Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Therefore, the basic provision of the patent that “the p-n junction is characterized by high resistance” [29] is generally incorrect.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets openly admitted this omission only in 1978 [52] [47].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets's circuit was filled with thyristor PNPN structures, which in real operation could not but lead to the circuit snapping in an inoperable position [52].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

It is likely that this is the reason why Neuss did not use p-n junction insulation in his works in the early 1960s [52].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Works on FETs


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In 1966, Legovets first watched Francois Truffaut's film Four Hundred Beats [18].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

What he saw struck him so much that Legovets finally left Sprague and moved with his family to Austria for the second time [18].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Returning to the United States, Legovets opened his own business, and from 1973 to 1988 he taught at the University of South Carolina [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In the 1970s and 1980s, Legovets was mainly engaged in applied research of MOS transistors [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Its main customer was Rockwell International, at that time a leading developer of microwave devices based on gallium arsenide (GaAs) [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In addition to GaAs, Legovets also studied metal-nitride oxide (MNOS transistors) structures, and at the end of his scientific career he returned to the topic of solar cells [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Two models describing processes in MIS structures bear the name of Legovets (Legovec):


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The Legovek-Slobodsky model [1] (MLS), an equivalent circuit of a MOS transistor in depletion and inversion modes, was developed by Legovets and Alexey Slobodsky while working on Sprague (publications 1961— 1964 years).


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

MLS makes it possible to calculate the fundamental parameters of the MOS transistor (for example, the Debye length) from the instrumentally removed dependence of the gate-channel capacitance on the voltage applied to the gate [53].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

MLS assumes that the surface states are localized exclusively at the interface between the semiconductor and the oxide, and the charge density at the boundary is constant.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

These assumptions, which do not take into account fluctuations of surface phenomena and inhomogeneities at the edge of the channel, narrow the curves of the calculated (theoretical) conductivity of the MIS structure in comparison with the instrumental measurements [54].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The Legovek-Zuliga (MLZ) model was developed in the late 1960s together with Rene Zulig, a leading developer of McDonnell Douglas, a former colleague of Legovets in Sprague [3].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The MLZ was based on previously published works by Trofimenkov, Turner and Wilson.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Zulig and Legovets tried to explain the experimentally observed linear dependence of the saturation currents of silicon MOS transistors depend on the gate voltage (Shockley's classical theory predicted quadratic dependence).


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

MLZ explained this phenomenon as a result of the saturation of the electron drift velocity in the channel of the MOS transistor.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Zulig and Legovets made a fundamental assumption that the length of the microwave transistor channel region in which saturation occurs is significantly less than the thickness of the epitaxial layer.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

However, later researchers proved that the assumption was wrong, and the MLZ was not widely used.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

At the age of seventy, Legovets left the university and settled in Los Angeles.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

In retirement, he was engaged in the protection and reconstruction of antiquities, and then became interested in poetry and published several collections of poems at his own expense.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets died in Los Angeles at the age of 93 [56].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Key publications


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Legovets included in his autobiography a list of eight patents and 115 publications in scientific journals, the last of which dates back to 1990.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Works before 1970 cover almost the entire spectrum of known semiconductors and semiconductor devices, and since 1970 they have focused on gallium arsenide field-effect transistors [57].


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

The most cited of these works, according to Google Scholar as of April 2012 (ordered by year of publication):


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

U.S. Patent 2776367, granted January 1, 1957, filed November 18, 1952


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: date and year (link)


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Cite journal requires |journal= (help) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: date and year (link) (the main material of the article was presented a year earlier, at the Physical Conference society on January 31, 1952)


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

U.S. Patent 3029366, granted April 10, 1962, filed April 22, 1959


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

U.S. Patent 4242595, granted December 30, 1980, filed July 27, 1978


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Notes


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Sources


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Explicit use of et al.


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

in: |author= (help)


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Category: 1918 births


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Category: Deaths in 2012


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Category:American engineers


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Category:American physicists


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Category:Charles University alumni


Question: During what operation was Kurt Legovets taken to the United States?

Kurt Legovets

Category: Participants of World War II


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Skichless turbellaria [1] is a class of animals from the Acoelomorpha subtype of Xenacoelomorpha type [2] (some taxonomists lower the rank of the Acoela taxon to order [3]), includes about 400 species [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It was previously considered as a detachment of ciliary worms (Turbellaria) [5].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These are small (up to 9 mm in length) animals that do not have a whole or intestine.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The structure of skiche-free turbellaria includes an epidermis covered with cilia and rich in glands, ring and longitudinal muscles, a nervous system with a primitive brain and a parenchyma into which internal organs of the animal are enclosed.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The role of the digestive system in these animals is played by central syncitium, in which food is absorbed through phagocytosis.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Undigested food residues are discharged outside through the mouth opening.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Skiceless turbellaria have sensory organs, such as a statocyst and photoreceptors.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These animals have a very complex (usually hermaphroditic) reproductive system.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela can reproduce both asexually and sexually, and in the latter case, fertilization is always internal, and the development of offspring is direct (in rare cases, live birth occurs).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In addition, animals from this group have the ability to regenerate, creating two full-fledged individuals from one cut.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Skish-free turbellaria live in all oceans, most species are free-living inhabitants of benthos.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some species live on corals or are commensal of other invertebrates, and some have their own endosymbionts.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The taxonomy of skicheskish turbellaria and their location in the animal kingdom have been revised several times.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Molecular studies of the genome of different Acoela species indicate that this class belongs to the treasure underlying all bilaterally symmetric animals.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Description


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Appearance


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela are small multicellular animals, bilaterally symmetrical worms, as a rule, their size does not exceed 2 mm [1], but large representatives of some species from the Convolutidae family can reach 9 mm in length [6].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The shape of the body depends on the habitat: the inhabitants of sand have a long and thin body, those living in silt have a compact body in the form of a drop, living between stones and corals are wide and flat, in epiphytic species the edges bodies are turned to the ventral side, pelagic species have a disc-shaped body, often with turned edges.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Most Acoela species are translucent animals, but there are species that are colored in different colors, such as the green Symsagittifera roscoffensis (coloration caused by a symbiote Tetraselmis convolutae) or red Paratomella rubra (due to hemoglobin-filled pigment cells) [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Turbellaria do not have special locomotor appendages.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Like other small turbellaria, skiche-free turbellaria move by sliding over the substrate or floating in water by beating cilia [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Ciliary locomotion can be very effective, allowing, among other things, a sharp change in movement by 180 degrees [7].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

epidermis


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The outer surface of skichesky turbellaria is a single-layer ciliary epidermis.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In many species of Acoela, epidermal cells are divided by the muscle belt into two parts: the outer, wide and flat, and the inner one, in which the cell nucleus is located.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

However, in Archaphanostoma agile and Otocelis rubropunctata species, this structure of epidermal cells has not been shown; in these species, the nuclei of epidermal cells are above the muscle belt.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Each cell of the epidermis carries a large number of cilia.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In terminal parts, epithelial cells are connected by desmosomes [8].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

There may be microvilli between the cilia.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The cilia of skichesky turbellaria, like other Acoelomorpha, are distinguished by a special stepped structure of the apical region.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The cilia roots are also a complex structure consisting of a two-membered main root and two additional roots [7].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Thus, the roots create a branched system of microtubules that connects adjacent cilia [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In these animals, the epidermis is not covered by the cuticle.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The basement membrane [8] and extracellular matrix under the epidermis are practically absent in Acoela, and a layer of ring muscles is located directly under the epidermis [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The epidermis may carry additional structures.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

For example, the species Paratomella rubra has special cilia at the posterior end of the body that allow representatives of this species to temporarily attach to the substrate.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Unlike ordinary cilia, the free ends of the attachment cilia are flattened [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The epidermis of skin-free turbellaria does not carry stem cells.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The renewal of epidermal cells occurs due to the proliferation of stem cells located in the parenchyma, right under the epidermis [9].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

There are numerous unicellular glands in the epidermis.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Among them are rhabdoid glands, which can be stained, and mucous glands.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

At the apical pole of the worm's body, there is a cluster of two or more large glands that secrete mucus and open the frontal pores.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

This cluster is called the frontal organ [10].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Next to the frontal organ lies an accumulation of mucous glands, which open with a single hole at the anterior end of the body.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Various frontal glands are also located on it.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The nuclei of glandular cells, with the exception of most pigment cells, are located under the musculature layer [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Skichless turbellaria of the Sagittiferidae family carry special unique needle-like structures on the body surface - sagittocysts.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

They are secreted by specialized glandular cells - sagittocytes due to the contraction of special muscles.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sagittocytes can be associated with sexual behavior, as well as serve as protection and hunting [11].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Parenchyma


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The parenchyma of skiceless turbellaria is a connective tissue between the epidermal layer and digestive syncitia.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Unlike representatives of other closely related taxa, in which parenchyma cells are enclosed in a layer of extracellular matrix, in Acoela, the parenchyma consists almost entirely of cells with a minimum the amount of extracellular matrix [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Recent studies have shown that the Acoela parenchyma and flatworm parenchyma are not homologous to each other and are the result of parallel evolution [12].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In the parenchyma, peripheral and central zones can be distinguished (the latter also includes digestive syncitium [8]).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

A parenchyma is made up of several types of cells with different functions.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

One of the cell types is the stem cells (neoblasts) already mentioned above, which, if necessary, differentiate and migrate to the epidermis region.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Each such cell carries a bundle of centrioles, from which new epidermal cilia are formed during differentiation.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela stem cells are capable of movement.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela neoblasts are the only source for both somatic and germline cells [13].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Another type of parenchyma cell is stationary cells.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These cells have a branched body, which allows them to create gap contacts both with each other and with the cells of all other animal tissues.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The slit contacts ensure rapid transport of substances inside Acoela and serve as an alternative to the circulation system that this group of animals does not have.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In addition to these two types of parenchymal cells, which are present in all skiches-free turbellaria, additional types of cells can be found in some species.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

For example, in the species Paratomella rubra, in full accordance with the species epithet, the body is colored red due to pigment parenchymal cells containing hemoglobin [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sometimes parenchyma cells contain vacuoles [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Musculature


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela only has smooth muscles.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

However, in some species, myofibrils show transverse striation, similar to the striation and Z-discs of real striated muscles.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The length of the “sarcomer” in this case is about 1.5 microns.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Interestingly, the distribution of muscle proteins such as actin and tropomyosin in the muscles of these worms corresponds to the striated muscles of the rest of Bilateria [14].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In most types of skichesky turbellaria, the external muscles are located according to the following scheme.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Directly under the body wall (epidermis) there are annular muscles, under them are diagonal, and the longitudinal muscles are below them.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The only exception is the family, in which the outer (close to the epidermis) muscle layer is longitudinal, and under it there is an annular one.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The diagonal muscles intersect just behind the mouth opening, wrapping around it and creating a U-shaped muscle at the intersection (with the exception of the family, which does not have this structure).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The number and location of dorsal and ventral diagonal muscles varies from family to family.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some Acoela species, such as Symsagittifera roscoffensis and Childia groenlandica, additionally develop a sphincter around the mouth.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In contrast to the fairly constant layout of the external muscles, different types of Acoela show a very different set of internal muscles (parenchyma muscles) in terms of branching and location.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The main internal muscles of skiceless turbellaria are divided into statocyst muscles (which hold it in place), dorsoventral muscles, and muscles of copulatory organs.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The most developed muscular system has been described for larger species of Acoela, such as Symsagittifera roscopensis, and the least developed in members of the genus Childia (Childia trianguliferum) and in, presumably the most basal taxon of the class is Paratomella [15].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Nervous system


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Skiceless turbellaria have a primitive brain that has the shape of a ring and is located under the epidermis in the front of the animal.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The brain is not separated from the rest of the body by a membrane, and muscle bundles and frontal gland ducts pass through it.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Several nerve strands located radially symmetrically extend from the brain to the back of the body.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Nerve strands are connected to the peripheral nervous system, which consists of three separate nerve networks that are located under the musculature layer (located directly under the body wall), between the layer muscles and epidermis and in the epidermis itself, respectively.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

This distribution of the nervous system ensures good innervation of all layers of the muscles [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The nervous system is better developed on the dorsal side of the worm's body than on the abdomen.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Using immunohistochemistry methods, serotonin-like immunoreactive and cholinergic parts were found in the Acoela nervous system [4] [16].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sensory organs


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

All known Acoela species have one statocyst that serves as a gravity receptor.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The statocyst is located in the front of the body and consists of a lithocyte that has one statolite and is enclosed in a capsule of two parietal cells [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Presumably, the main function of the statocyst is to regulate the animal's balance.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The statocyst is the hallmark of the taxon.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sometimes individuals born through asexual reproduction do not have a statocyst, and some worms have several statocysts after regenerating the anterior end of the body [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some species have paired eye spots at the front end of the body, apparently serving as photoreceptors.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Thus, in Otocelis rubropunctata, eye spots are specialized epidermal cells with cilia of the usual structure and numerous pigment granules.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

There are many synapses on the basal side of these cells, but the photoreceptor function of these formations has not been proven.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It is indicated for Praesagittifera naikaiensis eye spots.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

This and some other species do not have cilia in their eye spots; they consist of pigment cells containing vacuoles with light-refractive inclusions, and up to three nerve cells that conduct the signal.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Many Acoela can sense light using epidermal photoreceptor cells, which are very difficult to identify because they are not surrounded by pigment cells [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Experiments carried out on skishless turbellaria demonstrated negative phototaxis for representatives of this class (in the described experiments, animals sought to move away from the light source) , which suggests that light signals a threat to them [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

There are single-flagellar receptor cells next to the mouth and in the pharynx (if any).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Several morphological types of these receptors have been described, and different families have different types of receptors [17].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Digestive system


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The digestive system of skichesky tubellaria consists of the oral opening and central digestive syncitia, which in some representatives is associated with the muscles [8].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These animals do not have a intestinal cavity, which is why they got their name [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

One of the most primitive skiceless turbellaria, Paratomella rubra, does not have syncitia, and the parenchyma consists only of individual cells [8].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The absorbed food passes from the oral cavity to the central syncitium by phagocytosis, and digestive waste is released through the oral opening.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Thus, digestion in these animals is not abdominal, but intracellular.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

There are no digestive glands on syncitia.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

As a rule, members of this class of animals have neither a cell intestine [1] or an anus.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The presence of the pharynx is indicated for the families Diopisthoporidae,,, Solemofilomorphidae, as well as for the genera Oligochoerus and Proporus [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Interestingly, the muscular pharynx of different Acoela taxa are not homologous to each other and differ greatly anatomically [18].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Moreover, they are not homologous to the pharynx of flatworms [19].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some Acoela, for example, and a number of members of the family, have a single digestive cavity that is not lined with epithelium.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It is surrounded by temporary syncytial structures and filled with vesicles surrounded by the membrane; it is also associated with muscle formations [8].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The location of the mouth varies from species to species.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It is invariably located on the midline of the body, on the ventral surface, but on this line it can be found both at the anterior edge of the animal (for example, in Hallangia [4]) and at the posterior (for example, Diopisthoporus) or somewhere in between [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Excretory system


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

No typical excretory organs were found in Acoela.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Cells resembling protonephridia cirtocytes were found, but later it turned out that they are degenerating epidermal cells.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Cells devoid of cilia and similar to protonephridia tubular cells, with branched lacunae and tubules, were found in Paratomella rubra.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

They may have an excretory function [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Internal transport


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Oxygen turbellaria gas exchange is carried out by the entire surface of the body.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Their flattened structure in the dorso-ventral direction makes it possible to effectively deliver oxygen to the internal tissues and remove carbon dioxide from them through diffusion.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Nutrients can also be delivered from central syncitium to external tissues through intracellular diffusion or alternatively transported through intercellular gap contacts [1 ].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Reproductive system


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The reproductive system of skicheskish turbellaria differs significantly from family to family and before the application of molecular methods of cladistics served as the main morphological feature according to which members of this class were classified.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Almost all types of skiche-free turbellaria are hermaphrodites, often protandic, that is, the individual first functions as a male and then as a female [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The male reproductive system ensures the production of spermatozoa, their aggregation in sperm and the removal of sperm from the body.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It can include paired testes, seed tubes, a seminal vesicle in which the animal's own sperm is stored, the prostatic gland in which the secret is formed, and the copulation organ, the penis.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The structure of the penis is very diverse: some species do not have it, in others the copulatory organ is a simple intussusception of the body wall, and in some, the penis has a very complex structure and includes muscle, sclerotic and glandular elements.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In some species, the penis carries a stiletto, which pierces the partner's epidermis during hypodermal fertilization [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sperm usually forms a congestion in the parenchyma near the copulatory organ.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sometimes these clusters are surrounded by specialized tissue containing muscle elements that contribute to sperm injection; in this case, sperm accumulations are called seminal vesicles [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The female reproductive system ensures the production of eggs, their development, storage and withdrawal to the outside after fertilization, as well as the flow of sperm received from the partner inside.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In some Acoela species, the female reproductive system does not have an outlet.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In others, it opens outward by the female genital opening, the so-called gonopor (some sources use the term “vagina” [20] or “vagina”).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sperm coming from a partner may be stored briefly in a copulatory bag (sometimes the term “copulatory bursa” or “female copulatory organ” is used [21]), and if long-term storage is necessary, the sperm is redirected to the semen receiver [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It is not uncommon to have one or more bursal noses (English: nozzles).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These sclerotized structures are strengthened by cells rich in fibrillar actin and are closely related to copulatory bursa, taking part in sperm modification.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Details of their structure were used to develop the Acoela classification [22].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela does not have oviducts, some species use the oral cavity to hatch eggs, while others develop temporary ruptures in the body wall [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Oocytes are often surrounded by additional cells [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The gonads of skichesky turbellaria do not have epithelium.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Germline cells develop in the parenchyma and do not separate from it in any way.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The location of the gonads in the body can vary greatly even in individuals of the same species; the ovaries and testes may be paired or unpaired, and some worms, such as Antigonaria, do not have separate gonads instead of they have a germinative zone that produces both spermatozoa and eggs [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The structure of spermatozoa is important for determining the internal phylogeny of Acoela [23].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The spermatozoa of these animals do not have free flagella, but only two axonemas completely immersed in the body of the sperm [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Axonemes usually have a typical number of microtubules: 9 peripheral pairs of microtubules and two central microtubules; however, sometimes there is only one central microtubule or the central microtubules are completely absent.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

There are microtubules in the sperm cytoplasm that give elasticity to the cell [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sperm cells from different families may also differ in the ratio of the length of the nucleus to the length of the entire cell, the position of the nucleus and the overlapping of the nucleus and flagellum [24].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

symbionts


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Many Acoela from the Convolutidae and Sagittiferidae families [25], which inhabit habitats illuminated by the sun, have symbiotic algae necessary for the survival of the host.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It can be zoochlorella or.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

For example, the parenchyma cells of the Symsagittifera roscoffensis worm contain green algae Tetraselmis convolutae, which gives the worm's body a green color [26].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Symbionts are transmitted predominantly horizontally, which means that each new generation acquires symbiotes anew.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In this case, worms are born colorless and swallow free-living algae cells equipped with flagella within a few days after birth.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Individuals that fail to catch algae die.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

After absorption, algae cells fall under the epidermis and penetrate into the worm cells, changing shape and losing the flagellum, flow and eye [25].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Amphiscolops carvalhoi and Waminoa brickneri describe the vertical transmission of symbionts, in which algae cells are contained in an egg and passed on to the next generation.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela has had symbiosis with algae at least twice [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In some cases, endosymbionts fully provide for their host, and the worms themselves do not feed.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Convolutriloba longifissura worms do not survive without symbionts, but continue to feed on their own [25].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Breeding


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sexual reproduction


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

As mentioned above, skicheskish turbellaria tend to be hermaphrodites.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Nevertheless, self-fertilization of one individual is excluded due to the structure of the reproductive system.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela's fertilization is always internal.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The method of copulation may differ from species to species and is significantly dependent on the environment.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Mutual sperm exchange, hyperdermal transmission and hypodermal administration are possible.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In the first two cases, a simple hole in the epidermis — an antrum or a soft, muscular penis — is involved in sperm transmission.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In the latter case, the partner's epidermis is pierced by sclerotized auxiliary structures similar to needles or stilettos [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The number of eggs produced by each individual is small, since the minimum egg size is about 50 microns, which is a significant limiting factor for animals with a size of a few millimeters factor [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Eggs are laid alone or in groups surrounded by mucus [25], through the mouth, female gonopore, or by destroying the cell wall followed by direct development of the individual [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some representatives, for example, Diopisthoporus and Childia vivipara, are viviparous [4] [27].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Asexual reproduction


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

While sexual reproduction is known to all Acoela, many are also capable of asexual reproduction.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The Paratomellidae family describes the formation of a chain of zooids, which then breaks with the formation of daughters.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Within the Convolutidae family, architomy, or fragmentation, is common, in which missing organs are formed after the separation of the mother and daughter individuals.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Budding occurs, in which the daughter develops from one of the three lobes located at the posterior end of the mother, in a direction perpendicular to or opposite to the mother [4 ] [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Regeneration


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela has a pronounced ability to regenerate after dividing one individual into two.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In all species studied so far, muscle contraction occurs at the beginning of the process, with the help of which the damage is closed.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The muscle fibers that form around the wound are initially oriented randomly and only gradually come to an orthogonal location.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Pre-existing muscle fibers and longitudinal bundles penetrate into the newly formed one and serve as a template for differentiating new myocytes and neurons.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Development, regeneration and tissue homeostasis are controlled by somatic stem cells known as neoblasts.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Neoblasts have a large nucleus and are totipotent, that is, they can develop into cells of any type.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Unlike other multicellular animals, in which stem cells are associated with the epidermis, in Acoela they are located exclusively in the parenchyma.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

It has been shown that in Isodiametra pulchra germline cells and a subpopulation of somatic neoblasts express a homologue of the piwi gene, the silencing of which does not affect cell proliferation in mature individuals, but it affects their ability to reproduce and makes their offspring unviable [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Development


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela's embryonic development begins with duo spiral crushing, which is believed to have arisen independently of the quartet spiral crushing inherent in all Lophotrochozoa.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

As with quartet spiral crushing, the first horizontal division is unequal and leads to the formation of micromers, but it occurs at the bicellular stage, not the four-cell stage, so micromers form duets, not quartets.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The first, second and third micromer duets give rise to all ectodermal structures, and the endodermal (parenchyma) and mesodermal (muscle) elements come from the third macromer duo.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Gastrulation occurs by building micromers on top of the macromers, and the mouth breaks through in a place other than the blastopor.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Internal tissues appear through delamination, that is, the cells of the parenchyma, muscle and nerve tissue are deposited outward to the inside of the embryo.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sometimes, instead of delamination, cells migrate, which give rise to the endoderm and mesoderm.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

By the end of gastrulation, the embryo shows a layered structure: the uppermost layer is formed by the rudimentary epithelium, in the middle layer there are cells - the precursors of muscles and neurons, and the innermost layer is formed by cells that will subsequently give rise to digestive syncitia.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

After gastrulation, organogenesis follows, in which the ciliary epithelium, subepithelial muscle fibers are isolated, and the nervous system begins to differentiate at the anterior end of the embryo.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The details of the development of the nervous system differ in different families [16].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Like other invertebrates, transcription factors of the BhLH family play an important role in the neurogenesis of Acoela [28].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela does not have a larval stage, that is, direct development is observed [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Aphanostoma pisae, described in 2015, has been cultivated in the laboratory for several years.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The embryonic development of this species at a temperature of 20° C took less than two days [29].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Ecology


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Most skikish-free turbellaria are benthic animals that live on the seabed; they are found in the waters of all oceans [25].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

They can live under rocks, in sand or mud, and among algae.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Sometimes they reach high densities, for example, Haplogonaria syltensis, which lives in water-saturated sandy beaches, can reach a density of 4,000 individuals per 10 cm³.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Paratomella rubra worms can attach to the substrate using special attachment cilia with flattened free ends [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Symsagittifera roscoffensis green worms stay in the upper layer of sand at low tide, giving it a greenish tint.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

When the soil vibrates, the animals quickly go deep, and the greenish tint disappears [7].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some species of skikish-free turbellaria are pelagic [1], some have adapted to life in fresh water [4] [30].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some Acoela, such as Hofstinia miamia, live on submerged mangrove leaves and roots [25].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Others live as commensals (according to another source, such as parasites or endosymbionts [4]) in the intestines of echinoderms [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Near Rottnest Island in Western Australia, skicheskish from the genus Waminoa were found living on Coscinaraea marshae madrepore corals [31].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In addition, members of this genus (Waminoa brickneri) live on corals and in the Red Sea, as well as near Indonesia [32] [33].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Corals are also inhabited by members of the genus Convolutriloba [25].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Bright red skish-free turbellaria are often found in ice samples from the Barents Sea, the Laptev Sea and Greenland waters.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

They inhabit a system of pores and crevices in pieces of ice [34].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Most Acoela species are predators.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Their diet may include small arthropods, bivalves and various worms, including other types of skiceless turbellaria.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

At least one species, Conaperta flavibacillum, practices cannibalism.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Some species consume single-celled algae and even bacteria [4] [1].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Systematics


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Grading


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

About 380 described species are classified as skish-free turbellaria [18] (according to another source, about 400 [4]).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

As of April 2018, the taxon includes 17 families, more than half of which are combined into the Bursalia suborder [3]:


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Incertae sedis families


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Aphanostomidae family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Diopisthoporidae family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Nadinidae family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Bursalia suborder


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Crucimusculata Infrastructure


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Isodiametridae family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Aberrantospermata superfamily


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Convolutidae family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Prosopharyngida Infrastructure


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

family


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Phylogenetic relationships within Acoela


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Due to their small size and small number of organs, the morphology of which may differ, it is very difficult to classify skiceless turbellaria without resorting to molecular methods.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The first species of Acoela Convoluta convoluta was described in 1806 and classified as flatworms.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Many other species of Acoela were described further, and in 1968 it was proposed to divide this group into families within the flatworm type.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

This separation was made on the basis of studying the copulatory apparatus using light microscopy.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In the future, methods such as electron microscopy and confocal microscopy in combination with methods and use were used to study the structural features of various Acoela representatives fluorophore labeled phalloidin.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

With the help of these approaches, it was possible to thoroughly study the structure of the nervous system, muscles of the body wall and copulatory apparatus, as well as the ultrastructure of spermatozoa [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In 2011, Jondelius et al.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

an Acoela phylogenetic tree was built based on rDNA sequences and genes encoding.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These sequences were known for about a third of Acoela species; due to lack of data, the tree did not include the Anthroposthiidae family, as well as the monotype families Antigonariidae, Nadinidae and Taurididae.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

According to this study, the most basal Acoela family is Diopisthoporidae, followed by the Paratomellidae family and the Prosopharyngida clade, consisting of the Hallangidae families, Hofsteniidae and Solenofilomorphidae.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The basal position of these groups is also confirmed by morphological data.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

These five families are sharply separated from the so-called “higher” skish-free turbellaria, namely, representatives of the Crucimusculata treasure.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Morphologically, “higher” Acoela is characterized by the presence of ventral transverse muscles.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Finally, several Acoela families could not be combined into any clades [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In 2016, using the 18S rDNA metabarcoding method, it was shown that Acoela is actually much more diverse than current taxonomy suggests.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In addition, within Acoela, a treasure consisting of inhabitants of benthos was identified, which is sister to all other Acoela [35].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela's position in the animal kingdom


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In 1904, a hypothesis was proposed according to which an animal similar to a chirping planet gave rise to an ancestral bilaterally symmetrical animal, similar to modern skisheless turbellaria .


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

This hypothesis suggests that primitive skiceless worms gave rise to all other bilaterally symmetrical animals.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

With the development of phylogenetics in the middle of the 20th century, the idea appeared that the ancestor of Bilateria had a whole.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela began to be considered as secondary simplified flatworms, and together with Nemertodermatida they were combined into the Acoelomorpha clade as part of the flatworm type [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The general plan of the body structure and the presence of a statocyst bring Acoela and Nemertodermatida closer together, but in the latter, the statocysts contain two statolites, and not one, as in Acoela.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Like Acoela, Nemertodermatida lacks excretory organs and genital ducts.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

However, the most convincing evidence of the relationship between these two groups of worms is the same system of ciliary roots and the horizontal orientation of the plane of the second asymmetric crushing division [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Porifera


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Placozoa


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Cnidaria


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Xenacoelomorpha


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoela


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Xenoturbella


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Deuterostomia


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Ambulacraria


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

ChordaProtostomia


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Ecdysozoa


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Spiralia


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Modern ideas about Acoela's place in the Metazoa system [36]


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

A morphological analysis conducted in 1986 and an early cladistic analysis of 1996 indicated the need to isolate Acoelomorpha from the flatworm type.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

A study of rDNA sequences showed that Acoela is at the very base of the Bilateria treasure.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Curiously, this analysis separated Acoela and Nemertodermatida.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

However, a comparison of the amino acid sequences of mitochondrial proteins (2004, 2010) and (English: Expressed sequence tag, EST) (2009, 2011) still confirmed the proximity of these two groups and the wealth of the Acoelomorpha treasure.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

In addition, it later turned out that rRNA genes are poorly suited for determining the position of Acoela in the animal kingdom, as they have a low GC composition and are often truncated and modified.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Many researchers also pointed out that it is impossible to reconstruct an animal tree on such a small sample of genes.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Mitochondrial genomes are also poorly suited for this purpose: their sequences are unknown to most Acoelomorpha representatives, and the read mitochondrial genome of Symsagittifera roscoffensis was too different from the mitochondrial genomes of other bilaterally symmetric animals.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The amino acid sequences of mitochondrial proteins and EST are well suited for the reconstruction of evolution.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The analysis of these data showed that three main variants of the phylogenetic position of Acoelomorpha are possible [4]:


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoelomorpha is the earliest separated band Bilateria;


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoelomorpha is a sister group of Xenoturbella worms, and together they represent the earliest separated group (Xenacoelomorpha) of bilaterally symmetrical animals;


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Acoelomorpha and Xenoturbella are secondary animals.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The latter scenario is supported by the presence of specific miRNAs in Acoelomorpha, Xenoturbella and secondary, the presence of sperm protein RSB66 and protein kinase and the absence of these molecules in other animal groups.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

However, data on miRNAs are unreliable, because many of them are constantly lost in different groups of animals, and RSB66 and GNE proteins may have been lost by all primaries.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

However, in two studies, bootstrap values for the Xenacoelomorpha group were quite low, and the morphological similarity of these worms may be due to the same lifestyle [4].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

The most recent molecular data indicate that Xenoturbella and Acoelomorpha form a monophyletic group, so they are currently combined into the Xenacoelomorpha type [37] [38] (also include Nemertodermatida [2]).


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Despite the confirmed Xenacoelomorpha monophilia, their exact systematic position — as a basal group of bilaterally symmetric animals or a basal group of secondary animals — is not has been defined so far.


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Analysis of the Xenoturbella profunda transcriptome showed that Xenoturbella is the Acoelomorpha sister group of Xenacoelomorpha, and Xenacoelomorpha, in turn, is a Nephrozoa sister group, in which includes primary and secondary animals; therefore, according to this analysis, Xenacoelomorpha is a basal group of bilaterally symmetric animals [36].


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Notes


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Literature


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


Question: What is the length of the Skishechnaya Turbellaria?

Skicheskish turbellaria

Category:Animal classes


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Polish Uprising of 1830-1831, (in Polish historiography — the November Uprising (Polish: Powstanie listopadowe), the Russian-Polish War of 1830-1831 (Polish: Wojna polsko-rosyjska 1830 i 1831 [1])) — an uprising against the power of the Russian Empire on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland, North-Western Krai and Right-Bank Ukraine.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

It took place simultaneously with the so-called “cholera riots” in central Russia.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

It began on November 29, 1830 and lasted until October 21, 1831, under the slogan of restoring the independent “historical Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth” within the borders of 1772, that is, not only on the Polish territories, but also in territories inhabited by Belarusians and Little Russians, as well as Lithuanians and Jews.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Background


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

After the Napoleonic Wars, by decision of the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Poland (Polish: Królestwo Polskie) was created, a state in the status of a kingdom that was in personal union with Russia.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

It was a constitutional monarchy ruled by a two-year Sejm and a king represented in Warsaw by the governor.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Kingdom had its own army, staffed largely by veterans of the Polish legions who fought during the Napoleonic Wars on the side of France, but there were disproportionately many Greco - Catholics of the Kingdom of Poland.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Greek Catholics actively participated in the partisan movement against Napoleonic troops and their Roman Catholic allies during the Patriotic War of 1812, and in the manning of the Polish army it was their loyalty that the Russian government hoped for, especially since even the Roman Catholic Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose mother and sisters were Greek Catholics, expressed sympathy during the Patriotic War of 1812 Russians.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The post of governor of Poland was taken by T. Kosciuszko, divisional general of the French imperial army Zayonchek, and the brother of the Russian emperor Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich became the commander-in-chief of the Polish army, after the death of Zayonchek (1826) who also became a viceroy.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Alexander I, who treated the Polish national movement with great sympathy, gave Poland a liberal constitution, which, however, he himself began to violate when the Poles, exercising their rights, became resist his activities.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Thus, the Second Sejm in 1820 rejected a bill abolishing jury trials (introduced in Poland by Napoleon); Alexander stated that he, as the author of the constitution, had the right to be its only interpreter.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In 1819, preliminary censorship was introduced, which Poland still did not know.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The convening of the third Seimas was delayed for a long time: elected in 1822, it was convened only at the beginning of 1825.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

After Kalisz Voivodeship elected oppositionist Vincenta Nemojewski, elections were canceled there and new ones were called; when Kalisz re-elected Nemoevsky, he was deprived of the right to vote altogether, and Nemoevsky, who came to take his place in the Sejm, was arrested at the Warsaw outpost.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The tsarist decree abolished the publicity of the Seimas meetings (except for the first one).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In this situation, the Third Seimas unquestioningly adopted all the laws presented to him by the emperor.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The subsequent appointment to the post of Russian governor, Konstantin Pavlovich, alarmed the Poles, who feared a tightening of the regime.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On the other hand, violations of the constitution were not the only or even the main reason for the discontent of the Poles, especially since the Poles in other regions of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not fall under its scope (although they retained full land and economic supremacy).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Violations of the constitution were superimposed on patriotic feelings protesting against foreign power over Poland; in addition, there were also Wielkopolska sentiments, since “congressional Poland” ( Polish: Kongresówka), so called by the Poles - the brainchild of Alexander I at the Congress of Vienna, the former Napoleonic “Duchy of Warsaw” without the Poznan region, occupied only part of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in borders of 1772, only part of ethnic Poland and the region with a population of Russian Roman Catholics.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Poles (mainly the Polish gentry), as well as the gentry of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for their part, continued to dream of a state within the borders of 1772 [2], including in the “eight voivodeships” on the territory of Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus, hoping for Europe's help.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The rapprochement of the gentry with the people, as well as the transition to the side of the rebels of Greek Catholics and Russian Roman Catholics, was facilitated by the installation in Warsaw on the initiative of the late Stashitz of a monument to Nicholas Copernicus, whose works were included in the index of books banned by the Pope, and the parade at which soldiers — Roman Catholics and Greek Catholics — on the day of the opening of the monument, the governor Constantine forced to salute monument, which was perceived as a dirty insult by the imperial authorities of Russia to the religious feelings of the Polish and Russian peoples of the Kingdom of Poland.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Patriotic movement


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Secret student societies of patriotic youth operated at Vilna University: philomats (1817-1823) and filarets (1820-1823).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Secret societies were later exposed by the police, and the participants were persecuted.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In 1819, Major Valerian Lukasinsky, Prince Yablonovsky, Colonels Krzhizhanovsky and Prondzinsky founded the National Masonic Society, whose members were about 200 people, mostly officers; after the ban of Masonic lodges in 1820, it was transformed into a deeply covert Patriotic Society.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

At the same time, there were secret societies outside congress Poland: patriots, friends, promenists (in Vilna), Templars (in Volyn), etc.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The movement among officers had a particularly wide support.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Catholic clergy also contributed to the movement; only the peasantry remained away from it.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The movement was heterogeneous in its social goals and was divided into hostile parties: aristocratic (with Prince Czartoryski at the head) and democratic, headed by Professor Lelevel, leader and idol of university youth; its military wing was later headed by Second Lieutenant of the Guards Grenadier Pyotr Vysotsky, instructor of the School of Podhorunzhikh (military school), who created a secret a military organization already within the national movement itself.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

However, they were shared only by plans for the future structure of Poland, and not for an uprising or its borders.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Twice (during the Kiev contracts), representatives of the Patriotic Society tried to enter into relations with the Decembrists, but the negotiations did not lead to anything.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

When the Decembrist conspiracy was opened and some Poles were connected with them, the case of the latter was referred to the Administrative Council (government), which, after two months of meetings ordered the release of the accused.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The hopes of the Poles revived a lot after Russia declared war on Turkey (1828).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Plans for the speech were discussed, in view of the fact that the main forces of Russia were involved in the Balkans; the objection was that such a speech could prevent the liberation of Greece.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Pyotr Vysotsky, who was creating his own society at that time, entered into relations with members of other parties and set the end of March 1829 as the date for the uprising, when, according to rumors, the coronation was to take place Emperor Nicholas I with the crown of Poland.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

It was decided to kill Nikolai, and Vysotsky volunteered to personally carry out the action.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The coronation, however, took place safely (in May 1829); the plan was not implemented.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Preparing an uprising


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The July Revolution of 1830 in France excited Polish nationalists.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On August 12, a meeting was held to discuss the issue of immediate intervention; however, it was decided to postpone the speech, as it was necessary to win over someone from senior military officials.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In the end, the conspirators managed to win over Generals Khlopitsky, Stanislav Pototsky, Krukovetsky and Shembek to their side.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The movement covered almost all army officers, gentry, women, craft shops, students.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Vysotsky's plan was adopted, according to which the murder of Konstantin Pavlovich and the seizure of the barracks of Russian troops was to serve as a signal for the uprising.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The performance was scheduled for October 26.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In early October, proclamations were pasted on the streets; it was announced that the Belvedere Palace in Warsaw (the seat of Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, former governor of Poland) with of the new year is rented out.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

But the Grand Duke was warned of the danger by his Polish wife (Princess Lowicz) and did not leave the Belvedere.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The last straw for the Poles was Nicholas's manifesto on the Belgian revolution, after which the Poles saw that their army was intended to be the vanguard in the campaign against the rebels of the Belgians.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The uprising was finally scheduled for November 29.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The conspirators had 10,000 soldiers against about 7,000 Russians, of whom, however, many were natives of the former Polish regions.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

“November Night”


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

With the onset of the evening of November 29, armed students gathered in the Lazenkovsky forest, and regiments were armed in the barracks.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

At 6 pm, Pyotr Vysotsky entered the Podhorunzhikh barracks and exclaimed: “Brothers, the hour of freedom has struck!” , he was told: “Long live Poland!”


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Vysotsky, at the head of one hundred and fifty podhorunzhy, attacked the barracks of the Guards lancers, while 14 conspirators moved to the Belvedere.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

However, when they broke into the palace, Chief of Police Lyubovitsky raised the alarm and Konstantin Pavlovich managed to escape and hide.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

However, this failure did not affect the further course of events, since Constantine, instead of organizing an energetic rebuff to the rebels with the help of available forces, showed complete passivity.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Vysotsky's attack on the lancer barracks also failed, but soon 2,000 students and a crowd of workers came to his aid.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The rebels killed six Polish generals who remained loyal to the tsar (including Minister of War Gauka).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

An arsenal was taken.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Russian regiments were surrounded in their barracks and, without receiving orders from anywhere, were demoralized.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Most Polish regiments hesitated, restrained by their commanders (the commander of the Guards Horse Rangers Zhimirski even managed to force his regiment to fight against the rebels in Krakow suburb, and then joined Constantine with the regiment, who left Warsaw at night).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Konstantin summoned the Russian regiments, and by two o'clock in the morning Warsaw was cleared of Russian troops.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

After that, the uprising spread all of Poland at once.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Konstantin, explaining his passivity, said: “I do not want to participate in this Polish fight,” referring to the fact that what is happening is a conflict exclusively between the Poles and their King Nikolai.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Subsequently, during the war, he even demonstratively showed pro-Polish sympathies.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Representatives of the Polish government (Administrative Council) began negotiations with him, as a result of which Konstantin undertook to release the Polish troops that were under him, not to call up troops Lithuanian Corps and go beyond the Vistula.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Poles, for their part, promised not to disturb him and supply him with supplies.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Constantine did not just go beyond the Vistula, but left the Kingdom of Poland altogether — the fortresses of Modlin and Zamosc were surrendered to the Poles, and the troops of the Russian Empire left the territory of the Kingdom of Poland.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Government organization


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The day after the outbreak of the uprising, on November 30, the Governing Body met, which was at a loss: in its appeal, it defined the coup as an event “as regrettable as it was unexpected “, and tried to pretend to run on behalf of Nikolai.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

“Nicholas, King of Poland, is at war with Nicholas, the Emperor of Russia,” Finance Minister F. Lyubetsky.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On the same day, the Patriotic Club was formed, which demanded the purge of the council.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

As a result, a number of ministers were expelled and replaced by new ones: Vladislav Ostrovsky, General K. Malakhovsky and Professor Lelevel.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

General Khlopitsky was appointed commander-in-chief.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

There were immediately sharp disagreements between the right and left wings of the movement.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The left tended to view the Polish movement as part of the pan-European liberation movement and was associated with the democratic circles in France that carried out the July Revolution; they dreamed of a nationwide uprising and war against all three monarchies that divided Poland, in alliance with revolutionary France.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The right was inclined to seek a compromise with Nikolai on the basis of the 1815 constitution.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

At the same time, however, they also did not doubt the need to return the “eight voivodeships” (Lithuania and Russia).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The coup was organized by the left, but as the elite joined it, influence passed to the side of the right.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

General Khlopitsky, who was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, was also right.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

However, he enjoyed influence among the left, as an ally of Kosciuszko and Dombrovsky.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On December 4, a Provisional Government of 7 members was formed, including Lelevel and Yulian Nemtsevich.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The council was headed by Prince Adam Czartoryski - thus, power passed to the right.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Khlopitsky removed the most active left-wing leaders, Zalussky and Vysotsky, from Warsaw, the first - to organize an uprising in Lithuania, the second - as a captain in the army.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

He even tried to bring podhorunzhikh to trial.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On December 5, Khlopitsky accused the government of empty ranting and conniving violence of clubs, and proclaimed himself a dictator.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

At the same time, he expressed his intention to “rule the name of the constitutional king”, who just then (December 17) issued a manifesto to the Poles, stigmatizing the rebels and their “vile betrayal”, and announced mobilizing the army.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Sejm, which consisted mostly of the left, took away Khlopitsky's dictatorship, but then, under pressure from public opinion (Khlopitsky was extremely popular and was seen as the savior of Poland), returned it, after which Khlopitsky achieved the suspension of the meetings of the Seimas.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Delegates were sent to St. Petersburg (deputies L. Lyubitsky and I. Yezersky) for negotiations with the Russian government.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Polish conditions were as follows: the return of the “eight voivodeships”; compliance with the Constitution; voting taxes by the Chambers; observance of guarantees of freedom and publicity; publicity of meetings of the Sejm; security kingdoms exclusively by their own troops.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

With the exception of the first, these requirements were within the framework of the Vienna Convention of 1815, which guaranteed the constitutional rights of Poland.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Mikalai, however, promised nothing but amnesty.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

When on January 25, 1831, the returning Yezersky reported this to the Sejm, the latter immediately adopted an act on the deposition of Nicholas and prohibiting representatives of the Romanov dynasty from occupying the Polish throne.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Earlier, under the impression of the first news of Russia's military preparations, the Seimas again took away the dictatorship from Khlopitsky (who, knowing full well that Europe would not support Poland and the uprising was doomed, categorically insisted on a compromise with Nikolai).


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Seimas was ready to leave him command, but Khlopitsky refused him, saying that he intended to serve only as an ordinary soldier.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On January 20, the command was entrusted to Prince Radziwill, who was completely devoid of military experience.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

From that moment on, the outcome of the Polish uprising was to be decided by the martial arts of Russian and Polish weapons.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Warsaw Mint fell into the hands of the rebels.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In 1831, it produced 164,000 Polish ducats, the so-called.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

“lobanchikov” (copies of Utrecht ducats), who went to purchase weapons.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The difference between Polish coins of 1831 and St. Petersburg coins lies in the presence of a one-headed eagle near the head of a knight instead of a caduceus [3].


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Military actions


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The beginning of hostilities.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Grokhov


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

By November 1830, the Polish army consisted of 23,800 infantrymen, 6,800 cavalrymen, with 108 guns.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

As a result of active government measures (recruiting recruits, enrolling volunteers, creating mower detachments armed with braids sticking out on the shaft) in March 1831, the army had 57,924 infantry, 18,272 cavalry and 3,000 volunteers — a total of 79,000 people with 158 guns.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

In September, by the end of the uprising, the army numbered 80,821 men.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

This was almost equal to the Russian army put up against Poland.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Nevertheless, the quality of the army was much inferior to the Russian: they were mainly recently drafted and inexperienced soldiers, in the mass of which veterans dissolved.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The Polish army was especially inferior to the Russian army in cavalry and artillery.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

For the Russian government, the Polish uprising was a surprise: the Russian army was located partly in the western, partly in the inner provinces and had a peaceful organization.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

The number of all troops that were supposed to be used against the Poles reached 183 thousand. (not counting 13 Cossack regiments), but it took 3-4 months to concentrate them.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Count Dibich-Zabalkan was appointed Commander-in-Chief, and Count Tol was appointed Chief of the Field Staff.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

By the beginning of 1831, the Poles had about 55 thousand completely ready; on the Russian side, Baron Rosen alone, commander of the 6 (Lithuanian) Corps, could concentrate about 45 thousand in Brest-Litovsk and Bialystok.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

For political reasons, Khlopitsky did not take advantage of the favorable moment for offensive actions, but placed his main forces of troops in echelons along the roads from Kovna and Brest-Litovsk to Warsaw.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Separate detachments of Seravsky and Dvernitsky stood between the rivers Wisla and Pilica; Kozakovsky's detachment observed the Upper Vistula; Dzekonski formed new regiments in Radom; in Warsaw itself it was under arms up to 4 thousand of the National Guard.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Prince Radziwill took the place of Khlopitsky at the head of the army.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

By February 1831, the strength of the Russian army had increased to 125.5 thousand.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Hoping to end the war immediately, inflicting a decisive blow to the enemy, Dibic did not pay due attention to the provision of troops with food, especially to the reliable arrangement of the transportation unit, and this soon responded to the Russians with major difficulties.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

On February 5-6 (January 24-25, O.S.), the main forces of the Russian army (I, VI Infantry and III Reserve Cavalry Corps) entered the Kingdom of Poland in several columns, heading to the space between Bug and Narev.


Question: Who led the Polish Uprising of 1830—31?

Polish Uprising of 1830

Kreutz's 5 Reserve Cavalry Corps was supposed to occupy the Lublin Voivodeship, cross the Vistula, stop the weapons that began there and divert the enemy's attention.