Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Since the discovery of dinosaurs in the mid-19th century, opinions about their lifestyle, metabolism and thermoregulation have changed over time.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The activity of metabolic enzymes is directly related to temperature, so controlling body temperature is vital for any organism, be it a cold-blooded animal or a warm-blooded animal.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Animals can be classified as poikilothermic, which are resistant to internal temperature fluctuations, and homoyothermic, which must maintain a constant body temperature.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Further, organisms can be classified as endotherms, which regulate body temperature internally, and ectotherms, which regulate body temperature through the use of external heat sources.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

“Warm-blooded” is a complex term with many meanings, since in different contexts it can include some or all of the following features (and, accordingly, include or exclude from definitions are different organisms):


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Homeothermy, that is, maintaining a relatively constant body temperature.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Modern endotherms maintain different temperatures: from 28° C to 30° C in sloths; from 33° C to 36° C in marsupials; from 36° C to 38° C in most placental mammals; and about 41° C in birds [44].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition to special thermoregulation mechanisms, this is also achieved due to a mild climate, insulating covers or large sizes.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Tachymetabolism, that is, maintaining a high level of metabolism at rest.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This requires a fairly high and relatively stable body temperature, since biochemical processes proceed about twice as slowly if the animal's temperature drops by 10° C; most enzymes have an optimal operating temperature, and their effectiveness is greatly reduced when they go beyond the preferred range [76].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Endothermy, that is, the ability to produce heat through special chemical reactions, for example, by “burning” fats, rather than through behaviors such as basking or muscle activity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Although endothermy is the most reliable way to maintain a constant body temperature, especially in cold environments, it consumes a lot of energy; for example, modern mammals are on average require about 5-10 times more food than modern cold-blooded reptiles of the same size [44].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is assumed that large dinosaurs could maintain a relatively constant body temperature due to inertial homothermy.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The heat capacity of such large animals can be so high that it would take them two days or more for their body temperature to drop significantly as the ambient temperature drops, and this would smooth out fluctuations in body temperature caused by daily temperature changes without requiring the production of heat through endothermic reactions.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Inertial homeothermy is currently observed in large crocodiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, it is calculated that this mechanism would be ineffective for dinosaurs weighing less than 700 kg. Maintaining a constant body temperature due to inertial homeothermy would be impossible for small species of dinosaurs and juveniles of large species [44].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The enzymatic breakdown of vegetation in the intestines of large herbivores can also lead to the release of a large amount of heat, but this method of maintaining a high and stable temperature would not be possible for predatory dinosaurs, small herbivores or juveniles of larger herbivores [77].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, inertial homeothermy was hardly an important method of preserving heat, at least in small dinosaurs (in large ones, on the other hand, it could help preserve heat, approximately just like modern elephants).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Since the internal processes of extinct animals are unknown, most discussions focus on the presence of homeothermy and tachymetabolism in dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The assessment of metabolic rate, in turn, is complicated by the difference between indicators during rest and activity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In all modern reptiles and most mammals and birds, the maximum metabolic rate during activity is 10-20 times higher than the minimum values during rest.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, in several mammals, these indicators differ 70 times.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Theoretically, a terrestrial vertebrate can have “reptile” metabolic rates at rest and “bird” during activity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, an animal with such a low metabolic rate will not be able to grow quickly when resting.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Huge herbivorous sauropods may have been constantly on the move in search of food, and therefore their energy costs would be approximately the same regardless of whether their metabolic rates were during rest high or low [78].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The main assumptions about dinosaur metabolism are as follows [44]:


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaurs were cold-blooded like modern reptiles, except that the large size of some of them would help stabilize body temperature.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaurs were warm-blooded, more like modern birds than modern reptiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaurs had an intermediate level of metabolism, that is, they had only some metabolic features of warm-blooded animals.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Among the dinosaurs, there were animals with different types of metabolism.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Robert Becker, in his fundamental work, came to the conclusion that dinosaurs were warm-blooded and assumed that they inherited this trait from earlier archosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, since this group of sauropsids has existed for more than 150 million years (excluding birds, which most Cladists consider as one of the early separated branches of maniraptor theropod), it is quite possible that some groups have developed physiological features that differ from the original state and include different levels of metabolism and features of thermoregulation.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Robert Reid in 1997 suggested that intermediate metabolism or mesothermy could be common among dinosaurs [44], conditionally calling them “failed endotherms”.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

He interpreted the evolutionary development of endothermy in archosaurs and synapsids like this: primitive mammals or advanced therapsids were forced to become smaller as archosaurs began to occupy dominating niches in large and medium size categories.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The reduction in size has made mammals more vulnerable to heat loss, as it has reduced their heat capacity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, this forced mammals to increase internal heat generation on a permanent basis and thus become full-fledged endotherms.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

On the other hand, dinosaurs were able to maintain an intermediate type of metabolism, which, at first glance, would provide them with many advantages: a low level of metabolism and the production of endothermic heat at rest, which would reduce their energy consumption and allow more nutrients to be used for growth; to a large extent the use of inertial endothermia; the ability to control heat loss by expanding and compressing blood vessels, as many modern reptiles do; maintaining high blood pressure due to the four-chambered heart; a high level of metabolism during activity and the resulting ability to rely heavily on aerobic metabolism [44].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is known that modern leatherback turtles, tegu and monitor lizards during activity are able to raise body temperature by more than 10° C (in a leatherback turtle, which increases body temperature due to high muscle activity and preserving it due to the layer of subcutaneous fat - up to 18° C) above ambient temperature [65] [79] [80], and in female pythons, the release of a large amount of metabolic heat serves to maintaining the incubation temperature of egg laying [63].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Other mesothermic animals that are phylogenetically more distant from dinosaurs include herring sharks (although usually only the stomach is significantly heated in sharks [81]), some teleosts, such as tuna, and partly single-pass mammals [82].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, only a small number of animals nowadays have an intermediate type of metabolism, despite the existing potential.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, it is likely that this strategy is not as effective as it may seem at first glance, and it seems unlikely that dinosaurs could dominate large size categories of 150 million years, relying mainly on mesothermy [83] [84].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Bone histology


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Armand de Riccles, having studied the structure of bone tissue of dinosaurs, discovered Haversian canals in it and decided that they are evidence of endothermy in dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

These channels are common in warm-blooded animals and are associated with rapid growth and an active lifestyle because they help the body quickly build bone mass during growth and heal damage caused by stress or injury [85].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dense secondary Haversian bone is found in many modern endotherms during bone remodeling, as well as in dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and therapsids.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Secondary Haversian channels correlate with size and age, the amount of mechanical stress and the turnover of nutrients.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The presence of secondary Gaversian channels suggests comparable bone growth rates in mammals and dinosaurs [86].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker argued that the presence of fibrolamellar bone (rapidly produced and fibrous) in dinosaur fossils also indicates endothermia [9].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, as a result of subsequent studies, a number of authors considered bone structure to be an unreliable indicator of metabolism in dinosaurs, mammals and reptiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaur bones often contain stunted growth lines (LAG) formed by alternating periods of slow and rapid growth; in fact, many studies count growth rings to estimate age of dinosaurs [70] [72].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Growth rings in modern reptiles are usually due to seasonal changes in temperature, and this seasonal effect is sometimes seen as a sign of slow metabolism and ectothermia.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, growth rings are found in polar bears and are common in mammals that are characterized by wintering [87] [88].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Based on these and other examples, the relationship between slow growth lines and dependence on seasonal growth remains unresolved [89].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Fibrolamellar bone is quite common in young crocodiles and sometimes occurs in adults [90] [91].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Haversian bone was found in turtles and crocodiles, but is often absent in small birds, bats, shrews and rodents [92] [91].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, de Riccle continued to study the histology of bones of dinosaurs and other archosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In mid-2008, he co-authored an article that examined in detail bone samples from a larger number of archosaurs, including early dinosaurs and Triassic terrestrial crocodilomorphs, and he came to the conclusion that even the earliest archosaurs were capable of very rapid growth, which indicates a fairly high metabolic rate.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Although it is more difficult to draw conclusions about the earliest archosauromorphs based on the anatomy of later forms, since species-specific variations in bone structure and growth rate are very likely, the risk analysis errors were minimized [93].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Subsequent studies also identified clear differences between the bone histology observed in endotherms from that in ectotherms, taking into account the many possible variations that allow a large accurately determine the growth rate and expected metabolic status of the animal [79].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Archosaurs were divided into three main groups during the Triassic: ornithodirs and remained adherents of rapid growth; crurotarzes also mainly maintained rapid growth, although in crocodilomorph lines, more close to modern crocodiles, there was a tendency to move to more “reptilian” slow growth rates; and most other Triassic archosaurs had intermediate growth rates [93].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Metabolic rate, blood pressure and blood flow rate


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Endotherms are highly dependent on aerobic metabolism and have a high level of oxygen consumption during activity and rest.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The oxygen required by tissues is carried by blood and, therefore, the blood flow rate and blood pressure in warm-blooded endotherms are much higher than in cold-blooded ectotherms [94].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The minimum blood pressure in dinosaurs can be estimated by measuring the vertical distance between the heart and brain, because this blood column must have a lower pressure equal to hydrostatic pressure calculated on the basis of blood density and gravity.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This pressure is supplemented by what is required to move blood through the circulatory system.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In 1976, it was pointed out that due to the considerable distance from the heart to the head, many dinosaurs already had a minimum blood pressure in the range of that of the endotherms, and that they must there was a four-chamber heart that separates the high-pressure flow from the low-pressure flow [95].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A recent analysis of tiny holes in the fossilized bones of dinosaur limbs has provided additional data on blood flow velocity, already directly related to metabolic rate.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The holes are called nutrient holes, and the nutrient artery is the main blood vessel that passes through the inside of the bone, where it branches into tiny vessels of the Havers canal system.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This system is responsible for replacing old bone tissue with new one, thereby restoring microdamages that naturally occur during locomotion.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Without this recovery, microfractures will increase, leading to stress fractures and, ultimately, catastrophic bone destruction.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In accordance with the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, the size of the feed hole provides an indicator of the blood flow passing through it.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Of course, the size of the hole is also related to the size of the animal's body, so this effect is removed by allometry analysis.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The blood flow index of the feeding opening of the femur in modern mammals increases in proportion to the maximum metabolic rate of animals measured during the maximum prolonged locomotion.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The blood flow index of mammals is about 10 times higher than that of cold-blooded reptiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Ten species of fossil dinosaurs from five taxonomic groups perform even higher than mammals when body size is taken into account, indicating a very high activity of these animals.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, high blood flow, high blood pressure, a four-chambered heart and stable aerobic metabolism are consistent with the endothermy of dinosaurs [96].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Growth rates


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Despite the fact that they hatched relatively small, dinosaurs grew very quickly and could gain a weight of several tons in their first years of life.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A natural interpretation of this fact is that young dinosaurs digested food very quickly and used nutrients for growth, which requires a fairly rapid metabolism and frequent feeding [97].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Developing bones belonging to young individuals are clearly porous, which is due to vascularization and a high rate of nutrient supply to the bone.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This indicates growth rates of dinosaurs close to those observed in modern birds [98].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, some studies of the relationship between adult size, growth rate and body temperature have shown that large dinosaurs had higher body temperatures than smaller ones; It was estimated that 12,979 kg of apatosaurus, the largest dinosaur in the sample, had a body temperature above 41 °C, while the smallest dinosaur in the sample, 12 kg psitacosaurus, was estimated to have a body temperature of only only about 25°C.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Based on these calculations, the researchers concluded that large dinosaurs were inertial homeotherms (their temperature stabilized due to size) and that dinosaurs released less heat than mammals, at least until they moved and digested food [99].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

At the same time, body temperature was calculated on the basis of data on the relationship between the size of dinosaurs and their growth rates [71] [70].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, growth rates can be related not only to the level of metabolism.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Studies of sauropodomorph Massospondylus and early theropod Megapnosaurus show growth rates of about 3 kg/year and 17 kg/year, respectively, much slower than those calculated for Mayasaurus and are observed in modern birds.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This may be due to the degree of development of care for offspring, which is higher in birds and the Mayasaurus [100].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the very methodology for estimating the growth rate of dinosaurs may be unreliable, since so-called “tree rings” on a cut of dinosaur bones can actually be laid more than once in year, which is characteristic of modern endotherm [75].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, the estimate of the growth rate of dinosaurs is directly related to estimates of body weight, which can vary greatly in the works of different authors.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Oxygen isotope ratio in bones


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The ratio of 16O and 18O isotopes in bones depends on the temperature at which the bone is located: the higher the temperature, the more 16O.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In 1999, oxygen isotope ratios were analyzed in two large and highly developed theropods that lived in temperate regions with seasonal temperature fluctuations: Tyrannosaurus (USA) and Giganotosaurus (Argentina).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The dorsal vertebrae of both dinosaurs showed no signs of seasonal variability, indicating that their temperature in the depths of the body was constant, despite seasonal fluctuations in air temperature.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the ribs and bones of the hind limbs in both dinosaurs showed greater variability in isotope content and a lower average temperature as the distance from the vertebrae increased.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The authors concluded that both dinosaurs were warm-blooded, but had a lower metabolic rate than modern mammals, and that inertial homeothermy was an important thermoregulatory factor in adults [101].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A similar analysis of some Late Cretaceous birdwatching dinosaurs in 1996 showed a similar picture [102].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, this opinion was soon questioned.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

the study indicates homeothermy, but by itself cannot prove a complete endothermy.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, bone development may not be continuous in the limb area - in allosaurid skeletons, slow growth lines are rare or absent in the large bones of the extremities, but occur in the fingers.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Although there is no strong evidence that stunted growth lines are related to temperature, they can mark a time when bones stopped growing for one reason or another.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

If this is the case, data on the ratio of oxygen isotopes would be incomplete, as this method is not reliable for assessing temperatures, unless it can be shown that bone growth was equally continuous in all parts of the animal.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Predator-prey population ratio


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker argued that cold-blooded predators need much less food than warm-blooded predators, and therefore the same biomass of prey can support more cold-blooded predators, than warm-blooded ones.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

At the same time, the ratio of the total mass of predators to the total mass of prey in the ecosystems of dinosaurs, earlier archosaurs and therapsids was closer to the ratio of modern or recently extinct ecological communities with warm-blooded predators than the attitude of modern or extinct ecological communities.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

cold-blooded predators.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This may indicate that the predatory dinosaurs were warm-blooded.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

And since the earliest dinosaurs (for example, Staurikosaurus and Herrerasaurus) were predators, all dinosaurs were originally supposed to be warm-blooded [103].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This argument has been criticized for several reasons, and is not considered by some authors.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Weight estimates for dinosaurs vary widely, and even a small change can significantly affect the calculated predator/prey ratio.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Becker received his marks by referring to museum samples, but they have a bias against rare or well-preserved specimens and do not reflect the complete picture of the fauna preserved in the paleontological chronicles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Even the fossil layers themselves may not accurately convey the number of actual populations due to conservation conditions and incompleteness of the paleontological chronicle.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

For large ectothermic predators, with the exception of Komodo monitor lizard, there is no qualitative data on the ratio of the number of predators and their prey.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Large ectothermic herbivores are completely absent in our time.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

For this reason, Becker had to compare the predator-prey ratio of mammals to that of fish, small reptiles and invertebrates, where the life expectancy of organisms is much shorter, and other differences may also distort the comparison.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This argument suggests that predator populations are limited only to the availability of prey, although there are other factors, such as lack of nesting sites, cannibalism, competition or predation sides of other predators that can keep predator populations below the limit imposed by the prey's biomass.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Many environmental factors that may have influenced the ratio of the number of predators and their prey in dinosaur communities are unknown: some predators may specialize in certain species prey, including at different stages of growth; the number of victims can be affected by disease, parasites and hunger, which will reduce their number before predators can hunt them [104] [105].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Pose and gait


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The limbs of the dinosaurs were parasagittal, that is, they were at right angles to their bodies, as in birds and most mammals, and were not apart, as in typical cold-blooded animals like lizards and newts.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This is evidenced by the angles of the joint surfaces, as well as the attachment points of muscles and tendons on the bones.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

All early attempts to reconstruct dinosaurs with limbs apart led to reconstructions with dislocated hips, knees, shoulders and elbows [106].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

There is the so-called Carrier restriction, which states that atmospheric air breathing vertebrates that have paired lungs and bend their bodies sideways when moving have difficulty to move and breathe at the same time.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This greatly limits their stamina and makes them spend more time resting than moving around.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The limbs located on the sides of the body require lateral bending during locomotion (with the exception of turtles, whose body mobility is limited by a shell that greatly reduces mobility).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, despite Carrier's limitation, the limbs located on the sides are energetically and functionally beneficial for cold-blooded animals that do not have long periods activity; in particular, they minimize the time and energy required to get back on your feet from a lying position.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Parasagittal limbs increase the cost and time it takes to lie down or stand up, but are one way to bypass Carrier's restriction and overall increase in movement speed, also requiring high energy consumption [107].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, the structure of the dinosaurs limbs indicates that they were active animals, since otherwise they would not benefit from straightened limbs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

An active lifestyle, in turn, requires a high metabolic rate, which makes it possible to make significant use of aerobic metabolism.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Other evidence of dinosaur endothermia includes limb length (many dinosaurs have relatively long limbs adapted to fast running) and bipedalism, which in our time occurs only in endothermic animals [108].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Many bipedal dinosaurs had gracile limb bones with short hips relative to the length of the lower leg.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This, as a rule, is an adaptation to active running, characteristic of endotherms, which, unlike ectotherms, are able to produce sufficient energy during activity, and reduce the harmful the effect of anaerobic metabolism on muscles [109].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Bakker and Ostrom pointed out that all dinosaurs had straight hind limbs and that all quadcopal dinosaurs had straight forelimbs; and that among living animals only warm-blooded mammals and birds have straight limbs (Ostrom admitted that the semi-parasagittal position of the limbs in crocodiles was a partial exception).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Bakker argued that this was clear evidence of endothermia in dinosaurs, while Ostrom considered it weighty, but not convincing enough [110] [9].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A 2009 study confirmed the hypothesis that endothermy was widespread in at least large non-bird dinosaurs, and that it would be plausible even for foolish ancestors of dinosaurs, based on the biomechanics of their running [111].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Feathers


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In conditions of sudden changes in temperature, warm-blooded animals tend to develop insulating covers, such as wool, feathers, or subcutaneous fat.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

At present, there is no doubt that many theropod species had feathers, including Shuvuuia, Sinosauropteryx, and Dilong.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

They were interpreted as insulating covers and, therefore, indicate warm-blooded [112] [113] [29].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

But feather prints were found only in coelurosaurs, and therefore, at present, feathers, as a type of insulating cover, do not provide any information about endothermia in other large groups dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In fact, fossilized skin prints of carnosaurs (such as Allosaurus and Carnotaurus), as well as very large coelurosaurs (such as tyrannosaurids) show scaly skin [114] [115].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, it is worth noting that all these dinosaurs have an adult mass of more than 1 ton, and mammals of this size may have short hair or not at all (for example, elephants and rhinos).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Large animals have a large heat capacity and can retain heat due to their large size.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In a mild climate without a sharp change in temperature, there may be smaller endotherms that do not have effective insulating covers (for example, humans and babiruses).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Skin prints of Pelorosaurus and other sauropods show large scales, and some other sauropods, such as Saltasaurus [116], also had bone plates.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The skin of ceratops consisted of large polygonal scales, sometimes with scattered round plates [117].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

“Mummified” remnants and skin prints from hadrosaurids also show scaly scales.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is unlikely that ankylosaurids, such as Euoplocephalus, had insulating outer covers, as most of their body area was covered with osteoderms.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Similarly, there is no evidence of insulating covers in stegosaurs [118].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Thus, the appearance of insulating covers may have been limited to some theropods (although other dinosaurs may have had different mechanisms for preserving heat, including large size or even subcutaneous fat).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is worth mentioning that feather-like fibers have been found in three species of small birdthiasis dinosaurs: Psittacosaurus, Tianyulong and Kulindadromeus, but at the moment they cannot be are classified as feathers.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Polar dinosaurs


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Dinosaur fossils were found in areas that were close to the poles at that time, especially in southeastern Australia, Antarctica, and northern Alaska.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

There is no evidence of major changes in the position of the Earth's axis, so polar dinosaurs and the rest of those ecosystems had to cope with extreme changes in duration daylight hours during the year that occur today at similar latitudes [119] [120] [121].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Fossil vegetation studies show that northern Alaska had a maximum temperature of 13° C and a minimum temperature ranging from 2° C to 8° C in the past 35 million years of the Cretaceous.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is expected that no fossils of large cold-blooded animals, such as lizards and crocodiles, which were distributed further south, were found in these places.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This suggests that at least some non-bird dinosaurs have been adapted to the cold climate, which requires warm-blooded.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It was also suggested that polar dinosaurs may have migrated to warmer regions as winter approached, which allowed them to inhabit such cold habitats even when cold-blooded [122 ].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, such long migrations would require more energy than cold-blooded terrestrial vertebrates accumulate [123].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In a 2008 article on dinosaur migration, the authors suggested that most polar dinosaurs, including theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurs, and hypsilophodonts, probably wintered, although hadrosaurids such as Edmontosaurus, being warm-blooded, were probably able to migrate to distances of up to 2,600 km [124] [125].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It is more difficult to determine the climate in southeastern Australia, 115 to 105 million years ago.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

These deposits indicate permafrost and bumpy soil formed by the movement of underground ice, which suggests an average annual temperature of -6° C to 5° C; Studies of oxygen isotopes in these deposits give an average annual temperature of 1.5 °C to 2.5 °C.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, the diversity of fossil vegetation and the large size of some fossil trees exceeds what is seen in such cold environments today.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Annual migration from southeastern Australia and back would be very difficult for fairly small dinosaurs like Leaellynasaura, because in the north, the transition to warmer latitudes was blocked small sea routes [119].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Leaellynasaura and Timimus bone samples provided evidence that the two dinosaurs had different ways of surviving cold, dark winters: the Timimus sample had stunted growth lines and it could hibernate; but the Leaellynasaura sample did not show signs of stunted growth lines and therefore could remain active throughout the winter [126] [127].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A 2011 study on the bones of hypsilophodonts and theropods also showed that these dinosaurs were likely to remain active in winter [128].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Evidence for behavioral thermoregulation


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Some dinosaurs, such as Spinosaurus and Ouranosaurus, had “sails” on their backs supported by vertebral outgrowths.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Such dinosaurs could use these sails for thermoregulation, including heating by using sails as solar panels, or vice versa, for rapid cooling.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

But the sails had very few known dinosaur species.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In addition, it is not entirely clear in which dinosaurs these structures really formed a kind of sails and were not hidden under the skin.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

For Spinosaurus, the version that the sail served as a gyrostabilizer seems more justified.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The thermoregulatory function was also assumed for plates on the backs of stegosaurs [129], however, if this could be relevant for stegosaurs with large plates, such as Stegosaurus, others Stegosaurs such as Wuerhosaurus, Tuojiangosaurus and Kentrosaurus had much smaller plates with a smaller surface area.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Recently, the very idea of using plates for heat exchange in any stegosaurs has been questioned [130].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Other evidence


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Since endothermy makes it possible to increase the size of the brain, which requires a lot of energy, some authors believe that an increase in brain size indicates increased activity and thus endothermy.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The brain mass to body weight ratio (EQ) in different dinosaurs varies by species.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The EQ of coelurosaurs is often close to that in mammals and birds, while other theropods and ornithopods occupy an intermediate position between birds and cold-blooded reptiles, and other dinosaurs resemble cold-blooded reptiles in this regard [131].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A study published by Roger Seymour in 2013 provided an additional argument for the fact that dinosaurs were warm-blooded.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

After studying combed crocodiles, Seymour found that even if their large size can provide stable and high body temperature, during activity, the ectothermal metabolism of crocodiles produces low aerobic abilities and, with a body weight of about 180 kg, generates only 14% of the total energy generated by the muscles of endothermic mammals of the same size before complete fatigue.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Seymour concluded that dinosaurs would have to be endothermic, as they would need better aerobic abilities and higher total energy generation in order to dominate mammals as active terrestrial animals throughout the Mesozoic era [132].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, further studies have shown that in fact, the aerobic abilities of crocodiles and their total energy generation in this study could be significantly underestimated [133].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The metabolism of early archosaurs and the origin of crocodile ectothermia


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Apparently, even the earliest dinosaurs had anatomical features that underlie the arguments about the warm-blooded dinosaurs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Two explanations for the presence of these traits in primitive representatives of this group of archosaurs are proposed:


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The ancestors of the early archosaurs were cold-blooded, and real warm-blooded began to develop only in the orntodir line.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

This means that dinosaurs have developed many warm-blooded traits in a very short period of time, perhaps less than 20 million years.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

But in the ancestors of mammals, the development of warm-blooded blood seems to have taken much longer, starting with the development of the secondary bone palate at the beginning of the Middle Permian period [134] and continuing possibly before the Early Triassic [135] [136].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The ancestors of the early Archosaurs were at least partially warm-blooded, and the dinosaurs only continued to develop in the same direction.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Two main problems arise in this case: (A) The early evolution of archosaurs is still very poorly understood; (B) Crocodiles also come from early archosaurs, but they are cold-blooded (see below).


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Crocodiles are a kind of mystery when compared to dinosaurs as active animals with a constant body temperature.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Crocodiles represent a parallel line of evolution of archosaurs — crurotarsis, which developed shortly before dinosaurs and are their closest relatives after birds.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

But modern crocodiles are cold-blooded, although they have semi-parasagittal limbs, as well as a number of anatomical features of the circulatory and respiratory systems, usually associated with warm-blooded [137] :


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

4-chamber hearts.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Mammals and birds have a four-chambered heart.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Turtles and lepidosaurs have functionally three-chambered hearts (with rare changes that make them functionally close to four-chambered) that are less effective in maintaining a high level of metabolism substances, because they allow arterial and venous blood to mix, leading to a decrease in metabolic levels.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

The four-chambered hearts of crocodiles, however, are smaller relative to body size than in mammals and birds, and provide less blood pressure.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

They also seem that the earliest dinosaurs had traits that underlie arguments for warm-blooded dinosaurs, especially limbs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

have a Panitsa hole, which allows controlled mixing of arterial and venous blood, thereby making the crocodile's heart functionally three-chambered when it is underwater [138].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A formation resembling a mammalian diaphragm that participates in breathing.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

A secondary bone palate that allows the animal to eat and breathe at the same time.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Hepatic-piston mechanism of lung ventilation.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

It differs from the ventilation mechanisms of the lungs of mammals and birds, and apparently was independently developed by the ancestors of crocodiles.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

In the late 1980s, it was suggested that the ancestors of crocodiles were active and warm-blooded predators, as well as the fact that their ancestors, archosaurs, were also warm-blooded.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Robert Becker also mentioned the possible secondary cold-blooded crocodiles in passing in his article “The Renaissance of the Dinosaurs”.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

These ideas are also supported by bone histology [93] [79] and many paleontological findings demonstrating that many crocodilomorphs were easily built, actively running animals and completely straightened limbs.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Research in embryology shows that crocodile embryos first develop full-fledged four-chambered hearts, and then form modifications that cause their hearts to function as three-chamber when immersed under water.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Using the principle that ontogeny repeats phylogenesis, the researchers concluded that the ancestors of crocodiles had completely four-chambered hearts and therefore could be warm-blooded, and that later some crocodilomorphs have undergone significant physiological and anatomical changes, returning to their aquatic habitat.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Since the ecology of crocodiles is directly related to the expectation of production at the water's edge and long dives, the low level of metabolism and traditionally considered “primitive” signs of cold-blooded animals turned out to be more profitable for them than warm-blooded [139] [55] [140].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

However, many other crocodilomorphs did not return to the aquatic environment and continued to develop as active terrestrial animals along with dinosaurs [79].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Studies of the concentration of oxygen isotopes and bone histology (showing very high and continuous growth rates) in the developed archosauromorph Erythrosuchus africanus, basal in relation to archosaurs also gave convincing evidence that it was a warm-blooded animal capable of long periods of terrestrial activity [136] [141].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Moreover, these research methods indicate a slight increase in the metabolic level from the standard “reptile” level in proterosuchia [141].


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

If this opinion is true, the development of warm-blooded archosaurs and synapsids took a comparable amount of time.


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

See also


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Notes


Question: Since what year have scientists been able to offer better interpretations about the anatomy and physiology of dinosaurs?

Dinosaur physiology

Category:Dinosaurs


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The Baltic Fleet of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War

The Red Banner Baltic Fleet (KBF) is an operational and strategic association of the Navy in the armed forces of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Fighting


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

According to Directive No. 21 (Barbarossa Plan): “In relation to the Soviet Union, the Navy performs the following task: protecting its own coast, and preventing the breakthrough of enemy naval forces from the Baltic Sea. Since when the German troops reach Leningrad, the Russian Baltic Fleet will lose its last base and find itself in a hopeless situation, major naval operations should be avoided before that. After the liquidation of the Russian fleet, the task will be to fully restore communication across the Baltic Sea, including supplying the northern wing of the army, which will need to be secured (mine trawling).”


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Those enemy forces that acted against the Baltic Fleet managed to mine waters in the operational zone of the Soviet fleet without hindrance, and our ships often died without having time to fire a single shot on the enemy.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Combat mission


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

With the outbreak of hostilities, the main task of the Baltic Fleet was to assist the troops of the North-Western and Northern Fronts in the coastal areas.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

At the first stage, it was solved mainly by independent actions of the fleet forces (mine-barrier actions, fighting on communications, actions against the enemy's naval forces).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Then the main type of combat activity was the joint actions of the fleet forces with the ground forces (artillery and air support for troops, their transportation), the defense of naval bases and islands, landing of amphibious assault forces.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

1941 year


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The advance of enemy troops deep into the territory of the country violated the basing system of the Baltic Fleet and sharply reduced its capabilities.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The fleet had to operate in several disconnected directions in the conditions of the dominance of enemy aircraft and the constantly increasing mine danger.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Defending the forward bases and conducting active hostilities on sea traffic in the Baltic Sea, the fleet was forced at the same time to provide an extremely vulnerable one, which was under flank strikes the enemy throughout the Kronstadt — Tallinn — Hanko — Moonsund Islands communication.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The fleet took part in the Moonsund defensive operation.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

At the same time, the fleet allocated forces and means for the defense of Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

At the expense of the fleet forces, the Chudskaya, Ladoga, Onega lake military flotillas and the Ilmen detachment of ships were formed.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

With the stubborn defense of the naval bases of Liepaja, Hanko, Tallinn, the islands of the Moonsund archipelago, the Baltic Fleet chained large enemy forces to itself for a long time, which weakened its onslaught on Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In August 1941, long-range bombers of the Baltic Fleet Air Force launched the first strikes on Berlin from the airfields of the island of Ezel (Saaremaa).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In 1941 alone, ships and aircraft of the Baltic Fleet delivered 12047 mines.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In an extremely difficult situation and with heavy losses, at the end of August 1941, an operation was carried out to break through the forces of the Baltic Fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

112 warships, 23 transport and auxiliary vessels arrived at their destination.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In October-December 1941, the fleet completed a combat mission to evacuate the garrison of the Hanko Naval Base to Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Until 1944, the fleet was based in the Leningrad and Kronstadt naval bases (since January 1943 - the Kronstadt Naval Defensive Region), where they entered the unified defense system of Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The Baltic Fleet assisted the troops of the 8th Army of the Leningrad Front in creating and maintaining the Oranienbaum bridgehead (September-October 1941), reliably covered the sea approaches to Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

About 90 thousand sailors were sent to the land defense areas.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Naval aviation during this period operated mainly on the land direction.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The fleet ensured the regrouping of front troops, landed tactical landing troops on the flanks and rear of the enemy (see Fig. Strelninsko-Peterhof operation).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In 1941, in 26 torpedo attacks, one transport in 3,784 GRT and one submarine U-144 were sunk.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

1942 year


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

On March 12, 1942, negotiations between German and Finnish authorities on the issue of blocking Soviet submarines marked some divergence of opinions on this issue.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The Germans believed that they would be able to block the Gulf of Finland with mines and submarine hunters, and the Finns considered these measures insufficient and sought to persuade the Germans to put a net there barricade.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

But in 1942, neither Finland nor Germany had suitable networks for this purpose.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

On May 9, 1942, the Germans began laying mines in the Gulf of Finland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Old barriers were renewed and strengthened, and new ones were installed.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The most extensive and numerous of them were the Nashorn (between Porkkala-Udd and Naisaar, 1,915 mines in total) and the Seeigel (east of Gogland, 5,779 mines in total, 1,450 mine defenders, 200 subversive checkers).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In total, in spring and summer 1942, the Germans placed 12,873 mines in the Gulf of Finland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Together with the mines that were exhibited last year, their number in the Gulf of Finland exceeded 21,000.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

More than a hundred different ships and boats were deployed directly at the barriers.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Thus, an anti-submarine line with a depth of more than 150 miles was formed.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

However, since the actions of the fleet on enemy communications in the Baltic Sea were important, the submarines skillfully, albeit with heavy losses, overcame powerful mine and anti-submarine barriers in the Gulf of Finland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In April 1942, the enemy's plan to destroy ships of the Baltic Fleet standing on the ice-bound Neva during Operation Eisstoss by air strikes was thwarted.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In July 1942, an unsuccessful operation was carried out to land on Sommers Island.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In the battle for Leningrad, the ships and coastal artillery of the Baltic Fleet performed tasks of counterbattery combat against enemy artillery and to strengthen the air defense of Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The Ladoga Military Flotilla, which was part of the fleet, provided transportation for Leningrad blocked from land along Lake Ladoga.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

According to official Soviet data, KBF submarines in 1942 sank thirty-four transport ships (93,896 GRT) and one ship with torpedoes.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Ten transports with a total displacement of 24,330 GRT and 1 ship were killed by mines, three ships (6,304 GRT) were sunk by artillery.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

A total of forty-seven sunk and four damaged ships with a total displacement of 124,530 and 19,833 GRT and two ships.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

1943 year


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In January 1943, the Baltic Fleet assisted the troops of the Leningrad and Volkhov fronts in breaking the land blockade of Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Since 1943, only naval aviation has been actively operating on the enemy's naval communications, since after the Germans set up layered minefields and anti-submarine networks, operations involving the submarines have almost ceased.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The active actions of Soviet submarines in the Baltic in 1942 forced the enemy to take measures to prevent the breakthrough of submarines of the Baltic Fleet on communications for the supply of strategic materials and raw materials.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

To this end, it was decided to hermetically close the exit from the Gulf of Finland with network barriers, although the procurement of networks cost a lot of material costs.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Ultimately, in 1943, German and Finnish ships exhibited several systems of depth-layered mine-net barriers (Walross), detection equipment and anti-submarine forces - the so-called anti-submarine lines, which blocked the fairways from Fr. Nargen to the coast of Finland near the Porkkala-Udd Peninsula (the so-called “nargen-porkkalaudd line” or “Nashorn”) and off Fr. Gogland, Khapasar skerries and Narva Bay (“Zeeigel”), with more than 13,000 mines and mine protectors, [1]


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In Germany, many large steel float cones were manufactured, which were transported by rail to Paldiski, where they were connected to sections of the anti-submarine network.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The underwater network was 55 km long and 60-90 meters high.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

It was made of a Norwegian-made 18 mm steel cable with 4 by 4 m mesh [2].


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In terms of the complexity of the navigation situation, in terms of the saturation of anti-submarine forces and means, the Gogland and Nargen-Porkkalaudd borders, which blocked the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, were the most powerful.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The line that blocked the bay along the line of Fr. Vigrund — Maewo Island Bolshoy Tyuters — Fr. Gogland, consisted of antenna, bottom and anchor magnetic mines laid in tiers along the entire depth, a wide system of observation and communication posts, searchlight installations and coastal batteries located on islands.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The main line was developed between Fr. Nargen and Porkkala-Udd Cape.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The depth of the bay here is 25-60 m and only in one place reaches 80 m and the width is 20 miles.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The main obstacle for the boats was a double-row steel net suspended from numerous floats and anchored heavy.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Separate sections of it up to 250 m long and up to 40-70 m high blocked the entire bay from the southern to the northern coast.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Soviet submarines repeatedly tried to cut or torpedo this network, but were convinced of the futility of these attempts.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

By the end of April 1943, 8.5 thousand mines were put up at the turn, including 560 magnetic bottom mines, 1,360 magnetic anchor mines and almost 6.5 thousand contact mines.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The mine intervals in the barriers ranged from 22 to 150 m.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The probability of a submarine meeting with a contact mine barrier placed by the Germans southeast of Fr. Gogland (the length of the barrier is 6 miles, mine intervals 22-44 m), in all possible directions of the boat's movement, was about 0.3-0.6, and the probability of meeting a mine was about 0.25-0.35 at the most optimal overcoming angles.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Noise direction finding stations were installed (in the area of Porkkala-Udd Peninsula, three on Gogland Island and one each in the districts of Ino, Makiluotto, Porvoo and Russare) [4].


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Anti-submarine ships and enemy boats patrolled along the line.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Submarines of the Baltic Fleet were locked in the Gulf of Finland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

When trying to break through the Nashorn and Zeeigel barriers, the Shch-302, Shch-304, Shch-320, Shch-408, Shch-406, S-9 and S-12 submarines were killed.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

During the entire 1943 campaign, submarines of the Baltic Fleet carried out only two torpedo attacks, which were unsuccessful.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

1944 year


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In January 1944, the forces of the Baltic Fleet (2 battleships, 2 cruisers, leader, 7 destroyers, 4 gunboats, 316 aircraft, 117 coastal artillery guns) took part in the operation to defeat the enemy near Leningrad.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

During the preparation of the Krasnoselsko-Ropsha operation, the fleet transported troops and military equipment of the 2 shock army to the Oranienbaum bridgehead in severe ice conditions.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

This allowed the front command to create a strong group of troops to strike at the enemy.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

During the operation, the fleet participated in artillery (200 large and medium caliber guns) and in air offensives as part of mine-torpedo, assault and fighter air divisions and a separate reconnaissance aviation regiment.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In the Vyborg and Vyborg-Petrozavodsk operations, the artillery of the fleet participated in the breakthrough of the enemy's defense on the Karelian Isthmus, in artillery support and artillery escort of troops.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The amphibious assault forces of the Baltic Fleet captured the islands of the Bjork Archipelago and the Vyborg Bay, surface forces disrupted the supply and evacuation of enemy troops by sea.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In the Svirsko-Petrozavodsk operation, the Ladoga Military Flotilla of the Baltic Fleet assisted the ground forces in breaking through the enemy's defense and conducted the Tuloksin amphibious operation.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In preparation for the Tallinn operation, the fleet ensured the regrouping of the troops of the 2 Shock Army from Narva to the Tartu segment of the front, and during the operation landed tactical landing forces during the liberation of mainland Estonia to harbors and ports on the coast and to the islands of the Gulf of Finland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

During the Moonsund amphibious operation, 2 rifle corps of the 8 Army and a marine brigade totaling more than 60 thousand people landed on the islands of the Moonsund archipelago.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Fleet aviation was involved for aviation support.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The actions of the Baltic Fleet on sea communications contributed to the successful defeat of enemy troops in the Baltic, East Prussian and East Pomeranian strategic operations.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The situation with the position of the Baltic Fleet changed only in early September 1944, when Finland withdrew from the war.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

After the Vyborg-Petrozavodsk offensive of 1944, which forced Finland to withdraw from the war, work began on the flooding of anti-submarine networks and demining Nashorn, Rukajärvi, Brummbar, Peninkulma, Sauna, Tiger and Zeeigel [5] by four trawling brigades of the Baltic Fleet and minesweepers of the Finnish Navy [6], which allowed Soviet submarines to restart operations on The Baltic Sea.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

One of the conditions of the armistice agreement put forward by the Soviet side to Finland was the lease of the Porkkala-Udd Peninsula to the USSR (with the Porkkala Navy Base), which, as shown by the sad experience of 1942—1943 is a key site for blocking the Gulf of Finland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

According to official Soviet data, in 1944, submarines of the Baltic Fleet sank 35 transport vessels with a total displacement of 86,140 GRT, 2 warships and an auxiliary vessel, and in 1945 24 vehicles (97024 GRT) and 10 ships became victims of Baltic submariners.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

1 ship has been damaged.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

A total of 51,600 mines and 12,700 mine defenders were installed by the warring parties in the Gulf of Finland during the war [7].


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Damage done


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Soviet sources usually give a list of all ships of the Baltic group of Germany that were sunk by May 8, 1945 for a variety of reasons (including those sunk by the crew, actions allied aviation, etc.).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

at the same time, two battleships of 1905 are transformed into “2 battleships”.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Here is a list of proven torpedo boat trophies:


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

September 14, 1941 - auxiliary TC M-1707 (473 GRT), was blown up by a mine in the Ahrensburg area, was fired at by the Soviet BO (one hit 130 mm in the stern) and was left by the crew.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The TSH was discovered by Soviet TKA, boarded and finished off with a torpedo.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

September 23, 1941 - auxiliary TFR V-308 (314 GRT) at Gogland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

On August 26, 1942, he was an auxiliary hunter UJ-1216 (299 GRT) at Bolshoy Tyuters.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

August 23, 1943 — Finnish minelayer Riilahti (311 tons) near Fr. Tiiskeri.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

November 1, 1943 — a large M-16 tank (682 tons) in Narva Bay.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Damaged — sank in shallow water, but was raised and put into operation by the Germans.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

June 4, 1944 — large M-37 TSH (717 tons) near Gogland.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

June 20, 1944 - T-31 naval destroyer (1754 tons) near Nerva Island.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

February 18, 1945 — Tolina TR (1923 GRT) at Memel.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

April 11, 1945 — Neuverk TR (804 GRT) at the Hel Spit.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

April 15, 1945 - the destroyer Z-34 (3,691 tons) was seriously damaged in Danzig Bay as a result of a torpedo hit the Ministry of Defense, lost its course.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

April 26, 1945 — BDB F-248A (220 tons) at the Helskaya Spit.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

April 28, 1945 — TR “Emili Sauber” (2,476 GRT) at the Helskaya Spit.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

It is also possible that on May 6, 1945, the army “stormboat” PilB-43-11 (225 tons) was sunk near the Helskaya Spit of TKA.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The most significant successes of the CBF include the destruction of large enemy transports: Wilhelm Gustloff, Goya and General Steuben.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The sinking of each of these ships is one of the ten largest in terms of the number of victims of sea disasters.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In total, as a result of the sinking of these ships, about 20 thousand people died.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Battle casualties


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

CBF's own losses are also great:


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

the battleship Marat, as a result of the Yu-87 air raid, tore off the bow of 47 frames by the explosion of torpedo ammunition,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

on the same day, the leader of the destroyers Minsk was sunk, raised and put into operation in 1943,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

the cruiser Maxim Gorky is blown up by mines and fails for a long time,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

during the evacuation from Libava, the destroyer Lenin and several submarines were sunk,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

during the evacuation from Tallinn, 15 ships and boats were killed by mines and aircraft:


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

5 destroyers: Skory, Yakov Sverdlov, Kalinin, Volodarsky, Artyom,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

2 submarines: Shch-301 and S-5,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

3 patrol ships: “Snow”, “Cyclone”, “Topaz”,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

2 minesweepers: No. 56 (“Barometer”), No. 71 (“Crab”),


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

gunboat I-8,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

patrol boat (small hunter for PL No. 109?!)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

torpedo boat No. 103


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

in addition, 43 vehicles and auxiliary vessels have been irretrievably lost.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Of the established: transports “Ella”, “Vironia”, “Everita”, “Luga”, “Ivan Papanin”, “Jervamaa”, “Alev”, “Kalpaks”, “Atys Kronvaldis”, “Balkhash”, “Naissar”, “Ergonautis”, “Tobol”, “Ausma”, “Skrunda”, “The second Five-Year Plan”, tanker No. 12, icebreakers Krisjanis Valdemars and KP-13, armed tugboat OLS-7, rescue vessels Saturn and Kolyvan, Serp & Molot floating workshop, Vostok floating base, TT-1 self-propelled barge .


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In 1941, from various reasons, the CBF lost


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

15 destroyers, including


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Novik type 7


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Yakov Sverdlov


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Artem,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Volodarsky


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Kalinin


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Lenin,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Karl Marx


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Engels,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

8 destroyers of projects 7 and 7U


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

“Angry,”


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Skory,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Brave


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Smetlivy


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

“Stately”,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

“Proud”


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

“Severe”


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

“Angry,”


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

In addition, on June 27, 1941, German torpedo boats completely disabled the Storozhevoy, and on September 21, 1941, the Steregushchy was sunk by aircraft in Kronstadt.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Subsequently, both ships were put into operation.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

27 submarines,


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

25 torpedo boats.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

During the defense of Leningrad and the counter-battery struggle, a number of ships suffered serious damage, including the battleship October Revolution.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

When overcoming minefields at the exit from the Gulf of Finland, every fifth submarine dies.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

As a result, in 1945, during the East Prussian operation, the KBF participated in railway coastal batteries, torpedo boats, and aviation.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

During the assault on Pillau, large ships of the KBF are in a deplorable state, large Kriegsmarine ships freely fire at Soviet troops.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Also, the KBF could not ensure the blocking from the sea of the German group in the Courland Cauldron (1945).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Command staff


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Commander


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

The commander is Vice Admiral V. F. Tributs (born May 1943) — June 1941 — until the end of the war.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Members of the Military Council


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Divisional Commissioner M. G. Yakovenko (June-July 1941)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

divisional commissar, corps commissar, since December 1942 Rear Admiral, since May 1944 Vice Admiral N. K. Smirnov (July 1941 — until the end of the war)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

brigadier commissar, divisional commissar, since December 1942, Major General of the Coast Service A. D. Verbitsky (July 1941 — until the end of the war).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Vice Admiral Nikolaev (1945)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Chiefs of Staff


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Rear Admiral Yu.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

A. Panteleev (June-September 1941)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Vice Admiral Yu.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

F. Rall (September 1941 — February 1943)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

captain of the 1st rank, since January 1944 Rear Admiral A. N. Petrov (February-March 1943, October-December 1943, Vrid, and December 1943 — April 1945)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Rear Admiral A. M. Arapov (March-October 1943)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Rear Admiral A. P. Alexandrov (April 1945 — until the end of the war).


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

deputy head


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Staff: Captain 1st Rank Pitersky N. A.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Chief of Staff Leonid Vasilyevich Serebrennikov


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Unit commanders and service chiefs


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

commander of the KBF squadron: Rear Admiral Dmitry Danilovich Vdovichenko


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Rear Admiral Ivan Ivanovich Gren, Commander of the KBF Artillery (since July 1941)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Rear Admiral Cherokov Viktor Sergeevich, Commander of the Island Maritime Defensive Area (OMOR) of the KBF (1945, before disbandment - LadozhVFL, then RMOR)


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Chief of Logistics of the KBF: Major General Mitrofan Ivanovich Moskalenko


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

deputy


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

beg


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Rear: Captain 3rd Rank Popik P. A.


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Head of the Diving Department of the KBF: Captain 1st Rank Andrey Mitrofanovich Stetsenko


Question: How many men served at Hanko Naval Base in 1941?

Chief of Mine Defense of the KBF: Rear Admiral Yuri Fedorovich Rall.