Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1979 Mixes 12" (1996, Hut)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness LP (1996, Hut, limited numbered edition)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1979/Bullet with Butterfly Wings 7" (1996, Virgin)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1979/Bullet with Butterfly Wings 7" (1996, Virgin, jukebox edition)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

The End Is The Beginning Is The End 7" (1997, Warner, jukebox edition)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

The End Is The Beginning Is The End — The Remixes 12" (1997, Warner)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Ava Adore 7" (1998, Hut, limited jukebox edition)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Ava Adore 7" (1998, Hut, limited numbered edition)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Adore LP (1998, Caroline)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Perfect 7" (1998, Hut, limited jukebox edition)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Machina: The Machine of God LP (2000, Virgin)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Tarantula 7" (2007, Reprise, white vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

That's the Way (My Love Is) 7" (2007, Reprise, purple vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

That's the Way (My Love Is) 7" (2007, Reprise, violet vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Astral Planes/A Stitch In Time 7" (2010, limited numbered edition, red vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Widow Wake My Mind/A Song For A Son 7" (2010, limited numbered edition, red vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Songs For A Sailor (Teargarden theme only) 7" (2010, Rocket Science, limited edition, marbled vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

The Solstice Bare 12" (2010, Rocket Science, Limited edition, picture disc)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Oceania LP (2012, Martha's Music)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

The Celestials 7" (2012, Martha's Music)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

The Aeroplane Flies High LP (2013, Virgin/Universal)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Monuments to an Elegy LP (2014, BMG Rights Management/Martha's Music, limited edition green vinyl)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Monuments to an Elegy LP (2014, BMG Rights Management/Martha's Music)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

DV


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Smashing Pumpkins - Greatest Hits Video Collection (EMI Video, 2001)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Vieuphoria Live (Virgin Records Us, 2002)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

If All Goes Wrong (Coming Home Media, 2008)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Oceania: Live in NYC (Rock Fuel LLC., 2013)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Blu-ray


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Oceania:3D in NYC (Rock Fuel LLC., 2013)


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Video clips


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1991 — Siva


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1991 — Rhinoceros


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1992 — “I Am One”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1993 — Cherub Rock


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1993 — “Today”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1994 — Disarm


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1994 — Rocket


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1995 — “Bullet with Butterfly Wings”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1996 — 1979


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1996 — Zero


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1996 — “Tonight, Tonight”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1996 — Thirty-Three


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1997 — “The End is the Beginning is the End”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1998 — Ava Adore


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

1998 — Perfect


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2000 — “The Everlasting Gaze”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2000 — “Stand Inside Your Love”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2000 — “Try, Try, Try”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2000 — “Untitled”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2007 — Tarantula


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2007 — “That's the Way (My Love Is)”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2008 — “G.L.O.W.”


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2008 — SuperChrist


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2011 — Owata


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2015 — Being Beige


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2015 — Drum+Fife


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

2015 — Run2Me


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Notes


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Literature


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

References


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

American alternative metal musical groups


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category: Psychedelic rock groups from the United States


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:Post-grunge groups from the USA


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category: Musical groups established in 1988


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:MTV Video Music Awards Winners


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:Grammy winners


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:Virgin Records Artists


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:Reprise Records Artists


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:Music groups from Chicago


Question: How many albums have The Smashing Pumpkins recorded as of 2019?

The Smashing Pumpkins

Category:Quartets


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The population of Pakistan is one of the largest countries in the world in terms of population (6th in the world — estimate for 2017).


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

According to some forecasts, under current trends, by 2100, the population will reach 294 million people).


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The population is 207,774,520 inhabitants (2017 census [1]), 6th in the world).


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The annual growth is 2.4%.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Fertility is 2.96 births per woman.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Infant mortality is 63.26 per 1,000.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The average life expectancy is 66.35 years.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The majority of the population lives in the Indus Valley.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The largest cities of Pakistan are located in the eastern part of the country (Karachi (23.5 million), Lahore (7.1 million), Rawalpindi (1.9 million), etc.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The country's urban population is 36.38% (in 2017).


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Ethnic composition


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Ethnic composition [2]:


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Punjabi — 44.68%,


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Pashtuns — 15.42%,


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Sindhi — 14.1%,


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

seraiks — 8.38%,


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

muhajirs — 7.57%,


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Baloch — 3.57%,


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

others — 6.28%.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Religious minorities


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Religion - Muslims 95% (Sunnis 75% and Shia 20%), others (including Christians and Hindus) 5%.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The Constitution of Pakistan establishes the religion of Islam as the State religion, and also ensures that all citizens have the right to freedom of religion.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The Constitution restricts the political rights of non-Muslims in Pakistan, only a Muslim has the right to become President or Prime Minister.


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

3] In addition, only Muslims have the right to serve as judges in the Federal Sharia Court (which has the power to repeal any law that is contrary to Islam). [


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Misc


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

The literacy rate was 54.9 per cent; 68.6 per cent for men and 40.3 per cent for women (2009 estimate).


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

See also


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Indians


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Notes


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

References


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

(in English)


Question: What is the number of Dravidians for 2019?

Pakistani People

Category:Pakistani people


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova () was an art critic, literary critic, director of the Pavlovsk Palace Museum from 1941 to 1979.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Biography


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

She was born in St. Petersburg into a family of factory workers.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

She studied at 41 FZD (factory nine-year school; former Petrishula)


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

from 1921 to 1930.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1931 she graduated from drawing and design courses, where she studied since 1929, while attending school at the same time.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1931-1933, she taught drawing at Giprospetsmet and was in charge of drawing courses.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1933-1934 she worked as a librarian at her native school — 41 FDD.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1933-1938 she studied at the Escourse and Translation Department of Leningrad State University and the Literary Faculty of LSPI, receiving specialties as an art critic and literary critic.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

At the same time, she continued her practical studies in art history and museology, working as a guide in the Hermitage.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Pavlovsk Palace before the war and during the siege


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1934-1936, A. Zelenova continued to work as a guide in the Hermitage, the Russian Museum and suburban palaces-museums.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

She was particularly interested in the Pavlovsky Museum Complex with its unique park.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1936, A. Zelenova began to work permanently at the Pavlovsk Palace-Museum as a researcher.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

After a while, she became deputy director of the museum for scientific affairs, and on August 21, 1941 she was appointed director of the museum and responsible for the evacuation of museum exhibits.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Immediately getting down to business, she organized the evacuation and secret burial of the most valuable part of the museum's funds.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

The day before the German troops occupied the city of Pavlovsk, on September 17, 1941, she loaded the last car with museum exhibits and went on foot to Leningrad.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In besieged Leningrad, A. Zelenova continued to work on the preservation and systematization of museum valuables.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In February 1942, she took the post of head of the Museum Department of the Administration of Palaces and Parks of Leningrad.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

During this period, she organized lectures and exhibitions for residents of the besieged city and for front-line soldiers at the forefront of the defense, in hospitals and ships of the Baltic Fleet.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In July 1943, she began working in the Mass Department of the Public Library, while organizing exhibitions on defense topics in, in the NKVD club and in the National Library of Russia itself.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

On July 1, 1944, she resigned from the National Library of Russia to take the former post of director of the Pavlovsk Palace-Museum.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Restoration of the Pavlovsk Palace


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

A week after the liberation of Pavlovsk from German troops, on February 5, 1944, A. Zelenova returned to the Pavlovsk Palace to begin work on the restoration of the museum complex.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

At this point, the museum was a pile of charred ruins.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

During 28 months of occupation and fighting, everything that the museum staff could not take out or hide was destroyed and looted.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

German troops destroyed all pavilions, blew up bridges and cut down more than 70,000 trees in the park.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

While retreating, they burned down the palace and mined its ruins.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

It seemed that it would be impossible to restore the palace.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

However, a few days after A. Zelenova in office, the miners began work on demining the palace, and A. Zelenova began to compile a methodology for its restoration.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Subsequently, this 3-volume work was taken as the basis for the restoration of all suburban palaces-museums in Leningrad that suffered during the war.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

From spring 1944 to 1978, numerous groups of restorers worked on the restoration of the Pavlovsk Museum Complex.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Under the guidance of A. Zelenova and A. Treskin, a huge and unprecedented work was done to restore the Pavlovsk Palace and Park.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

A real school of Russian museum restoration was created in Pavlovsk.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1957, the first halls of the restored Pavlovsk Palace were opened to visitors.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1978, Pavlovsk became the first palace and museum complex of the suburbs of Leningrad to be revived from ruins.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

A few months later, on January 20, 1979, Anna Ivanovna Zelenova was forced to resign from the post of director of the museum due to disagreements with the “party elite” of Leningrad (in particular with Yu. F. Solovyov, First Secretary of the Leningrad City Committee of the CPSU).


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

A year later, in January 1980, she died of a heart attack at the age of 66 and was buried on.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 2005, A. AND. Zelenova was posthumously awarded the title of Honorary Citizen of Pavlovsk.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Artworks


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

“Pavlovsk Palace-Museum and Park in St. Slutsk”, L., 1939 (co-authored with S. IN. Tronchinsky and F. N. Vykhodtsev);


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Pavlovsky Park: A Guidebook, L., 1954;


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Pavlovsk: Views of the Park, Moscow, 1956;


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

“Shells explode in Pavlovsk: From Vosp. //Feat of the Century: Artists, Sculptors, Architects, Art Critics during the Great Patriotic War and the Siege of Leningrad”, L., 1969;


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

“Palace in Pavlovsk”, L., 1978 (2nd ed., revised and enlarged 1986);


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Pavlovsk Palace. History and fates. Articles. Memories. Letters”, Art Palace, St. Petersburg, 2006.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Honors


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Order of the October Revolution


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Medal “For the Defence of Leningrad”


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Medal “For Valorous Labor in the Great Patriotic War of 1941—1945”


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Honored Worker of Culture of the RSFSR (1966)


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

memento


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In 1997, Uritsky Street in Pavlovsk was renamed Anna Zelenova Street.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

In recent years, some residents have been collecting signatures to erect a monument to Anna Zelenova in Pavlovsk.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

They want to place it on a hill at the intersection of Sadovaya Street and Prosvescheniya Street


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

A draft design has been developed [3].


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Notes


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Literature


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Weiss Z. A., Weiss N. IN. “In Pavlovsky Park”, L., 1967


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Druyan N. A. “Guardians//Ways to the Unknown: Writers Talk About Science”, M., 1969.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Sat.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Tikhomirova M. A. “Monuments, People, Events: From the West Museum Worker”, L., 1970


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Borshchev S. N. “From the Neva to Elba”, L., 1970


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

A. S. Yolkina.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

“Do it for me”, Knowledge, St. Petersburg, 2005 (book by A. AND. Zelenova)


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Obituary: Leningradskaya Pravda, 1980.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

january 19


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Obituary: “Forward”, Pushkin, 1980.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

january 19


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Archives


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

NLR archive.


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

F. 10/1


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Personal archive of V. A. Belanina


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

References


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category:Restorers alphabetically


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category:Russian restorers


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category:Soviet restorers


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category:Petrishule students


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category: Deaths from myocardial infarction


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category: Burials in Pavlovsk


Question: To which city did the Hermitage evacuate the exhibits during the Second World War?

Anna Ivanovna Zelenova

Category:Pavlovsk (museum-reserve)


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia (Ancient Greek: pneumonia - “lung disease”, from Ancient Greek: pneμωn - “lung” [1]), pneumonia - inflammation of the pulmonary tissue, as a rule, of infectious origin with a predominant damage to the alveoli (development of inflammatory exudation in them) and interstitial lung tissue [2] [3].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The term “pneumonia” combines a large group of diseases, each of which has its own etiology, pathogenesis, clinical picture, radiological signs, characteristic data of laboratory studies and features of therapy.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Non-infectious inflammatory processes in the lung tissue are usually called pneumonitis or (in the case of a predominant lesion of the respiratory parts of the lungs) alveolitis.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Against the background of such aseptic inflammatory processes, bacterial, viral-bacterial or fungal pneumonia often develops a second time.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The main diagnostic methods are X-ray examination of the lungs and sputum examination, the main method of treatment is antibiotic therapy.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Late diagnosis and delay in initiating antibiotic therapy worsen the prognosis of the disease.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In some cases, a fatal outcome is possible.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Worldwide, about 17 million people fall ill with pneumonia every year, and about 265,000 cases are fatal [4].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Every 64 people infected with this dangerous disease die of pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In addition, pneumonia causes dangerous complications to various organs of a sick person.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Grading


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

According to the criterion of the prevalence of the process, pneumonia can be:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

focal - that is, to occupy a small focus of the lung (bronchopneumonia - respiratory departments+bronchi);


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

segmental — spread to one or more segments of the lung;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

share - to capture the share of the lung.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

A classic example of lobar pneumonia is croupous pneumonia - mainly the alveoli and the adjacent area of the pleura;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

drain - the merger of small foci into larger ones;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

total - if it applies to everything easy.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In addition, pneumonia can be one-sided if only one lung is affected, and bilateral if both lungs are ill.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Depending on the trigger, there are:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

primary pneumonia - acts as an independent disease;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

secondary pneumonia - develops against the background of another disease; for example, secondary pneumonia against the background of chronic bronchitis;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

radiation form - occurs against the background of X-ray treatment of oncological pathologies;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

post-traumatic - occurs as a result of chest injuries, which result in a delay in bronchial secretion and impaired ventilation of the lungs, which leads to inflammatory processes in the pulmonary tissues.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

On the basis of origin, pneumonia is divided into:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

infectious - develops under the influence of pneumococci, Klebsiella, staphylococci, streptococci and other bacteria;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

viral genesis - the most common herpetic form when affected by the Epstein-Barr virus or cytomegalovirus;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

fungal genesis - the causative agents of the disease can be fungi - mold (Aspergillus, Mucor), yeast-like (Candida), endemic dimorphic (Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Histoplasma), pneumocysts ( Pneumocystis);


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

mixed type - is caused simultaneously by two or more types of pathogens.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

By the nature of the process, there are:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

acute pneumonia - in turn, is divided into acute (up to 3 weeks) and protracted (up to 2 months);


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

subacute pneumonia - clinical duration - approximately 3-6 weeks;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

chronic pneumonia - is characterized by low intensity and long duration - from several months to many years and decades.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

According to the degree of course, pneumonia can have a mild, moderate and severe course.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The disease can occur with functional changes (chronic respiratory or heart failure), without such changes, and depending on the presence or absence of complications, pneumonia is complicated and uncomplicated.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

There are also:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

1. community-acquired pneumonia:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

1.1 with impaired immunity;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

1.2 without compromising immunity;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

1.3 aspiration;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

2. nosocomial (nosocomial) pneumonia:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

2.1 aspiration;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

2.2 ventilation;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

2.3 cytostatic (against the background of taking cytostatics);


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

2.4 recipients of donor organs.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

3. pneumonia associated with medical intervention:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

3.1 frequent hospitalizations;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

3.2 hemodialysis;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

3.3 parenteral administration of drugs;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

3.4 residents of nursing homes.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by various pathogens


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

This group includes pneumonia caused by various pathogens that have different epidemiological, clinical and anatomical manifestations, require different therapies and methods prophylaxis, pneumonia in HIV infection and hospital pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumococcal pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Staphylococcal pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Streptococcal pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Haemophilus influenzae pneumonia — Afanasiev-Pfeiffer's bacillus


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Legionella pneumophila pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia due to Escherichia coli


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia due to Klebsiella pneumoniae


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by Chlamydophila pneumoniae


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (Pneumocystis jirovecii in modern terminology [5])


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Candida pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Lung aspergillosis


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Viral pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Cytomegalovirus pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonic plague


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Distribution


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

More than 17 million people are diagnosed with pneumonia per year, while men are 30% more likely to get sick than women.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Special risk groups include children under 5 years of age and older people over 65 years of age.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

At the same time, it is worth noting a fairly high mortality rate relative to other diseases: 8.04% in men and 9.07% in women [6].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The incidence of pneumonia depends on many factors: standard of living, social and marital status, working conditions, contact with animals, travel, bad habits, contact with sick people , individual characteristics of a person, the geographical distribution of a particular pathogen.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In 2017, in Russia, the excess of figures for community-acquired pneumonia was observed in 44 constituent entities of the country.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

An unusually large number of epidemic foci were also recorded: in 2017, there were 52 outbreaks of community-acquired pneumonia, compared to only 16 in the previous 5 years [7].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia remains one of the most common causes of death for children and the elderly in our time, especially in social institutions (orphanages, boarding schools, places of detention).


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The incidence of pneumonia in elderly patients increases dramatically while they are being treated in hospitals for another disease.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

There are also sharp differences in the etiology of hospital and community-acquired pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pathogenesis of pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The most common way of penetration of microorganisms into the lung tissue is bronchogenic - and this is facilitated by: aspiration, inhalation of microbes from the environment, resettlement of pathogenic flora from the upper parts of the respiratory system (nose, pharynx) to the lower, medical manipulations — bronchoscopy, tracheal intubation, mechanical ventilation, inhalation of drugs from seeded inhalers and etc. The hematogenous pathway of infection (with blood flow) is less common - with intrauterine infection, septic processes and drug addiction with intravenous drug administration.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The lymphogenous route of penetration is very rare.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Further, with pneumonia of any etiology, the infectious agent is fixed and multiplied in the epithelium of respiratory bronchioles - acute bronchitis or bronchiolitis of various types develops - from the lung catarrhal to necrotic.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The spread of microorganisms beyond the respiratory bronchioles causes inflammation of the lung tissue - pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Due to the violation of bronchial patency, foci of atelectasis arise.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Reflexively, with the help of coughing and sneezing, the body tries to restore the patency of the bronchi, but as a result, the infection spreads to healthy tissues, and new foci of pneumonia are formed.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Oxygen deficiency, respiratory failure, and in severe cases, heart failure develop.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The II, VI, X segments of the right lung and VI, VIII, IX, X segments of the left lung are most affected.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Often, regional lymph nodes are also involved in the process - bronchopulmonary, paratracheal, bifurcation.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Factors predisposing to the development of pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Young children:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

intrauterine hypoxia and asphyxia;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

birth trauma;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

newborn pneumopathy;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

congenital heart defects;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

lung malformations;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

cystic fibrosis;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

hereditary immunodeficiencies;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

hypotrophy;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

hypovitaminosis.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

School-age children:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

chronic foci of infection in the nasopharynx;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

recurrent bronchitis;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

cystic fibrosis;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

acquired heart defects;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

immunodeficiency states;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

smoking.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Adults:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

smoking and chronic bronchitis;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

chronic lung diseases;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

endocrine diseases;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

heart failure;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

immunodeficiency states;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

chest and abdominal surgery;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

prolonged stay in a horizontal position;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

alcoholism;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

drug addiction.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Survey studies in 2013—2016 revealed a relationship between the incidence of bacterial pneumonia and dental health.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

441 people out of more than 26,000 examined suffered bacterial pneumonia at least once.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

People who had never attended preventive dental examinations had an 86% higher risk of pneumonia than those who underwent oral sanitation regularly twice a year [8].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Clinical picture


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

“Typical” pneumonia is characterized by a sharp rise in temperature, a cough with abundant discharge of purulent sputum and, in some cases, pleural pain.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In the study: shortening of percussion sound, hard breathing, increased bronchophony, increased voice tremor, first dry and then wet, creping wheezing, darkening on the radiograph.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Such pneumonia is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

“Atypical” pneumonia is characterized by a gradual onset, dry, unproductive cough, the predominance of secondary symptoms in the clinical picture - headache, myalgia, pain and sore throat, weakness and malaise with minimal changes in the radiograph.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

This type of pneumonia is usually caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae (mycoplasma pneumonia), Legionella pneumophila (legionella pneumonia), Chlamydia pneumoniae (chlamydial pneumonia), Pneumocystis jirovecii (pneumocystis pneumonia).


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

“Secondary”: aspiration, septic, against the background of immunodeficiency, hypostatic, post-traumatic and others.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Aspiration pneumonia - develops after inhalation of foreign mass into the lungs (vomit during surgery, loss of consciousness, trauma, aspiration of amniotic fluid in newborns during childbirth), at the same time, microbes - pathogens of pneumonia - enter the lungs as part of this foreign mass.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Aspiration pneumonia develops according to the type of focal pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Croupous pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In view of the peculiarities of development, it is quite advisable to consider croupous pneumonia as a more or less peculiar form of pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

With croupous pneumonia, the pathological process goes through several stages.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In stage I - the stage of hyperemia and hot flush - inflammation in the alveoli leads to their expansion and the appearance of exudate in them.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In the second stage - the stage of liver - red blood cells first enter the alveolar exudate from the dilated vessels.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Air is forced out of the alveoli.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Fibrin-filled alveoli give the lung the color of the liver.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

This first part of the second stage is called red baking.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Further, leukocytes begin to predominate in the exudate.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

This part of the second stage is called gray baking.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The last, stage III, is the stage of resolution: fibrin and white blood cells in the alveoli dissolve and partially expectorate with sputum.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Stage I lasts 2—3 days, II — 3-5 days.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Resolution comes by the 7th-11th day of illness.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The causative agent of croupous pneumonia (pleuropneumonia) is pneumococcus.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia caused by this microbe is distinguished by its scale and severity of the course.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The onset of croupous pneumonia is acute.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The body temperature rises to 39—40° C.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Shortness of breath has been observed since the first days of illness.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

This type of pneumonia is characterized by lesions of one lobe of the lung, the whole lung, or both lungs.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The larger the volume of lung damage, the more difficult the process is.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

On the 3rd-4th day of illness, characteristic rusty sputum and cough appear.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

When coughing, the patient complains of severe “stitching” pain in the chest from the lung captured by pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In focal pneumonia, chest pain, on the contrary, is very rare.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In an objective examination, the first stage is characterized by the preservation of vesicular breathing and a blunt-tympanic percussion sound.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Additional respiratory noise is also heard - crepitation - crepitatio indux.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In the second stage, breathing is bronchial and dull percussion sound.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The mobility of the lower pulmonary margin of the affected side is reduced.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In the third stage, as in the first, vesicular breathing and blunt-tympanic percussion sound, as well as crepitatio redux.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Fever, cough and sputum production in croupous pneumonia can last more than 10 days.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Against the background of croupous pneumonia, lung abscess, cardiopulmonary failure, may develop.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Antibiotics, expectorants and mucolytic agents are used in the treatment of bronchopneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Diagnostic research methods


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Highlights


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Chest X-ray


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Gram-stained sputum microscopic examination


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Sputum culture on nutrient media


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

General and biochemical analysis of blood


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Blood gas analysis


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Additional


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

CT scan of the chest


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pleural paracentesis and pleural biopsy


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Bronchoscopy with biopsy


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Blood culture for nutrient media


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Detection of specific antibodies


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Lung biopsy


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Lung biopsy after diagnostic thoracotomy


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Urine analysis


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumonia Treatment


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Antibiotics are the cornerstone of pneumonia treatment.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The choice of antibiotic is made depending on the microorganism that caused pneumonia.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Drugs that dilate the bronchi and dilute sputum are also used - inside or in the form of inhalations, corticosteroids, intravenous saline solutions, oxygen.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Sometimes a pleural puncture and bronchoscopy are performed.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Physiotherapy is often used: ultraviolet irradiation, vibration massage, exercise therapy, paraffin, ozocerite.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

With an uncertain type of pathogen, a combination of protected penicillins and cephalosporins (that is, broad-spectrum antibiotics), macrolides is used in antibiotic therapy of community-acquired pneumonia; also carbapenems (thienam, meropenem), respiratory fluoroquinolones.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

If the therapy is ineffective, the antibiotic is replaced.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The criterion for the success of therapy is the normalization of body temperature on the third day after the start of antibiotic use, as well as data from an objective study and chest radiography.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Vaccine prevention


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Vaccine prevention of pneumococcal infections


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

According to the position of WHO and the Russian Respiratory Society “Vaccination is the only way [9] to prevent the development of pneumococcal infection”.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In the Russian Federation, 94% of all etiologically deciphered cases of complicated pneumococcal infection in children are pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia [10].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Pneumococcus is the cause of up to 76% of community-acquired pneumonia in adult Russians.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

For vaccination against pneumococcal infection in people over 2 years of age in the United States since 1983, and in the Russian Federation since 1999, [11] polysaccharide polyvalent vaccines containing antigens of 23 serotypes that cause up to 90% of invasive diseases of pneumococcal etiology.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Vaccination is carried out once, followed by booster vaccination of patients from high-risk groups (over 65 and immunocompromised persons) after 5 years.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The effectiveness of polysaccharide vaccines reaches 80%, but may be lower in elderly people with immunodeficiency conditions, as well as in children under 2 years of age.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

These vaccines contribute to the formation of T-independent B-cell immunity.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Indications for the use of polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine are as follows:


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

all persons 65 years of age and older;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

persons from 2 to 64 years of age with chronic heart and lung diseases, sickle cell anemia, diabetes mellitus, cirrhosis of the liver, suffering from alcoholism;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

persons from 2 to 64 years of age with immunodeficiency diseases, such as: lymphogranulomatosis, lymphoma and leukemia, chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, multiple myeloma, HIV infection, diseases of the spleen or asplenia during organ transplantation;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

persons from 2 to 64 years of age receiving immunosuppressive therapy (radiation therapy, long-term course of corticosteroids or cytostatics);


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

adults from 19 to 64 years old with bronchial asthma and smokers;


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

persons who stay in children's groups for a long time.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

At the moment, the Pnevmo 23 polysaccharide vaccine (Sanofi Pasteur) has been registered in the Russian Federation, and the Pneumovax 23 vaccine (Merck & Co), which is popular in the United States, is being registered.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

For children under 2 years of age, protein-conjugated 7, 10 or 13-valent pneumococcal vaccine is used.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

It contains antigens of 7, 10 or 13 invasive pneumococci, respectively, which cause 80% of all pneumococcal infections in children in developed countries.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The vaccine forms a T-cell response and is highly immunogenic.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In most developed countries, this vaccine is made en masse according to national calendars from 2 months of age to 2 years, as well as children under 5 years of age from risk groups.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Currently, the registered conjugated pneumococcal vaccine Prevenar manufactured by Wyeth (USA) and Synflorix (manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline, Belgium [12]) is used in the Russian Federation note that unlike the United States, where serotypes 14, 6B, 19F, 18C, 23F, 4, and 9V included in the Prevenar vaccine cover 87% of isolates from sick children, serotypes 1 and 5 are very relevant in Asia, and Russia — serotypes 1 and 3. Therefore, in the Russian Federation, it is most advisable for children over 2 years of age and adults at risk to use a polysaccharide vaccine that includes these missing serotypes.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Haemophilus pneumonia vaccination


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Haemophilus influenzae type B bacterium (Hib infection) is a widespread causative agent of severe infections, mainly in children under 6 years of age.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Among complicated pneumonia in developed countries, the proportion of HIB infection is 10-24%.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Mass vaccination of children against Hib infection made it possible to reduce the incidence of hemophilic infections from 40-100 per 100,000 in 1980 to 1.3 per 100,000 in 1990 [13] In developed and many developing In countries, mass HIB vaccination has reduced the incidence of complicated pneumonia by 20% (for example, in Chile from 5.0 to 3.9 per 1,000) [14].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Given the fact that antibiotic resistance is growing among HIB strains, the Hib vaccine is becoming more and more relevant.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

WHO recommends that the Hib vaccine be included in national calendars in all countries, noting that “the lack of data on incidence should not prevent the introduction of Hib vaccines.”


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The Hib vaccine is recommended by the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation for use where there are opportunities for this.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Several foreign Hib vaccines have been registered in the Russian Federation (Act-Hib by Aventis Pasteur, HIBERIX by Glaxo SmithKline, etc.).


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccines


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The effectiveness of vaccination with polysaccharide vaccines in the Russian Federation is shown both in organized teams (in army teams, the incidence of pneumonia decreased by 3 times, acute bronchitis by 2 times, acute otitis media and sinusitis — 4 times), and for risk groups [15].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Thus, the incidence of respiratory diseases in frequently ill children after vaccination with the 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine decreased from 6.54 to 0.67 cases per year per child, infected with mycobacteria tuberculosis [16], the incidence of pneumonia and bronchitis decreased by 7 times compared to the control group that received nonspecific prophylaxis of respiratory infections [17].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In bronchial asthma in children, vaccination with the 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine reduced the incidence of exacerbations of the underlying disease and the addition of respiratory infections (bronchial asthma trigger) in 60% children [18].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The high efficiency of pneumococcal vaccination in patients with COPD has been shown by both international [19] [20] and Russian studies [21] (in Chelyabinsk, the vaccine efficacy index in patients with COPD was 4.6).


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The incidence of exacerbations (including pneumonia) in these patients decreased by 2.4 times during the first year after vaccination [22].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Protein-conjugated pneumococcal vaccines significantly reduce the risk of invasive pneumococcal infections in children (under 1 year of age by 82%) [23], and, in addition, form general population immunity , since it is young children who are the main reservoir of invasive pneumococci.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Thus, in populations where children are massively vaccinated according to national calendars, adults get sick much less often [24].


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In 2018, Pfizer published the results of CI vaccination with the conjugated pneumococcal thirteen-valent vaccine (PCV13).


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The study was conducted in Louisville in the format of a population-based observational prospective case-control study with negative control of adult patients.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

As part of the CI, patients with pneumonia were analyzed in order to identify vaccine-specific serotypes.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The duration of hospitalization of patients with community-acquired pneumonia averaged 6 days.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Studies have shown that immunizing adults 65 years of age and older with the pneumococcal vaccine PCV13 reduced their risk of hospitalization due to pneumonia by 73%.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

[25] [26]


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

complications


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Serious complications of pneumonia may include: lung abscess and gangrene, pleurisy, pleural empyema, obstruction, acute respiratory failure, endocarditis, pericarditis, meningitis, pulmonary edema, sepsis.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Also, after pneumonia, almost every patient has scars on the lungs.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Prediction


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

With the use of antibiotics, the prognosis is usually favorable.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

The intestinal flora after taking antibiotics, in most cases, is restored on its own and does not require the use of drugs.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

In the event of inadequate therapy or immunodeficiency, pneumonia can be fatal.


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

See also


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), better known as SARS


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Notes


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Literature


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

References


Question: Who discovered pneumonia?

Pneumonia

Category:Pulmonology


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Morality (Latin: moralitas, the term introduced by Cicero [1] [2] from Latin: mores “generally accepted traditions”) is the accepted ideas in society about good and bad, right and wrong, good and evil, as well as a set of norms of behavior arising from these ideas [3] [4].


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Sometimes the term is used not to refer to the whole society, but to a part of it, for example: Christian morality, bourgeois morality, and so on.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In languages where, for example, in Russian, the word morality is used in addition to the word morality (in German - Moralität and Sittlichkeit), these two words more often act as synonyms or some are conceptualized in a way to designate individual aspects (levels) of morality, and conceptualizations of this kind are mainly author's in nature.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The morality accepted and prevailing in a particular society is called public morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Morality studies a separate philosophical discipline — ethics.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

philosophy


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Morals and ethics


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Ethics (also known as philosophy of morality) is a branch of philosophy that studies moral issues.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The word “ethics” “is usually used as a synonym for 'morality' and sometimes in a narrower sense to refer to the moral principles and traditions of certain groups or individuals.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[5] Similarly, some ethical theories, especially deontology, distinguish between 'ethics' and 'morality': “Although human morality and ethics are ultimately reduced to the same thing, there is a tradition in which uses' morality 'for systems like Kant's based on the concept of duty, obligations and principles of behavior, while' ethics' preserves an approach similar to Aristotelian practical reasoning.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[6] Morality and ethics are often used synonymously, but morality is more about views based on practice or training on how to behave in personal relationships or in society, while ethics is more related to a system of principles, or to philosophy and their theoretical justification.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Descriptive and normative morality


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In a descriptive sense, “morality” refers to personal or social values, a code of conduct, or social mores.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

It does not give objective judgments about good and bad, but only describes what is considered good or bad.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Descriptive ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies morality from this point of view.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In a normative sense, “morality” pretends to describe what is really good or bad (if any), what can be valuable regardless of the values or morals of any particular people, or crops.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The branch of philosophy that relates to morality from this point of view is called normative ethics.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Realism and anti-realism


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

See also: Moral universalism, Moral absolutism, Moral relativism, Moral nihilism


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Philosophical theories about the nature and origin of morality (called theories of metaethics) are generally divided into two classes:


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Moral realism is a class of theories that believe that there are specific statements that describe objective facts about morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

For example, while these theories recognize that the forces of social conformism significantly influence one's “moral” decisions, they nevertheless deny that these cultural norms and customs determine morally justified behavior.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

This is considered the point of view of ethical naturalism, although not all moral realists share it.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Moral anti-realism, on the other hand, believes that statements about morality are either false (theory of error) or do not try to reflect real facts, limiting themselves to subjective assessments (ethical subjectivism) and a description of feelings and wishes (non-cognitivism).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Some forms of ethical subjectivism, which formally represent currents of anti-realism, are nevertheless considered realism from the point of view of moral universalism.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

For example, universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non-cognitivism that believes that morality is derived from the requirements of behavior dictated by circumstances, and the theory of the divine interventions and the theory of the ideal observer are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism that claim that morality is derived from divine laws and hypothetical laws of the ideal rational behavior, respectively.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Anthropology


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Breeding and territorial


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Celia Green distinguishes between tribal and territorial morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[8] The latter is defined as predominantly negative and prohibitive: it separates a person's territory, including his property and those who depend on him, with the establishment that this territory is not must be violated or rejected.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

At the same time, territorial morality is permissive, as it allows a person to do everything on his territory if he does not violate the territory of others.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

By contrast, tribal morality is instructive because it imposes collective norms on the individual.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

These norms are largely arbitrary, culturally dependent and 'flexible', while territorial morality focuses on rules considered universal and absolute, such as Kant's' The categorical imperative' and ranked absolutism by Norman Geisler.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Green associates the development of territorial morality with the emergence of the concept of private property and the registration of the difference in social status.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Inside and outside the group


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Some researchers note that sometimes different moral rules are applied to people depending on their belonging to “their” or “foe” group (a person defines a group as “his own” if he psychologically considers himself to be it in a cultural, ethnic or some other sense).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Some biologists, anthropologists, and evolutionary psychologists believe that this “friend or foe” discrimination is due to the fact that it increases the group's chances of survival.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

This view has been confirmed in some simple computer models of evolution.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[9] In these models, such discrimination sometimes results in unexpectedly close cooperation with members of their group, as well as irrational hostility towards members of someone else's groups [10].


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

G. R. Johnson (Gary R. Johnson) and W. S. Falger argues that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this distinction between friends and foes.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Jonathan Heidt noted [11] that experimental observation of the intra-group criterion strengthens the moral assessments of conservatives, and to a much lesser extent liberals.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In secular societies, the choice of life path, which represents a person's understanding of the right life, is often the subject of discussion in terms of morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

It happens that a certain lifestyle choice and accepted rules of behavior in a certain narrow community seem more fair to a person than the moral norms of society as a whole.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Comparison of cultures


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman [12] use an anthropological view of cultures depending on territory and time.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

They come to the conclusion that some values prevail in all cultures, among the cultures they studied.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

They call the main such values wisdom/knowledge; courage; humanity; justice; restraint and breadth of views.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Each of them, in turn, is divided into other parts, for example, humanity includes love, kindness and intelligence.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Fons Trompenaars, author of The Pedestrian Died?


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

, conducted social experiments on people from different cultures with different moral dilemmas.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

One of them is whether the passenger of the car should lie in order to protect the driver friend if he hits a pedestrian.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Trompenaars found that different cultures give very different answers (from “no” to “almost certainly”), and in some cultures the answer depends on whether the pedestrian died —>.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

John Newton, author of Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century [13], compares Eastern and Western cultures from a moral point of view.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

He defines the purpose of his book as follows: “... harmoniously mix the best in the cultures of East and West in order to obtain new and better principles for human society in the new century, to popularize ethical Chinese theories in the Western world. The author hopes that this will help solve the problems of human society in the 21st century, including those that each culture cannot solve separately.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Evolution


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

See also:,,


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The development of moral theories is a process closely related to the social evolution of various peoples of mankind.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Some evolutionary biologists, in particular sociobiologists, believe that morality is the product of evolutionary forces acting both at the individual level and at the group level, through group selection (although in to what extent this is really important in this process remains a subject of controversy in evolutionary theory).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Some sociobiologists dispute the thesis that the behaviors prescribed by morality have changed a lot, as they provide possible survival and/or benefits in reproduction (that is, they increase success in evolution).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In line with these behaviors, people developed a “pro-social” component of their emotions, such as feelings of empathy and guilt.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

On the contrary, other biologists argue that people developed morality and altruistic instincts.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

With this understanding, morality is a system of self-preserving and ideologically established lines of behavior that encourages human cooperation.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Biologists believe that all social animals, from ants to elephants, are changing their behaviors towards containing selfishness in order to increase their adaptability to the requirements of evolution.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Human morality, although more complex and sophisticated than other animals, is still a natural phenomenon developed by evolution to curb excessive individualism, which can destroy unity within the group, thereby reducing the chances of success.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[15] From this point of view, moral codes were based on the emotional instincts and intuition formed by selection in the past and reflect the experience of survival and reproduction (cumulative fitness).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Examples:


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

• parental love is the result of evolution, as it increases the chances of offspring to survive;


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

• it is widely believed that sex imaging (Westermarck Effect), when living with loved ones during the first years of life reduces their sexual attractiveness, has the consequence of a taboo on incest, its adherents believe that evolutionarily this is justified by reducing the likelihood of genetic deformities (inbreeding);


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Ethnographers, ethnologists and specialists in anthroposociogenesis have proved that the moral ban on marriages between relatives, including incest and sex between friends, is based on prevention communal conflicts during the formation of the oldest human societies.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Evolutionary biologists consider the phenomenon of mutual utility in nature to be one of the natural ways to understand human morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

This is a typical mechanism in biology to ensure that animals have a reliable supply of the necessary resources, especially where the quantity and quality of food fluctuates unpredictably.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

For example, in vampire bat societies, individuals who could not find food that night receive help from those who hunted successfully: bats that have received excess blood, spit up part of their food to save relatives from hunger.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Since these animals have been living in closely related groups for many years, each individual can count on a reciprocal favor the next night when it may be necessary to starve (Wilkinson, 1984).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Mark Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (2009) believe that morality is a set of behavioral abilities inherent in all mammals living in complex social groups ( in particular wolves, coyotes, elephants, dolphins, rats, chimpanzees).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

They define morality as “a set of interrelated behaviors that support and regulate complex relationships within a social group.” This set includes empathy, reciprocity, altruism, collaboration, and at a certain level of honesty.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[17] In their work, they convincingly show that chimpanzees show empathy for each other in a wide variety of situations.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[18] At the same time, these animals are capable of deception and even complex behavior at the level of 'politics' within the community [19] — prototypes of the modern practice of gossip and self-promotion.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The famous modern primatologist and ethologist Frans de Waal considers the biological origin of morality in a similar way.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In his opinion, elements of morality are present in higher mammals (chimpanzees, bonobos, elephants, dolphins and others), and morality is based on the ability to empathy.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

De Waal discovers in animals, in addition to cooperation and sympathy, even the beginnings of a sense of justice, which is usually attributed only to humans [20] [21].


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Christopher Boehm (1982) [22] suggested that the increasing complexity of moral attitudes among hominids with evolution is due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and conflicts during movement on the open savannah, as well as the development of stone weapons.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

According to other theories, the increasing complexity was simply due to the increasing size of the groups and the size of the human brain, and, as a result, to the development of brain abilities.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Richard Dawkins, in God as Illusion, suggests the view that morality is the result of our biological evolutionary history, and that morale of the times can be explained as morality evolves from biological prerequisites, becoming part of culture over time.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

According to the British voter list, young people show the greatest interest in morality when discussing family issues.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Neurology


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Areas of the brain that are constantly used when a person is busy with moral issues have been studied by qualitative methods of meta-analysis of changes in brain activity and the results of these studies are reflected in world literature on neurology.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[24] The neural network involved in moral decision-making is partially superimposed on the network related to ideas about other people's intentions and the network associated with the idea of emotional the condition of other people (that is, with empathy, empathy).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

This confirms the view that moral assessments are related to seeing things through someone else's eyes and the ability to perceive other people's feelings.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

These results, in turn, prove that the neural network involved in making moral decisions seems to be a common area of the brain (that is, there are no areas such as “moral module” in the human brain) and can be separated into cognitive and affective subsystems.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Brain areas


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Explicit judgments about morally justified or unjustified decisions occur when the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) is activated, while intuitive reactions to situations associated with moral values, activate the temporoparietal region.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[25] The effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation on the VMPC has been shown to inhibit a person's ability to follow a goal when making moral judgments.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[26] Similarly, people with damaged VMPC bark make judgments purely for reasons of benefit and are unable to take into account the purpose of the action.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Mirror neurons


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Mirror neurons are neurons in the brain that react to actions taken by another person in front of an observer.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

They are excited in the observer's head by simulating the actions of the observed person, causing the observer to contract the same muscles as the person directly performing the action.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

A study of mirror neurons after their discovery in 1996 [28] shows that they can play a role not only in understanding, but also in empathy (empathy).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Cognitive neurologist Jean Decety believes that the ability to recognize and indirectly accept the experience of another person was a key step in the evolution of social behavior, and ultimately morals.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[29] The inability to feel empathy is one of the obvious characteristics of psychopathy, and this also confirms Deseti's opinion.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[30] [31]


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Psychology


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

See also: Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development, Jean Piaget


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In modern moral psychology, it is believed that morality changes with the development of the individual.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

A number of psychologists have proposed theories of morality development, according to which morality goes through certain stages.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Lorenz Kohlberg, Jean Piaget and Elliot Turiel have developed cognitive approaches to the theory of moral development; for these psychologists, morality goes through a series of constructive stages or areas.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Social psychologists such as Martin Hoffman and Jonathan Heidt are developing a biological approach to the social and emotional development of morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Moral identity theorists, such as William Damon and Mordechai Nisan, see moral duty as arising from the development of self-identification determined by moral goals: this moral identity leads to a sense of responsibility in pursuing these goals.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Of historical interest to psychology is the opinion of psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud, who believed that moral development is the result of the desire of the super-ego to get out of the state guilt of shame.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Morals and politics


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

If morality answers the question of 'how to live' at the individual level, then politics can be considered an area of activity where this issue is considered at the standard of living of society (and in this area there are additional problems and challenges).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[32] It is not surprising, therefore, that the relationship between morality and politics has long been discussed.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Jonathan Heidt and Jess Graham studied the difference between liberals and conservatives in this regard.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[33] [34] [35] Heidt found that Americans who consider themselves liberals tend to rate care and justice above loyalty, respect, and purity.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Those who define themselves as conservatives put justice lower.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Both groups give the highest rating to care, but conservatives put justice lowest, and liberals put purity.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Heidt suggested that these differences in the United States are rooted in geohistorical factors, when conservatism was most represented in tightly connected ethnically homogeneous communities, in the opposite of port cities, where the cultural mix was stronger, which required more liberalism.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Group morality develops from common ideas and views and is often codified to regulate behavior within a cultural community.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

She defines various actions as moral or immoral.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Members of society who demonstrate moral action acquire a reputation for being “morally resilient”, and those prone to immoral behavior can be labeled as a social degenerate.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The survival of a group may depend on adherence to moral norms; on the other hand, the death of a community is sometimes due to the inability to adapt moral norms to new challenges (a positive example of this the genus is considered to be the effect of Cistercian reforms on the renewal of monasticism, and the role of Empress Cixi in subordinating China to European interests is considered negative).


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Nationalist movements tend to believe that a nation cannot survive or prosper without a commitment to a common, common morality, no matter what that morality is.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Political morality is also linked to the actions of national governments in the international arena and to the support they feel from their own populations.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Morals and Religion


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Points of view


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Since religions throughout human history have not only offered an idea of an ideal life, but also established rules for following it, morality is often confused with religious rules.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In a wide range of moral traditions, religious morality coexists with modern forms of secular morality, such as consequentialism, freethinking, humanism, utilitarianism and others.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

There are many types of religious morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Modern monotheistic religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and to a certain extent others like Sikhism and Zoroastrianism, define good and bad by laws and regulations, formulated by their holy books and interpreted by religious leaders within the framework of their faith.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Polytheistic religious traditions tend to be less absolutism.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

For example, in Buddhism, a person's intentions and external circumstances are taken into account when assessing the morality of an act.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[36] Other differences between religious traditions of morality were considered by Barbara Stoler Miller, who noted that in Hinduism “in practice, good and bad are defined according to social status, kinship, and age. For a modern person in the West, cultivated on the ideals of universalism and egalitarianism, this relativity of values and obligations is the most difficult aspect of Hinduism to perceive.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Religions offer various solutions to moral dilemmas.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

For example, Hinduism does not have an absolute ban on murder, it recognizes that “under certain circumstances it is impossible to avoid it and it becomes really necessary”.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[38] In monotheistic traditions, certain actions are considered unequivocally unacceptable, such as abortion or divorce.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[a] Religion is not always positively associated with morality.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The philosopher David Hume noted that “the greatest crimes were considered compatible with God-fearing piety; therefore, it is considered unsafe to draw any conclusions about the morality of a person from his zeal or the rigor of his religious rituals, even if he himself sincerely believes in them” [39].


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Religious morality may differ from the moral positions that dominate in a certain era in society, in particular on issues of murder, mass atrocities and slavery.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

For example, Simon Blackburn notes that “supporters of Hinduism justify his role in maintaining the caste system, and supporters of Islam justify its rigid criminal code or its attitude towards women and gentiles.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[40] With regard to Christianity, he notes that “the Bible can justify cruelty to children, the mentally disabled, animals, the environment, the divorced, unbelievers, people with different sexual habits and older women”, [41] and notes morally questionable places also in the New Testament.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[42] [e] Defenders of Christianity, arguing with Blackburn [43], believe that the Jewish laws in the Bible demonstrate an evolution of morality towards protecting the weak, punishing (up to the death penalty) those who treats slaves inhumanely, and the treatment of slaves themselves in the laws is gradually shifting from looking at them as property to recognizing them as human beings.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[44] Elizabeth Anderson, Professor of Philosophy and Feminology at the University of Michigan, believes that “the Bible teaches both good and bad” and that it is “morally inconsistent.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[45] Humanists, like Paul Kurtz, believe that certain moral values outgrow the boundaries of individual cultures, and this is noticeable even without a universalist belief in principles, that may seem supernatural.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Among these values are straightforwardness, honesty, benevolence and fairness, and it is believed that they can be a resource for finding a common language between believers and non-believers.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Empirical analysis


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Specialists conducted research to find a link between religion and the level of delinquency in different countries.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[b] A 2001 review on this topic states that “the available data on the impact of religion on offences are varied, but ambiguous, inconclusive and to date do not provide a convincing answer about the existence of empirical connections between these phenomena” [47].


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, notes that Denmark and Sweden are “apparently the least religious countries in the world, and probably in all of world history. have the lowest crime rate in the world and the lowest levels of corruption.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[48] [c]


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Dozens of studies have been conducted on this topic since the twentieth century.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Gregory S. Paul's 2005 work in the Journal of Religion and Society says that “in general, a higher level of religiosity and churchism correlates with a higher level violent mortality, adolescent and early adult mortality, sexual infections, teenage pregnancy, abortion in wealthy democracies”, and “In all secular democracies for centuries, falling the murder rate to a historic low”, with the exception of the United States (with a high level of religiosity) and “devout” Portugal.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[49] [d] Gary Jensen continues Paul's research.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[50] He concludes that there is “a complex relationship between religiosity and crime rates... with some aspects of religiosity that encourage murder and some others that prevent it.”


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

On April 26, 2012, the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science published the results of a study of prosocial behavior, in which non-religious people received a higher rating in a tendency to spontaneous generosity, such as a willingness to lend or give up space in transport.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Religious people also received a lower rank in assessing their ability to participate, such as charity, when distributing food to the homeless and non-believers.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

[51] [52] [53]


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Moral codes


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Codified morality differs from custom (another way to determine the desirable line of behavior in society) in that it derives its norms (in the past) directly from natural rights or universal principles.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In religious communities, it is believed that the prophet receives these principles through revelation, and sometimes these principles are very detailed.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

In a compact form, such principles make up a moral code (another name: code of ethics) — a system of rules that determine decent behavior in accordance with the adopted system of values.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Moral (ethical) codes can be religious, ideological, professional, corporate, sports and others.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Examples of religious moral codes are considered


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The golden rule of morality (“ethics of reciprocity”); [54]


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The Ten Commandments of Judaism, Christianity and Islam


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Seven laws of Noah's descendants and 613 commandments in Judaism;


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The Five Sacred Commandments and the Eightfold Path of Buddhism;


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Yama and niyama in Hinduism;


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

The ten rules of Taoism;


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Ancient Egyptian Maat Code.


Question: What discipline studies morality?

Morals

Examples of professional codes are Bushido, the Hippocratic Oath, and the Journalist's Creed.