov II Parviz — [165], where “three hundred Roman banners taken at different times were found, as well as stocks of rare works, lots of aloe and large aloe trees in eighteen liters, a lot of silk, pepper, shirt fabrics in excess of any number, sugar, ginger and many other things, found unfinished silver, silk clothes, bed carpets and colored carpets sewn, beautiful and in a great multitude”, but most of the prey was burned [163].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov had already fled to the Suziana Mountains to try to gather troops to protect Ctesiphon [137].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Then the emperor sent the following letter to the Persian king:


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nevertheless, Irakli could not attack Ctesiphon, as the bridges over, located twenty kilometers from the capital, were destroyed, and on the other side stood the palace guard of the Persian king [165].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Bypassing or crossing the canal seemed extremely difficult maneuvers [166].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Therefore, the emperor decided to retreat to the north, ruining Persian villages on the way [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

On March 11, 628, the Byzantines entered Hansac [19].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

At this time, the Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrov II, proclaiming his son Kavad II, also known as Shiruye, king.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Khosrov was thrown into prison, where he was starved to death for five days, after which he was shot by archers [167].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The new ruler of Kavad sent an embassy to Irakli with a request for peace.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The emperor did not put forward strict demands, knowing that his own empire was also close to exhaustion.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Under the terms of the peace treaty, the border between the two states was restored as of 602, all prisoners were extradited to Byzantium, an indemnity was paid, and most importantly, the Life-Giving Cross was returned and other relics lost in Jerusalem in 614 [168] [169] [170].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

On April 8, 628, Irakli went from Hanzak to Armenia [117].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The route of the emperor's return journey from Armenia to Byzantium is unknown for sure, since sources practically do not mention it [171].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, it is known that Irakli went from Armenia to Upper Mesopotamia, where, in honor of his arrival in Amida, he founded a large temple (this happened in the winter of 628-629) [171].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The consequences


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Short-term effects


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After several months of travel, Irakli triumphantly entered Constantinople.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He was greeted by the residents of the city, his son Konstantin Irakli and Patriarch Sergius, who fell to their knees before him with joy [172].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Thanks to the alliance with the Persians, the Holy Sponge attached to the Life-Giving Cross was returned to the empire during a magnificent ceremony on September 14, 629 [173].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In the capital, a solemn parade, held on the occasion of the return of Irakli, went to Hagia Sophia.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

There, the Life-Giving Cross was slowly erected above the main altar.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

For many, this was a sign that a new golden age had begun for the Byzantine Empire [168] [174].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The victorious end of the war strengthened Irakli's commanding authority.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

He was nicknamed the “new Scipio” for his brilliant victories and for leading the Byzantine army to lands that the soldiers of the empire had never invaded before [91].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The triumphal rise of the Life-Giving Cross in Hagia Sophia was the culmination of the emperor's achievements.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

If Irakli had died in 629, according to Norman Davis, he would have gone down in history as “the greatest Roman military leader since Julius Caesar” [91].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, he lived to see the era of Arab conquest, lost a number of major battles, unsuccessfully trying to contain the onslaught of Muslims, and lost the fame of a successful military leader.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

John Norwich briefly described Irakli as “living too long” [175].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Meanwhile, the Sassanids struggled to create a stable and sustainable government.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

When Cavad II died a few months after assuming the throne, Persia was plunged into a civil war for several years caused by dynastic disputes.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In a short period from 628 to the winter of 632-633, four rulers changed on the Persian throne: Artashir III, commander Farrukhan Shahrvaraz who fought with Byzantium, two queens Borandokht and Azarmedokht.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

It was only when Yazdigerd III, grandson of Khosrov II, ascended the throne in 632 that some stability was established, but by that time it was too late to do anything to save the once powerful The Sassanid power, which soon collapsed under the blows of Muslim Arabs [176] [177].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Long term effects


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The war of 602-628 caused great damage to both empires due to its devastation and continuity.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Sassanids were also weakened by a decline in economic activity, heavy taxation to finance Khosrov II's campaigns, religious unrest and the growing influence of provincial landowners for Shah's score [178].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to, the victories over the Persians and their political consequences saved the main stronghold of Christianity in the Middle East and significantly weakened Zoroastrianism, but in the next two decades they turned out to be are overshadowed by the military achievements of the Arabs [179].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Nevertheless, the Byzantine possessions in the Balkans suffered greatly from the invasion of the Slavs, who conquered a significant part of this area [180].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, Anatolia was devastated by numerous Persian raids, and the recently returned territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt have been weakened by years of Persian occupation [181 ].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Because of this, the Byzantines faced difficulties in paying for the service of veterans of the war with the Persians and recruiting new soldiers [24] [182].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Clive Foss called this war “the first stage in a process that marked the end of antiquity in Asia Minor” [183].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

None of the two empires was able to regain their former power due to the consequences of the war, as for several years they were seriously shocked by the onslaught of Arabs united by a single religion, Islam [184]; Howard-Johnston compared this invasion to a “human tsunami” [185].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to George Liski, “the excessively long Byzantine-Persian conflict has opened the way for Islam” [186].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Sassanid Empire was quickly defeated by the Arabs and was conquered by them.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

As a result of the Arab-Byzantine wars, the eastern and southern regions of Byzantium, recaptured from the Persians, were forever lost, and the area of the empire was reduced to a piece consisting of Anatolia, part of the Balkans, Italy and island groups [187].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, unlike Persia, Byzantium eventually survived Arab attacks, retained the remnants of its possessions and repelled two Arab sieges of the capital in 674—678 and 717—718 [188] [189].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Byzantine Empire also lost territories in Crete and southern Italy in later conflicts with the Arabs, although they were eventually returned [190].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Troop composition and strategy


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The elite of the Persian army was the Savaran cavalry [191].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Most likely, the main weapon of these cavalrymen was a long spear capable of piercing two people at the same time [192].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The horses were protected from enemy arrows by plate armor [193].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Another trump card of the Persians were the riflemen units.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Sassanid archers could aim from a distance of 175 meters and kill with an accurate shot from a distance of 50-60 meters [194].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to the Strategicon (warfare manual) of the Emperor of Mauritius, the Persians often used archers during battles and therefore avoided fighting in weather that prevented archery [ 195].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Mauritius also claims in its leadership that the Persians were built in such a way that the forces of the center and flanks were equal.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

They also seemed to avoid being attacked by Roman spearmen on rough terrain, as archers tried not to engage in hand-to-hand combat [196].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Thus, the Strategicon advised to fight the Iranians on flat terrain and attack quickly in order to avoid large losses from the shooting of Persian archers [196].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, the Persians were considered masters of siege and achieved serious results with skillful leadership and careful planning [196].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The most important component of the Byzantine army was heavy cavalry — cataphractaries that became a symbol of Byzantium [197].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

They wore chain mail, engaged in battle on armored horses and used spears as their main weapon.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Cataphractaries were also armed with a small shield that was attached to the hand, and could also use swords, axes or bows [198].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The equipment of heavy Byzantine infantrymen (skutats) consisted of a large oval shield (scutum) and lamellar armor.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Scutats used spears against enemy cavalry to kill horsemen, and axes to injure horses [199].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Light Byzantine infantry (psyls) primarily used bows and wore only leather armor [200].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Byzantine infantry played a key role in strengthening the front line against enemy cavalry, and also served to support cavalry attacks.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to him, the heavy infantry of the empire “combined the best abilities of the Roman Legion with the old Greek phalanx” [201].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Avar army consisted of heavily armed archers and heavy cavalry fighting with spears.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Avars were adept at siege and knew how to build trebuchets and siege towers.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

During the siege of Constantinople, they erected protective ramparts to prevent a counterattack and used large shields covered with animal skins to protect against archers.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, like many nomads, the Avars used soldiers from subordinate peoples, such as the Gepids and Slavs, to support soldiers [202].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

But since the Avars depended on raids on the countryside for forage, they could not besiege cities for long, especially considering that their allies were less mobile [203].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

According to Kedzhi, the Byzantines had an almost obsessive desire to avoid changing essential elements of the status quo [204].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

They tried by all diplomatic means to find allies and divide enemies.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Although they failed in an attempt to prevent the unification of the Avars and Persians, their ties with the Slavs, who later became Serbs and Croats, and long negotiations with the Turks led to Slavic speeches against the Avar rule and the Empire's alliance with the Turks [205].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Logistics has always been a problem for Byzantines.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In his campaign on Byzantine territory, especially in Anatolia, Irakli most likely obtained food for his army by seizing it from the local population [206].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

During Heraclius's offensive campaigns against Persia, harsh winters each time forced him to abandon distant crossings, partly because both the Byzantine and Persian cavalry needed food for horses, which were kept in winter apartments [207].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Irakli feared forcing his troops to conduct campaigns in winter, since his closest predecessor Mauritius was overthrown precisely because of mistreatment of the army in winter [208].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Edward Luttwak believes that the Turks, with their hardy horses or ponies, which could survive in almost any terrain, played an important role in Heraclius's winter campaigns in hilly northwestern Persia in 627 [209].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

During campaigns on Persian lands, the Byzantines obtained food by robbery [210] [211].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

After the victory at Nineveh and the capture of the royal palace, the imperial army did not experience problems with supplying troops on foreign territory and in winter conditions [212]


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Historical sources


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The sources that report this war are mostly of Byzantine origin.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

First of all, among the modern events of Greek texts, it should be noted the Easter Chronicle, created by an unknown author around 630 [213] [214].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Giorgi Pisida wrote many poems and other works describing the events of the war.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Theophylact Simocatta is known as the author of many letters and History, which gives an idea of the political views of the Byzantines, but it covers only the period from 582 to 602 [215] [216].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Theodore Sinkell has preserved some speeches composed during the siege of Constantinople in 626 and containing useful information for studying some events.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Some Egyptian papyri of that time have also survived to us [215].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Persian archives have been lost, so there are no Persian sources modern to this war [51].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Non-Greek modern war sources include the Chronicle of John of Nikussky, which was written in Coptic, but survived only in Ethiopian translation.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

There are also some Syrian chronicles of the period, which Dogeon, Greytex and Lew call the most important sources of modern war [216] [217].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Among them, it is worth noting the “Chronicle of the Year 724", compiled in 640.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Guidi's Chronicle, or Khuzestan Chronicle, tells about the life of Nestorians in the Sassanid Empire [216].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Later Greek sources include The Chronicle by Theophanes the Confessor and A Brief History by Patriarch Nikephoros I.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The chronicle of Theophanes is very useful in recreating the course of the entire war [218].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

It is also usually supplemented by even later Syrian sources, such as the 1234 Chronicle and The Chronicle of Michael the Syrian [216].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, information from all these works, with the exception of Nikephoros's Brief History and the Book of Titles by the Christian-Arab historian Agapy of Manbij (Hierapolis), was drawn from a general source, from works by the historian of the VIII century Theophilos of Edessa [216] [219].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

From Armenian sources, the “History of Emperor Iraq” of the 7th century is known, attributed to Sebeos (there are disagreements about authorship).


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

This “History” is an Armenian compilation of various documents arranged in rough chronological order.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Because of this, the war is unevenly covered.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

In addition, this work was written, apparently, with the aim of correlating biblical prophecies and events that are modern to the author, but this is only an assumption [220].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The author of the work “History of the Artsruni House”, Tovma Artsruni, probably used sources similar to those used by Sebeos.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Another Armenian historian, Movses Kagankatvatsi, who wrote “The History of the Country of Aluank” in the 10th century, turned to unknown works, modern war [221].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Howard-Johnston considers the stories of Movses and Sebeos to be the most important surviving non-Muslim sources [222].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The History of Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria, written in Arabic, contains many errors, but this work can still be used.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Quran also contains some details related to the conflict, but they should only be taken very carefully [219].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The 9th century Arab historian Al-Tabari, author of the book “” (“History of Prophets and Kings”), written on the basis of lost materials, described in it the history of the Sassanid state [223].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Byzantine lives of Saints Theodore of Sikeon and Anastasia Persiyanina are quite useful for studying the events of the war [219].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Life of George Khozevit gives an idea of the panic during the siege of Jerusalem [224].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

However, there are some suspicions that the texts of his life may have been distorted by corrections of the VIII or IX century [225].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Numismatics are useful for dating some events [226].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Sigillography, or the study of seals, is also used for this purpose.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Art and archaeological finds can also serve as grounds for reconstructing the course of the war.


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Epigraphic sources or inscriptions are of limited use [227].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

The Strategicon of the Emperor of Mauritius, which Edward Luttwak called “the most complete Byzantine field leadership” [228], contains valuable information about the military thought and customs of the time [229].


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Notes


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Literature


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

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Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Template:Unavailable link


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

References


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

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Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Category:Byzantine Wars


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Category:Wars of the Sassanid State


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Category:7th-century wars


Question: In what year did Emperor Heraclius I finish his reign?

Iran—Byzantine War (602—628)

Category:Roman-Persian Wars


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Khadzhimukan (Kazhymukan) Munaitpasov (Kazakh: Kazhymukan Munaitpasuly; [comment 1], Karaotkel village of Akmola region, —, Lenin Tuy collective farm, South Kazakhstan region) is a famous Kazakh wrestler and circus performer.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Repeatedly (in 1908, 1909, 1911, 1913 and 1914 [1] [2]) he won the World Championships in classical wrestling among professionals.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

The first Kazakh to win the title of world champion in French wrestling; he repeatedly won world, Russian, regional, then all-Union championships in classical wrestling among heavyweights.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

He is the owner of about fifty awards and medals of various samples.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Due to the fact that he could not be admitted to the Russian national team, Yamagata Mukhanura competed under the Japanese name at international competitions for Manchuria.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Khadzhimukan was also nicknamed “Black Ivan”, and after performing the Hajj in 1912, he received the prefix “Haji” (pilgrim) to his name, with which he became known all over the world.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

In the pre-revolutionary period, Khadzhimukan successfully performed on international arenas together with such legendary wrestlers as Ivan Poddubny, Georg Lurich and Ivan Zaikin.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

After the October Revolution, he actively participated in the formation of Soviet power in Kazakhstan, founded the first professional theater in the history of Kazakhstan, from the bosom of which many eminent artists of time, organized various championships.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

During the Great Patriotic War, Khadzhimukan raised funds to help the army with his speeches and presented the front with an aircraft named after Amangeldy Imanov.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Despite all his services to his homeland, at the end of his life he was left without support from local authorities and allegedly died of pneumonia due to living in inhuman conditions.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Biography


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Origins


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Khadzhimukan comes from the Altybas subgenus of the Uzyn Kazakh family of the Kypshak tribe [3], which is known for its batyrs.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

His pedigree looks like this: Kipchak Toktarbay, then Kobylandy batyr, Terlikbay, Oybas, Uzun, Altybas, Karys, Zholaman, Sanbay, Shadi batyr, who lived during the time of Khan Abylay (1711-1781), his grandfather Yernak, Father Munaitpas, and Khadzhimukan himself.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

There were legends that his grandfather on his mother's side, Lek-Baluan, had such power that he could pull trees along with the roots [4].


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Childhood and adolescence


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Khadzhimukan was born on April 7, 1871 (according to passport data) in the village of Karaotkel in Akmola region of modern Kazakhstan, but there are other opinions about his date of birth [comment 2].


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

His father, Munaitpas Yernakov, was a very modest and poor man, but he had remarkable physical strength and often won wrestling fights, for which he received the nickname “fat legged baluan”.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Kazhymukan's grandfather, Yernak, was also distinguished by great physical strength and wrestling skills, he foresaw the brilliant future of his grandson and began to teach him the intricacies of the national type of wrestling of the Kazakh kures [5].


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Journalist Kazbek Suleimenov, who repeatedly met with Khadzhimukan, claimed that he was orphaned at the age of 9 and herded sheep from the bais since childhood.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

In Alimkul Burkitbayev's story, Mukan was orphaned at the age of 19, but then Burkitbayev began to hold the opinion that his father died in 1914, when Khadzhimukan was in Riga and was 43 years old [4].


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

Khadzhimukan began working for the bais in adolescence and performed hard physical work.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

In search of work, he goes to Kyzylzhar, where he works for a local rich Tatar [4].


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

His mother said that he could bet, as fun, eat a whole ram or drink a full fat tail of butter.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

There is a legend that Khadzhimukan pulled out a bull stuck in the mud without anyone's help.


Question: What was the weight of Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov?

Khadzhimukan Munaitpasov

There is also a story that in 1889, the owner of Khadzhimukan instructed him to bring dry hay in the midst of a harsh winter.