Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The tourist season lasts from May to September, but it is also comfortable to be outdoors in April and October.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

There are about 300 sunny days a year.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

It rains in early spring and late autumn.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In the mountains of Albania, the climate is much colder — in winter the temperature can drop to -20° C.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Culture


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Holidays


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Republic Day is one of the most significant national holidays in the country, which has been celebrated annually on January 11 since 1946 [15].


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Albania's Independence Day is celebrated on November 28.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

As a rule, diplomatic missions in various countries also organize gala evenings in honor of this day.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Mother Teresa's Beatification Day is celebrated on October 19 as a national holiday.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Architecture and visual arts


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Secular Albanian painting appeared only at the end of the 19th century, its formation is primarily associated with the name of Kola Idromeno (1860-1939).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Albanian painting flourished in the interwar period, when several art schools appeared at once.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The largest of them was Shkoderskaya, led by Zef Colombi.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

During the reign of Enver Hoxha, the visual arts of Albania were dominated by the principle of socialist realism.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

These were the dictator's own beliefs, imposed and imposed on him in his country: “Albanians do not have idols and gods, but they have ideals — this is the name and work of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin.”


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

At the same time, the cult of personality and Enver Hoxha himself was present and widely encouraged.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In Albania, many paintings by famous painters have been preserved, who captured the image of the leader of the country in their canvases: “Flesh and Flesh of His People”, hood.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

— Zef Shoshi, 1976; “The Party Is Founded”, by A.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

— Shaban Hysa, 1974; “Thinking about the Struggle for a Brighter Future,” by Hood.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

— P. S. Sholla, 1976; January 11, 1946, by hood.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

— IN. Kilica (V. Kilica, on this day the Constituent Assembly elected in the country's first democratic elections, expressing the will of the people, unanimously proclaimed Albania the People's Republic and elected a new the government headed by Comrade. Enver Khoja); “Proclamation of the Republic”, by artist A.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

— Fatmir Haxhiu, 1974; A Conversation with the Locals (Kucakë, Summer 1943); Proclamation of the Republic, by art.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

— Fatmir Haxhiu, 1974.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The most revealing and publicly available example of Albanian socialist realism art of that time is the colorful panel “Shqiptarët” (1981), located on the facade of the National Historical Museum (Muzeu Historik Kombëtar) on Skanderbeg Square, executed in strict traditions of socialist realism.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The panel presents a collective image of the history of the struggle of the Albanian people for their independence.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Here you can see all the stages of this struggle: the soldiers of Skanderbeg, the creation of a national language and writing, fighters of the red partisan brigades... The central part of the panel is the figure of the defender of the the national flag of Albania in her hands, a girl in a national dress (the image of Mother Albania) throwing up her rifle, and an intelligent hard worker.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Bunkers and military fortifications


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

During the 40-plus years of Enver Hoxha's reign, from the end of World War II until his death in April 1985, concrete bunkers were built in Albania.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

More than 700,000 small bunkers have been built, one for four residents of the country.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The whole country is literally strewn with them.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The density of the bunkers is 24 pieces per square kilometer.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Small bunkers were located in groups of 3 or more pieces, in places of the most likely enemy offensive.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Now they can be found everywhere, including in cities, right in the courtyards of houses.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Small bunkers designed for infantry were not enough; many large bunkers were built for artillery crew.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Such bunkers were located mainly along the sea line and along the borders.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In the Durres area, you can also find such bunkers on the beach, converted into showers, cafes, changing rooms or just warehouses.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Hotels have been built on some of them and the premises inside are used as a warehouse.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In addition to pillboxes, fortifications for manpower and equipment were built.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Such structures were mainly built inside mountains and hills.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

According to Khoja's plan, heavy armored vehicles and infantry were to be hidden from air raids by a hypothetical enemy there.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Many of them are not finished and remain at the construction stage of the concrete entrance.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Now Albanians use them for personal purposes: a warehouse, a pigsty, a utility room, a place to install billiards.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Naturally, Enver Hoxha could not help but take care of himself.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The main bunker, several hundred meters long, was built in his hometown of Gjirokaster.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Shelters were made for the entire party leadership in the capital Tirana, on Mount Daiti.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In addition to fortifications on the ground, 2 were built on the water.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

They were built with two entrances and exits connected by a tunnel with water, and with utility rooms.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

They were intended for shelter, repair and equipment of submarines.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Soviet intelligence on the Adriatic was based in one of these facilities.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

There is a similar underground submarine base in the Crimea, in Balaklava.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

An underground airfield was also built that could accommodate up to 50 aircraft.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In 2012, at the level of the government of the country, it was decided to eliminate these artifacts of the past.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

From that moment on, the dismantling of the bunkers began.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

First of all, they are removed from beaches, cities, roads and places where they can catch the eye of a tourist.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Education


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Before the establishment of the communist regime in Albania, the illiteracy rate of the population was estimated at about 85 per cent.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

During the interwar period, the country experienced an acute shortage of educational institutions and trained personnel.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

However, when the communist government of Enver Hoxha came to power in 1944, the state began to make great efforts to eradicate illiteracy.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Strict rules were introduced: everyone between the ages of 12 and 40 who could not read or write had to attend special classes to acquire these skills.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Since then, the illiteracy rate in the country has fallen markedly [16].


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Today, the literacy rate in Albania is estimated at 98.6%: 99.2% among men and 98.3% among women [17].


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In the 1990s, the level of provision of educational services underwent significant changes, primarily due to the mass resettlement of Albanians from village to city.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The oldest university in Albania, the University of Tirana, was founded in 1957.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Theatre


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The origins of Albanian theater go back to the ancient culture of Illyrian tribes that lived in the second millennium BC.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

on the Balkan Peninsula [18].


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Since the beginning of the XIX century, amateur theater troupes existed in the cities of Shkoder, Korca, Tirana, Elbasan, Gjirokastra.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The contemporary art of theater originated during the anti-fascist struggle in partisan detachments [19].


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Movie


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Albanian cinema, like many other small countries, is of interest almost exclusively to cinema connoisseurs.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The very specifics of local film production do not imply a wide national film distribution, which, of course, affects the number of films released.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

It was only after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912 that information about this new art form began to leak into Albania.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In 1945, Albania opened the first cinematographic institute, which later transformed into the first Albanian film studio, where in 1953 the epic drama “The Great Warrior was shot Albania Skanderbeg” (in cooperation with Soviet Mosfilm).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

This film won an award for directing at the Cannes Film Festival in 1954.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Mythology


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Economics


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Albania is an industrially undeveloped, agrarian country.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

One of the poorest countries in Europe.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

It has been in international isolation for many years, which prevented the creation of stable trade and economic relations with developed countries of Western Europe, which is currently reflected in a lack of foreign investments in the country's economy.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

GDP in 2013 was $12.9 billion ($10.52 [20] thousand per capita in PPP, 131st in the world; in Europe it shares the penultimate place with Bosnia and Herzegovina, ahead of only Moldova).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Below the poverty line — 25% of the population.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The structure of the economy in 2009 (GDP share):


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

agriculture — 20.6%;


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

industry — 18.8%;


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

service sector — 60.6%.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

58% of workers are employed in agriculture, 15% in industry, and 27% in the service sector.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The unemployment rate is 12% (in 2009).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Agriculture produces: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

In industry — food processing, textiles and clothing; wood processing, oil and metal ore extraction, cement production, hydropower.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Foreign trade


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Exports in 2008 amounted to $1.3 billion: textiles and footwear; asphalt, metal ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Main buyers: Italy — 55.9%, Greece — 11.6%, China — 7.2%.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Imports in 2008 amounted to $4.9 billion: machinery and equipment, food, textiles, chemical products.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The main suppliers are Italy — 32.1%, Greece — 13.1%, Turkey — 7.2%, Germany — 6.6%, China — 4.5%, Russia — 4.2%.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Geographical distribution of Albania's foreign trade (for 2014) [21]:


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

EU countries — 66.0% ($5,079 million);


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

China — 6.1% ($465 million);


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Turkey — 6.1% ($465 million);


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

America — 3.8% ($294 million);


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

African countries — 1.5% ($117 million);


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Russia — 1.5% ($115 million).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Transportation


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Minibuses, buses and trains run throughout the country.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Minibuses, referred to here as “van”, are the most popular mode of transport.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

They are nine- and twelve-seater mini-buses in white and red coloring, which set off when all seats are occupied.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Each city has one or more “caravan” stations.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Municipal buses leave on schedule.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

They also run mainly until 3—4 p.m.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

You can travel between Albanian cities by train.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The railway connection connects Tirana, Durres, Shkoder, Pogradec, Vlora and Elbasan.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The busiest traffic between Tirana and Durres is up to six trains a day.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

On other routes, there are one or two trains per day.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Telephone connection


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

There are three mobile operators in the country: Eagle Mobile, Vodafone and AMC Mobile.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

See also


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Greater Albania


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

People's Socialist Republic of Albania


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Notes


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Literature


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The story of Skanderbeg.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

M., 1957 (Literary monuments).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Senkevich I. G. Albanian People's Liberation Movement in 1905—1912 MOSCOW: 1959.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Smirnova N. D. Formation of the People's Republic of Albania (1939—1946).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

MOSCOW: 1960.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Arsh G. L. Albania and Epirus in the late 18th — early 19th centuries MOSCOW: 1963.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Senkevich I. G. Albania during the Eastern Crisis.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

MOSCOW: 1965.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Smirnova N. D. The Balkan policy of fascist Italy.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

An Essay on Diplomatic History (1936—1941).


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

M.: 1969.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Smirnova N. D. Italy's policy in the Balkans.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

An essay on diplomatic history.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

1922—1935 MOSCOW: 1979.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

G. L. Arsh, Y.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

IN. Ivanova, O. A. Kolpakova N. D. Smirnova.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

A brief history of Albania.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

M.: 1992.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

N. D. Smirnova.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The history of Albania in the 20th century.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

M.: 2003.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

YU.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

IN. Ivanova.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Albanians and their neighbors.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Moscow: Nauka, 2006.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

IN. Mudrov said.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

The land of fiery birds.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

K.: Publishing Union “Andronum” LLC, 2016.


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

References


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

Wikimedia Atlas of Albania


Question: What is the capital of the Republic of Albania

Albania

on the Mountain Encyclopedia website


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish music consists mainly of Turkic elements; Central Asian folk music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman music, Persian music and balkan music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Modern music also has elements of European and American pop music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The roots of traditional music in Turkey go back centuries to the time when the Seljuk Turks migrated to Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Most modern popular Turkish music was formed in the early 1930s, when Turkish composers began to strive for Westernization [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

With the assimilation of immigrants from different regions in Turkey, the variety of musical genres and musical instruments has expanded.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkey also began to record popular music released in the ethnic styles of the Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Polish, Azerbaijani and Jewish communities based on documented folk music [ 2].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Many Turkish cities and towns have local music scenes that write music in a number of regional music styles.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Despite this, Western pop music lost popularity to Turkish Arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Western pop music became popular again by the early 1990s after the economy and society in Turkey became more open.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Thanks to Sezen Aksu's support, the revival of pop music has led to the emergence of several international Turkish pop stars, such as Tarkan and Sertab Erener.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the late 1990s, there was also the emergence of underground music, creating Turkish alternative rock music, electronic music, hip-hop, rap and dance music as opposed to the main corporate pop and arabesque genres [3].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Classical music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Ottoman court music has a large and varied system of modes or scales known as makam, and other rules of musical composition.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

A number of designation systems were used to convey classical music, the most dominant of which is Hambardzum's notopis, used before the gradual introduction of Western notopy [4].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish classical music is taught at conservatories and public clubs, the most respected of which is the Uskudar Music Community in Istanbul [5].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mini|right|example of tanbur music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

A specific sequence of classical Turkish musical forms is fasyl (tour fasıl — “chapter”), a suite of instrumental introduction (peshrev), instrumental completion (saz semaisi), and between them is the main section of vocal compositions, which begins with vocals and is emphasized by instrumental improvisations (taksim) [6].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The full fasyl concert will include four different instrumental forms and three vocal forms, including a light classical song (sharks).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Strictly classical fasyl remains the same makam throughout, from the introductory taksim to the dance melody (oyun havasy) [7].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

However, shorter ancient compositions, the predecessors of modern songs, are part of this tradition, many of which are very old dating back to the 14th century; many of them are newer, especially popular 19th century songwriter Haji Arif Bey [8].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Famous composers and performers of the genre


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Other supporters of the Turkish classical music genre were, in particular, Dede Efendi, Dmitry Kantemir, Hambardzum Limonjyan, Tatios Exerjyan, Selim III and Suleiman I.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The most famous modern Turkish performers of songs to classical music are Munir Nurettin Selcuk, Bulent Ersoy, Zeki Muren, Museyen Senar.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Musical instruments


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mini|right|example of music performed on the eve


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Traditional instruments in Turkish classical music today include tanbur — a plucked lute with a long neck, a nay — a flute with a longitudinal hole at the end, kamanchu — a bent violin, oud — plucked an unfaced lute with a short neck, the eve is a plucked zither, a violin and, in Mevlevi's music, a kudyum percussion instrument and a harp [9].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Ottoman harem music: belly dance


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mini|right|dancers perform belly dancing in a harem


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Between makam in Ottoman courtyards and melodies in Ottoman harems, a kind of dance music has formed that is different from fasyl and oyun havasa.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the Ottoman Empire, the harem was the part of the house that separated women from their families.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Unmarried men were not allowed to enter the harems.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The eunuchs guarded the Sultan's harems, which were quite large, including several hundred women who were wives and concubines.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

There, female dancers and musicians entertained women living in a harem.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Belly dancing was performed by women for women.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

These dancers are known as rakkase (tour rakkase - “dancer”) and almost never appeared in public.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

This type of harem music was taken out of the Sultan's chambers to the public by male street artists and hired dancers in the Ottoman Empire - Rakkas (tour rakkas - “dancer”).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

These dancers performed publicly for weddings, celebrations, festivals and in the presence of sultans.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Modern oriental dance in Turkey comes from this tradition of Ottoman Rakkas.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

It is mistakenly compared to Greek belly dance by digitizers and called ciftetelli in Turkish manner.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

However, ciftetelli is now a kind of folk music, with songs that describe their local origin, while rakkas, as the name suggests, is of Middle Eastern origin [ 10].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Dancers are also known for playing the kimwal, a two-cymbal musical instrument also known as sagatas [11].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The influence of gypsy music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Gypsy urban music influenced classical Turkish music through local culture in meyhan and taverns in Turkey [12].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

This type of music — fasyl (not to be confused with the musical form of classical Turkish fasyl music) — with food and alcoholic beverages, is associated with the lower class of Turkish society, although in modern times music fasyl can also be heard in more respectable establishments [13].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Gypsy music also influenced the musical form of fasyls [14].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the concerts, the dance music required at the end of each facyl is incorporated into Ottoman rakkas or belly dance motifs.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The rhythmic ostinato accompanying instrumental improvisation (ritimli taksim) for the abdomen is parallel to the rhythm of the classical gazelle, vocal improvisation in a free rhythm with rhythmic accompaniment.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Popular musical instruments in this form of facile are clarinet, violin, eve and darbuka.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Clarinetist Mustafa Kandyraly is a famous musical performer of this type of fasyl [15].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Janissary music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Janissary ensembles (tour. Mehter Takımı) are considered the oldest type of military march ensembles in the world [16].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Some instrumentalists were mentioned in Orhun's inscriptions, which are considered the oldest written sources of Turkish history, dating back to the 8th century AD.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

However, they were not mentioned as ensembles until the 13th century [17].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Since the 16th century, European countries borrowed from Turkey the concept of “ensemble of a military march” [18].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The influence of Turkish music on Western classical music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The musical relationship between Turks and the rest of Europe can be traced back many centuries [19], and the first type of oriental musical studies was the Turkish style [20].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

European classical composers in the 18th century were fascinated by Turkish music, especially the strong role played by wind and percussion instruments in Janissary ensembles [21].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Joseph Haydn wrote his War Symphony, including Turkish musical instruments in the instrumental lineup, as well as in some of his operas.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish instruments were included in Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 9, and he wrote the Turkish March in the additional music collection for Ruins of Athens, opera 113.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote Ronda alla turca in his Piano Sonata No. 11, and also used Turkish motifs in his operas, such as The Janissary Choir from Abduction from the Seragle.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The influence of Turkish classical music resulted in the introduction of cymbals, a drum and a bell into the symphony orchestra, where they still meet today.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Jazz musician Dave Brubeck wrote “Blue Rondo á la Turk” as a tribute to Mozart and Turkish music [22].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The influence of Western music on Turkish classical music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

While European military bands of the 18th century introduced percussion instruments of Janissary ensembles, mutual influence arose in the 19th century in the form of the Ottoman Army Ensemble.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In 1827, Giuseppe Donizetti, the elder brother of Italian opera composer Gaetano Donizetti, was invited as a music teacher to Sultan Mahmud II.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Donizetti was succeeded by German musician Paul Lange, a former music lecturer at the American College for Girls and the German Higher School in Istanbul, and later his son, Hans Lange.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mini|right|Ottoman marching song “Mebusan Marşı” (1909)


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the Republic of Turkey, the transfer of the former Imperial Orchestra (osm. Mızıka-ı Hümayun) from Istanbul to the new capital, Ankara, and renaming it the Presidential Orchestra of the Republic (tour. Riyaset-i Cumhur Orkestrası) marked the Westernization of Turkish music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The name was later changed to Presidential Symphony Orchestra (tour. Cumhurbaşkanlığı Senfoni Orkestrası).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Further influence was due to the creation of a new school for the training of Western-style music teachers in 1924, the renaming of the Istanbul Oriental Music School into the Istanbul Conservatory in 1926 and sending talented young musicians abroad for musical education.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Among them are famous Turkish composers such as Cemal Reshit Rey, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Ahmed Adnan Saigun, Nejil Kazim Axes and Hasan Ferit Alnar, who became known as the Turkish Five.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mini|right|marching song “İstiklâl Marşı” (1924)


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The founding of the Ankara State Conservatory with the support of German composer and music theorist Paul Hindemith in 1936 showed that Turkey wanted to be musically similar to The West [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

However, by order of the founder of the Republic of Turkey Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, following his philosophy taken from the West, but in order to remain Turkish in essence, large-scale classification and archiving samples of Turkish folk music from all over Anatolia were launched in 1924 and continued until 1953, resulting in the collection of about 10,000 folk songs.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Hungarian composer Bela Bartok visited Ankara and southeastern Turkey in 1936 in the context of these works [23].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

By 1976, Turkish classical music had gone through a renaissance, and a state music conservatory was established in Istanbul, which provided classical musicians with the same support as folk musicians.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Modern supporters of Western classical music in Turkey are Fazil Say, Idil Biret, Suna Kan and sisters Guher and Sucher Pekinel [24].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk music (Turku) is usually associated with objects surrounding everyday life and uses less pompous themes than love and emotions usually contained in its traditional counterpart, Ottoman court music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Most of the songs tell stories about real events and Turkish folklore, or were developed through song competitions of troubadour poets [25].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

According to their origin, folk songs are usually played at weddings, funerals and special festivals.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Regional folk music usually accompanies folk dances, which vary significantly from region to region.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

For example, at wedding ceremonies in the Aegean region, guests dance leisurely zeibek, while in other regions of Rumelia, cheerful ciftetelli dance music is usually played, and in the southeastern halay is a common form of local wedding music and dance in Turkey.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Greeks from Thrace and Cyprus, who adapted ciftetelli music, sometimes use it synonymously to denote oriental dance, which indicates a lack of understanding of its roots.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Ciftetelli is a folk dance that is different from the solo dance performed by a hired artist.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Regional sentiments also touch on the theme of folk songs.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

For example, folk songs from the Black Sea region are generally vital and express the customs of the region.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the southern regions, lamentative songs and lamentations are characteristic.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Since this genre is seen as the music of the people, musicians in socialist movements have begun to adapt folk music with modern sounds and arrangements in the form of protest music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the 1970s and 1980s, modern bards, such as Ashik Weisel and Mahsuni Sherif, who performed traditional love lyrics (ashik), moved away from spiritual calls for socio-politically active lyrics.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Another contemporary performer, Zulfu Livaneli, known in the mid-1980s for his innovation in combining the radical poems of the poet Nazim Hikmet with folk music and rural melodies, was positively assessed by left-wing politicians in Turkey.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In later times, saz orchestras, accompanied by many other traditional instruments and merging with Arabic melodies, preserved popular folk songs in Turkey [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Musical instruments


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk musical instruments range from strings such as saz; bowed instruments such as kamancha (a type of piano violin); percussion and wind instruments, including zurna, naya and davula.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Regional differences are important for different instruments: for example, darbuka in Rumelia and kamancha in the Eastern Black Sea region.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkey's folklore is extremely diverse, however, Turkish folk music is mainly marked by one musical instrument called saz or baglama (tur. bağlama).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Traditionally, saz is played exclusively by touring musicians — ashygs known in Turkey as ozans (from tour ozan - “poet”) or religious Alevi troubadours called ashyks (from tour aşık —” in love”) [26].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Due to the cultural crossing common during the Ottoman Empire, the Saz influenced various cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean, such as the Greek Baglama [27].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk literature


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

A large number of folk songs come from minstrels or bard poets (ozan).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

They have been developing Turkish folk literature since the beginning of the 11th century.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The musical instrument used by ozans is saz.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

They compete in musical rhyme with other ozans, where the argument ends in the defeat of a minstrel who cannot find a suitable quatrain to rhyme in the narrative story.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

These folk stories are taken from real life, folklore, dreams and legends [28].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

One of the most famous are the Ozans, who put the word “ashyk” before their name [29].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Arabesque


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Arabic music was banned in Turkey in 1948, but since the 1970s, immigration from predominantly southeastern rural areas to big cities and Istanbul in particular led to a new synthesis of culture.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

This changed Istanbul's musical image.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The old taverns and music halls of Fasyl music were supposed to close, giving way to a new kind of music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Citizens created their own style of music, which was largely present in the Middle East.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Musicologists pejoratively called this genre “Arabesque” because of the shrill scream that is characteristic of Arabic singing.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The popularity of arabesque grew so much in the 1980s that it even threatened the existence of Turkish pop music with rising stars such as Muslum Gürses and Ibrahim Tatlices [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

There are additional styles in the genre that include a belly dance music style known as fantasy (with tour. fantazi - “fantasy”) from singers like Gulben Ergen [30], and with such artists like Orhan Genjebay, who added Anglo-American rock and roll to Arabic music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Arabesque is not related to folk music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Its style is more in line with pop music based on makama from Ottoman and Turkish classical music [31].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Religious music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mosque music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

“Mosque music” is related to the main religion in Turkey, Islam; it includes azan (call to prayer), “Kur'an-ı Kerim” (reading the Koran), Mevlit (poem of the Ascension) and ilahi (hymns usually performed in groups, often outside the mosque) [32].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The sound of mosques in large urban areas often resembles classical Turkish music with makam and poetry: for example, Mevlit, sung at the Blue Mosque in Istanbul [33].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Sufi music is rarely associated with a mosque [34].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kani Karadja has been a leading performer of mosque music in recent times [35].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Alevite Influence: Ashyk Tradition


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

It is estimated that about a fifth of the Turkish population are Alevis [36], whose folk music is performed by a type of ozan called ashyk, which travels with saz.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The songs, which come from the central part of the northeastern region of Turkey, relate to mystical revelations, spells to Alevite saints and the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, Ali ibn Abu Talib, revered Alevis [37].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Middle Anatolia is the birthplace of Bozlak, a type of recitative, partially improvised music of Ozans [38].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Neshet Ertash has so far been the most outstanding modern singer of Middle Anatolian music: he sang songs of a wide range, including works by pre-modern Turkoman ashyks, such as Karajaoglan and Dadaloglu, and modern ashyks, such as his father, Muharrem Ertash [39].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Around the city of Sivas, the music of the ashyks has a more spiritual bias with ritual song competitions, although modern ozans have brought Ashyk music to the political arena [40].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Sufi influence: the Mevlevian tradition


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Followers of the Order of Mevlevi or whirling dervishes are a religious Sufi sect unique to Turkey, but well known outside its borders.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The dervishes of the Mevlevi sect dance sema (from tour sema - “heaven”), constantly whirling to the music, which consists of long complex compositions called ayin (from tour ayin - “rite”).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

These compositions were accompanied by songs using the lyrics of the poet Jalaladdin Rumi [41].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The most famous performers are Necdet Yashar, Niyazi Sain, Kudsi Erguner and Omer Faruk Tekbilek.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk style in the regions


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

National minorities and indigenous peoples in Turkey have expanded Turkish folk styles, bringing their own flavor, at the same time adopting Turkish folk traditions and musical instruments.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk songs are recognizable and vary by region.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Aegean and Rumelian Regions


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Rumelia belongs to the region of Turkey, which is part of South-Eastern Europe.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Folk songs from this region are similar to Balkan, Albanian and Greek folk music, especially among ethnic minorities and immigrants from Thrace [42].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Cypriot folk music is also similar in folk melodies to this region, for example, ciftetelli dance.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

These types of folk songs also have a close resemblance to the music of the Ottoman court [43].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Cities like Izmir have similar motifs, such as music for zeybek dance [44].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Black Sea and Caspian regions


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Central Asian Turkic peoples from the Caspian region had a huge influence on the purest and most unalloyed forms of Turkish folk music, primarily Azerbaijani and Turkmen folk music .


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mini|right|Kars song “Hoş Gelişler Ola”, based on the song “Enver Paşa Marşı” (1918)


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Pontic Greeks on the east coast of the Black Sea region have their own special Greek style of folk music, the motifs of which were used, for example, by the Greek singer Elena Paparizou [45].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The Greek-speaking Pontic diaspora from this region introduced Pontic music in Greece after 1924 as part of a population exchange between Turkey and Greece.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The region's dance style uses unique methods, such as strange shoulder jolts and knee curves; these are dances such as gerasari, trgona, kots, omal, serra, kotsari and tik [46].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Southeastern regions


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The southeastern regions of Turkey are influenced by Turkmen and Armenian music and music motifs of the Zaza people.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

This is usually complaining music [47].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Italian theater and opera had a great influence on Turkish culture in the 20th century.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Like the terminology of navigation, the terminology of music and theater is borrowed from Italian.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the jargon of Istanbul's improvisational theater, the stage was called “sahano”; the backstage was called “koyuntu”; backdrops depicting the countryside were called “bosco”, applause “furi”, and songs performed between acts and plays, were called “kanto” (from it. canto - “singing”).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Improvised miniatures were productions about Karagöz (shadow doll) and Ortaoyun (a kind of traditional Turkish open-air theater) in a much more simplified form.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The themes studied in this traditional theatrical art, as well as their characteristics and stereotypes, were used as the basis for new improvisational performances of tuluat (improvised theater) .


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Like their Italian counterparts, Turkish troupes used songs and music before the show, as well as between acts, to interest people and attract customers.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto are songs performed solo or in a duet, based on traditional oriental makama, but performed on Western musical instruments [48].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The development of kanto in Turkey has two periods.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The division, especially in terms of musical structure, is very noticeable between the early kanto and the post-republican kanto.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In addition, it is possible to identify two styles in the early period — Galata and Direklerarasa (districts of old Istanbul).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto first took root in the musicals of residents of the Galata district, a part of the city visited by sailors, hooligans, and laborers.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The Direklerarasa area was quite busy at night during the month of Ramadan.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

It was here that the troupes of Kel Hassan and Abdi Efendi, and then Neshid, were very popular.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

It was under the influence of these masters that the golden years of the kanto occurred [49].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The kanto orchestra's instruments consist of such musical instruments as trumpet, trombone, violin, percussion and cymbals.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The orchestra plays popular songs and marches in front of the theater about an hour before the performance to interest the audience.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The intermission ends with an Izmir march, which is a sign that the performance is nearing its end.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto singers from this period were also composers.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Very simple melodies were created.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The theme of the songs was highly dependent on the tension between men and women, and also reflected current events.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The compositions were in such fundamental makas as Rust, Huzzam, Hejaz, Husseini and Nihavent.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto songs are remembered both by the names of their translators and by their creators — artists such as Peruze, Chamran, Camella, Eleni, Little and Big Ameglia, Marie Ferha and Virgine.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Art and cultural life took on new dimensions with the changes caused by the formation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

It was a period of rapid transformation, and its consequences were widespread.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish women finally won the freedom to appear on stage, breaking the monopoly previously held by the Rumas (Greeks from Istanbul) and Armenian women who performed in music and not musical theater.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Institutions such as Daryulbedayi (Istanbul City Theater) and Darulelhan (Istanbul Music Conservatory) are already producing trained artists.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The Western way of life and Western art put pressure on traditional Turkish forms of music, and they were swept aside.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The operetta, tango, then Charleston and foxtrot overshadowed the kanto.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The popularity of kanto began to fade, entertainment centers in cities shifted, and theaters in Galata and Directoraras were closed.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish female artists were immune to kanto and preferred other styles.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Around 1935, there was a revival of interest in kanto.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

A new species was formed that ignored the fundamental principles of the old kanto, which was once again popular.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto has now moved from the stage to recording studios.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

While the themes covered in the lyrics focused on the same relationship between a man and a woman, mixed with satirical experiences about fashion and current events, the songs were recorded on a gramophone record with a phonograph, taking into account 78 revolutions per minute.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Record labels invited such musicians as Kaptanzade Ali Riza Bey, Refik Fersan, Dramaly Hasan, Sadettin Kainak, Jumbush Mehmet and Mildan Niyazi Bey.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The Macams were the same, but the tools changed.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Currently, kanto is accompanied by jumbushe (an instrument similar to a fretless banjo), oud and kalpara.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Foxtrot, Charleston, and rumba rhythms dominated.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Melodies were composed more for listening than for dance.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Single soloists: Makbule Enver, Makhmure and Neriman; Beshiktashli Kemal Senman was the most sought-after male singer to perform in a duet.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Among the topics studied by the new kantoju (from tour kantocu - singer or composer kanto), the most frequent object of satire was the new role of women, which does not correspond to the way of life of the Republic of Turkey.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Songs like “Sarhoş Kızlar” (from the tour — “Drunk Women”) or “Şoför Kadınlar” (from the tour — “Women Drivers”) were sung as if in revenge for all the suffering they had experienced in the past while in their hands men.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Other relevant songs, such as “Daktilo” (from tour — “Typist”) about Secretaries 7, “Bereli Kız” (from tour. — “Girl with a Beret”) and “Kadın Asker Olursa” (from tour. — “If Women Were Soldiers” ), were full of ridicule and antics.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The early Kanto, as in the post-republican period, mainly fed on the culture of Istanbul.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The city's large and diverse population was provided with both characters and events that were the backbone of the kanto.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto has had a great influence on musical theater.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Roman (gypsy) music and culture, which itself was the object of satire, left its mark on the canto.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Another important influence was the music of rooms, including Istanbul ones.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto is more of a generic genre than a musical term.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Any melody that was out of the musical plane, everything related to current trends and tastes; any music played with various instruments that was a free rhythm or some story, were designated as kanto; it was a product of the medieval city, the urban culture of Istanbul.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Kanto was considered a harbinger of today's Turkish pop culture [50].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Popular music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Popular music differs from traditional genres in the styles that entered the Turkish music industry after the fall of the Ottoman Empire due to the desire for national modernization in Turkish The republic since 1924, the opening of the republic for Western musical trends and the development of music within the country [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Pop music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the late 1950s, Turkish pop music began to develop by borrowing a number of foreign popular styles, including rock and roll, tango and jazz.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Later, hip-hop, heavy metal and reggae came along.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The star of the Aranjman era (with tour aranjman - “arrangement”) of the 1970s was Ajda Peccan, who also debuted with Enrico Macias at the Olympia Concert Hall in Paris [51], while MFÖ ( Mazhar Fuat-Ozkan) were a famous group of the Turkish pop scene that successfully combined Turkish prosody with Western styles [52].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Sezen Aksu is also one of the most famous Turkish pop stars.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

She has made a significant contribution to the unique Turkish style in pop music, making it popular in the world.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

She was also one of the ardent supporters of Turkey's participation in the Eurovision Song Contest.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Her ward Sertab Erener won the competition in 2003 [53].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The most popular pop stars in Turkey are Tarkan, Mustafa Sandal, Kenan Dogulu, Serdar Ortaci and others [54].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Tarkan achieved success in Europe and Latin America with his album “Şımarık”, part of which was also composed by Sezen Aksu.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mustafa Sandal was also a success in Europe with his single “İsyankar” in 2005.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish hip-hop


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish hip-hop was created by Turkish labor migrants in Germany, who used the theme of disappointment with Germany's attitude towards migrants in their texts [55].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In 1995, the Turkish-German community formed the hip-hop group Cartel, which caused controversy in Turkey and Germany due to revolutionary themes in the lyrics.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Hip-hop is currently very popular among the younger generation in Turkey.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Ceza, Sagopa Kajmer, Gazapizm, Sansar Salvo, Pit10, Şehinşah, Hayki, Saian are popular artists of modern rap music in Turkey.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Another popular Turkish hip-hop band is called Turks with Attitude, which has the popular track “My Melody”, based on the track of American rap duo Eric B. & Rakim, “Check Out My Melody” with using arabesque [56].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish trans


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The very first trance in Turkey was written by Murtaza Khoja and named “Yalnızlık Düşünceler”.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Anatolian rock


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

mini|right|Profit Mancho


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish rock began to develop in the mid-1960s, when popular rock bands appeared in the US and UK.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Soon there was a kind of Turkish fusion of rock and folk music, which was called Anatolian rock, a definition that can now be associated with most of Turkish rock.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the 1970s and 1980s, with the development of psychedelic rock in the United States and Europe, it gained great popularity in Turkey due to the frequent use of oriental motifs by Western rock bands, such as Pink Floyd.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Erkin Koray, Cem Karaca, Selda Bagjan and Barysh Mancho are the most famous rock artists, while Moğollar is the most famous band of old Anatolian classical rock music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The first compositions by Barysh Mancho belong to the origins of Anatolian rock [57].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Nasheed


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Islamic nasheed (s ar. English — “songs”) is also very popular with some Turks.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The most popular nasheed performer in Turkey is Sami Yusuf, a British singer of Azerbaijani origin, whose concert in Istanbul gathered more than 200,000 people [58].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Another popular Turkish singer is Feridun Ozdemir, who sings mainly about Allah and true faith [59].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Heavy metal and industrial


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish bands performing heavy metal and industrial rock are Pentagram (known abroad as Mezarkabul) and Almora [60].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Famous solo performers are Ogun Sanlysa and Heiko Jepkin [61].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Black metal and death metal


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish underground bands performing rock in the genre of black metal and death metal are Witchtrap, Ehrimen, Satanized, Godslaying Hellblast, Burial Invocation, Deggic, Decaying Purity [62].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Pop rock


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In the mid-1970s, Bulent Ortacgil appeared on the Turkish music scene and became a role model for young musicians.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Other successful Turkish rock bands with a more Western sound are MangA, Duman and Mor ve Ötesi.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Solo rock artists are Shebnem Ferah, Ozlem Tekin and Teoman.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkey also hosts numerous major rock festivals and events.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Annual rock festivals in Turkey include Barışarock, H2000, Rock'n Coke and Rockistanbul [63].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Underground and club music


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

There are a lot of clubs in Turkey, especially in the Aegean region.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The alternative music scene, however, comes mainly from Turkey's thriving underground club scene in Istanbul, where DJs combine past with present using traditional motifs with new-age sounds and electronic music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Mercan Dede is one of Turkey's most successful DJs, mixing trance with historical and mystical Sufi songs [64].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Another internationally recognized performer from Turkey's underground music scene is Mert Yucel.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Yucel released Turkey's first house album [65].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The impact of Syrian and other refugees and immigrants on music culture


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The influx of immigrants and refugees from Syria, Iraq, Pakistan, Central Asia and African countries has influenced Turkish musical culture, especially in Istanbul.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Bands like Bandista, Country for Syria, and Saktat mix music from different refugee communities in Istanbul to create a mix of Turkish, Arabic, Greek and Western styles.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Street musicians played an important role in the development of this style [66].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Music industry


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The Turkish music industry includes a number of areas, from record companies to radio stations and public and state orchestras.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Most of the major record companies are based in the Unkapana district of Istanbul, and they are represented by the Turkish Recording Society (MÜ-YAP).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The largest record companies produce content for artists who subscribe to a label, a brand name often associated with a particular genre or music producer.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Record labels can also promote and sell artist services through public appearances and concerts, as well as television appearances.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

In recent years, Turkey's music industry has been drawn into scandals due to the increase in illegal downloads of copyrighted music and the situation with Internet piracy in general.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

On June 13, 2006, the Turkish Recording Society and The Orchard, the leading distributor of independent music in the world, reached an agreement on digital global distribution [67].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkey does not have a developed singles market [1], the industry is more focused on albums, although popular singers such as Yonca Evcimik and Tarkan have successfully released singles.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Most Turkish music charts do not focus on selling albums, but measure popularity through feedback from music videos and radio listeners.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Turkish radio stations often broadcast popular music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

With the advent of commercial radio and television in the early 1990s, which ended the monopoly of the Turkish Television and Radio Company (TRT), Turkish newspaper media moguls opened a large number of TV and radio companies [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

These companies sponsor various music awards such as Kral TV, but most accredited music awards are based on sales provided by industrial societies like MÜ-YAP and MJS.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Although major record companies dominate the Turkish music market, there is an independent music industry (indie music).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Indie music is mainly related to local labels with limited retail distribution outside a small region.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Singers sometimes sign up for an indie label to gain enough recognition to sign with a major label; others prefer to stay on an indie label throughout their careers.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Indie music can be created in styles similar to mass music, but is often inaccessible, unusual, or unattractive to the mass listener.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Indie musicians often release some or all of their songs online for free download and listening.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Some of the most successful Turks abroad related to indie music are Ahmet Ertegun and his brother Nesuhi Ertegun of Atlantic Records, who have had a big impact on R&B and soul in North America and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Music education


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Music has a place in education in Turkey and is part of most or all school systems in the country.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

High schools usually offer singing classes, mostly choral and instrumental in the form of a large school group or social clubs and communities for Turkish classical or folk music, known as jemiet (from tour. cemiyet — “community”).


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Music can also be part of theatrical productions performed by the drama department at the school.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Many public and private schools have sponsored music clubs and bands, most often including a marching band that marches Mechter at school festivals.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

However, the classroom time devoted to music in schools is limited, and most Turkish children and adults have limited musical abilities.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Higher education in music in Turkey is mainly based at major universities linked to state music academies and conservatories.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The conservatory is usually a department of a university rather than a separate institution.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

While many students enter conservatories at normal age to enter university, some conservatories also have a lyceum, a specialized music school for children in aged between 14 and 18 years.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Conservatories often have a musicology department and conduct research on many styles of music, especially Turkish traditional genres, and also store a database of sounds in their sound libraries [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Celebrations and festivals


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Music is an important part of some Turkish holidays and festivals, especially those that play an important role in celebrating Navruz and religious celebrations such as Ramadan.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

New Year is a traditional time for belly dancers, weddings are celebrated to cheerful melodies, and funerals are mourned to complaining music.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

The Independence March, an important part of the holidays of National Independence and the International Children's Day, took place on April 23 and August 30 on Victory Day, a holiday dedicated to the War for Turkey's independence [1].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Music also plays a role in regional festivals that are celebrated across the country, such as the music and dance parade and the Zonguldak festival.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir are also home to numerous music festivals of various styles, from blues and jazz to indie rock and heavy metal.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Some music festivals are strictly local in scale and run by local promoters.


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Recently, large soft drink companies have been organizing their own music festivals, such as Rock'n Coke and Fanta, which attract huge crowds of people [68].


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Notes


Question: How many musical shares are there in classical Turkish music?

Turkish music

Category:Turkey


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Dyes are chemical compounds that have the ability to intensively absorb and convert the energy of electromagnetic radiation in the visible and near ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum and used to give this ability to other bodies.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The term “dye” owes its origin to A. E.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Porai-Koshitsu [1] [2] and was introduced into scientific terminology by him in 1908.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

A distinctive feature of the dye is the ability, due to capillary and diffusion processes, to impregnate the material to be dyed (for example, textiles, paper, fur, hair, leather, wood, food — food dyes) — and give color throughout its volume, fixing in one way or another on active centers.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The terms “dye” and “pigment”, although often used as equivalents, refer to clearly different concepts.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Dyes are soluble in a dye medium (solvent), and pigments are insoluble.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

During the dyeing process, dyes penetrate into the material and form a more or less strong bond with the fibers; when using pigments, the bond with the material to be dyed provides a binder, rather than pigments.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

In paints, color-forming agents (in this case, pigments) are found in the binder (drying oil, nitrocellulose, etc.), and the properties of the paint (with the exception of color) depend more on the binder than on the pigment.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Dyes are usually organic substances; pigments are mostly fine powders of inorganic substances, often oxide compounds.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Classification of dyes


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Dyeing technologists classify dyes according to their use.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Chemical specialists engaged in the synthesis (production) of dyes and studying the relationship between the structure and properties of substances classify dyes according to their chemical structure.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Since the term “dyeing” does not cover all methods of giving color to textiles and other materials, the term “coloring” is more convenient.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Classification of dyes according to their use for coloring various types of fibers


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The textile industry typically uses dyes of eight major classes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Dyes of the first four classes (direct or substantive, sulfur, active [3] and vat) are used mainly for dyeing cellulose fibers, for example, cotton and viscose.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Acid and active dyes are used for dyeing wool and polyamide, dispersed dyes are also used for coloring polyamide and polyester materials, cationic basic dyes are used for coloring polyacrylonitrile.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Acid metal complex dyes are also used for dyeing wool, which have higher color strength and light strength.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Brief description of dye classes


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Direct dyes give the least strong color on cellulose fibers.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

This is due to the fact that they attach to the fiber by weak hydrogen and ionic bonds.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

This type of bond is destroyed already under the action of water or soap solutions at 30-40° C.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

To increase the color resistance to wet treatments, fabric dyed with direct dyes is treated with solutions of special fixers - water-soluble polymers, which, when attached to the fiber , prevent the dye molecules from separating from it.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The affinity of direct dyes to the fiber is related to the size and shape of their molecule.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Direct dye molecules are coplanar and have a very long length.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

In addition, the coincidence of the distance between the sulfo groups in the dye molecule and the hydroxy groups of adjacent units of the cellulose macromolecule is important.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Dyeing with direct dyes is carried out more often by a periodic method.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

To facilitate the addition of dyes to cellulose fiber, 1-2% soda ash (sodium carbonate) and 5-20% of table salt (sodium chloride) by weight of the dyed are introduced into the dye bath material.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Active (reactive) dyes give the cellulose fiber the strongest color due to the formation of a chemical bond between the fiber and the dye.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The active dye molecule consists of a chromophore, the part that gives the dye color, and an active group that reacts with the hydroxyl group of cellulose under dyeing conditions.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

However, during the dyeing process, as well as during long-term storage of the dye, some of the active groups enter into a competitive reaction with water or air moisture and hydrolyze, losing their chemical activity.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Thus, in order to achieve a durable color, it is necessary to remove the hydrolyzed dye from the fiber at the end of dyeing by boiling in a surfactant solution.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The chemical structure of the active group determines the temperature conditions of the dyeing regime.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

For example, trichlorotriazine dyes stain cellulose fiber at 20-30° C, vinyl sulfone at 60° C, and monochlorotriazine dyes at 80° C.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Molecules of active dyes, as opposed to molecules of direct dyes, are small and compact.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

They contain a large number of sulfo groups, which gives them a high solubility in water (100 g/l) and a fairly low affinity for cellulose fiber.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Therefore, their use in the periodic dyeing method is possible only with a high content of neutral electrolyte (table salt) in a dye bath - up to 70-80 g/l.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

On the other hand, active dyes are more widely used in continuous dyeing methods - plus rolling (cold), plus and steaming and fusing.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The essence of these dyeing methods is to impregnate the fabric with a concentrated solution of the active dye to the required weight gain and chemical fixation of the dye in the first case - aging at room temperature in a humid state for a certain time, in the other two cases — treatment with superheated steam or hot air.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

After dyeing, the textile material should also be exposed to a surfactant solution to remove the hydrolyzed dye.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The next class of dyes that gives cellulose fibers a strong color is vat dyes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The color strength in this case is initially due to their insolubility in water, due to the absence of ionic functional groups in the molecules.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

To impart solubility to vat dyes, it is necessary to transfer the carbonyl groups contained in their molecules by reduction in an alkaline medium to enol ones.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Enol forms of dyes are leukocompounds and have an affinity for cellulose fibers.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

After the dyeing process is completed, the leuko compound of vat dyes is oxidized in the fiber to the initial insoluble quinone form.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The non-oxidized part of the dye is removed from the fiber by treatment with a boiling surfactant solution.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The high strength of colors with vat dyes to wet treatments is also due to the significant value of their molecules, and very good light fastness is associated with the polycyclicity and aromaticity of their chemical structure.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Due to the fact that the dyeing process with vat dyes is very laborious due to the additional stage of converting the dye into a soluble form, their water-soluble derivatives, cubosols (USSR), were developed.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Cubosols are sodium salts of acid sulphate esters of leukocompounds of vat dyes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

They are highly soluble in water and, accordingly, have a significantly lower affinity for cellulose and protein fibers.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

This makes it possible to obtain more uniform colors of weak and medium intensities.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Under the action of acids and oxidizing agents, cubosols on the fiber turn into an insoluble form of the original vat dyes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Another option for easy-to-use water-soluble dyes of the “vat” nature is cubogens developed in the USSR in the 1980s.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Cubogens are derivatives of aromatic carboxylic acid, which, under the action of reducing agents, such as ronhalite, turn into colored polycyclic, insoluble in water connections.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

This transformation is carried out directly on the fiber during dyeing and printing.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The resulting colors of scarlet, red, purple and blue colors have brightness, purity of tone and high resistance to light and wet treatments at the level of the best vat dyes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

When baking or cooking some aromatic compounds (amines, phenols, nitro compounds, toluidins) with sulfur or aqueous solutions of sodium sulfide, sulfur dyes are formed.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Sulfur dyes are insoluble in water, but when reduced by sodium sulfide in an alkaline medium, they turn into water-soluble leuko compounds that can be sorbed by cellulose fiber.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

At the end of the dyeing process, leuko compounds of sulfur dyes on the fiber are oxidized with atmospheric oxygen to form an initial insoluble form.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The color range of sulfur dyes is limited, mainly to dim yellow, orange, brown, blue, green and black colors.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Sulfur dyes have high color stability to wet treatments and to light.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

They are used for dyeing cotton, viscose and PE/cellulose fibers, yarns and fabrics.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Acid dyes are used to dye protein fibers (wool, natural silk), polyamide, as well as leather and paper.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

They are highly soluble in water, as they contain sulfo- or carboxyl groups.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Due to the presence of amino- and carboxyl groups of protein fibers in macromolecules, they have amphoteric properties.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

In an acidic medium, anions of acid dyes can be sorbed on positively charged amino groups of the fiber to form ionic bonds.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Acid dyes, depending on their chemical structure, have different ability to smooth colors under dyeing conditions.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

With an increase in the affinity of the dye to the fiber, its diffusion ability decreases and the resistance of colors to wet treatments increases.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Accordingly, dyes with high affinity turn out to be poorly leveling, and with low affinity - well leveling.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

To achieve even colors with acid dyes, levelers must be introduced into the dye bath.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

In recent decades, acid metal-complex dyes have been more often used for dyeing wool.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Among them, the most popular are chromium (III) complexes of 1:2 composition, which are stable over a wide pH range and can color wool and polyamide from a neutral bath.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Chromium (III) complexes of 1:1 composition are stable only at low pH and can be used for dyeing wool from acidic baths, which adversely affects its properties.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

When a metal ion is introduced into the dye molecule, a deepening of the color (batochrome shift) is observed and the dye becomes dimmer.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

EFFECT: improved resistance to light and oxidizing agents.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Mordant dyes are also used for dyeing wool.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Mordant dyes are anionic water-soluble dyes that are sorbed by fibrous material from aqueous solutions and fixed with the help of so-called mordants - metal compounds with a degree oxidation +3 (usually Cr, less often Fe, Al) with the formation of intensively colored intracomplex compounds resistant to various physico-chemical influences.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Due to the use of predominantly Cr compounds as a mordant, mordant dyes are often called chromium dyes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Na2Cr2O7•2H2O or K2Cr2O7 are most often used as mordants.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

The process of applying mordant or chrome plating is carried out more often after dyeing, however, sometimes during or before dyeing.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Currently, due to the increased requirements for environmental protection, mordant dyes, due to the need to purify wastewater from heavy metal salts, are used in a limited way and are replaced for metal-containing acid dyes.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

For dyeing hydrophobic fibers, for example, polyester, polyamide and acetate, sometimes polyacrylonitrile, disperse dyes are used.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

These are nonionic dyes used in the form of highly dispersed aqueous suspensions.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Their solubility in water, due to the absence of sulfo- and carboxyl groups, is limited to a few milligrams of dye per liter.


Question: When did the term “dye” come about?

Dyestuffs

Molecules of dispersed dyes are small in size (molar mass up to 500).