Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Fridolin Measure, 1977, Q&A on Dayak Tribe.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Jakarta: BPK Gunung Mulia.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Harry Widianto, et.al., “Excavation of Pig Cave Site in Tabalong Regency of South Kalimantan Province”, in Anthropological Research News, No. 1, 1997, Banjarmasin Archaeological Center.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Munoz, Paul Michel, 2006.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Early kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay peninsula.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Singapore: Edition Didier Millet.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Race, Johannes Jacobus, 1968.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Hikayat Banafiar: A study in Malay historiography.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

S'Gravenhage: N. V. De nederlandsche Boeken Steendrukkerij v/h H. L. Smits.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Sartono Kartodirdjo, 1993, “Traditional historiography, model, function, and struktumya, in the Intemational Symposium Paper of Humanities I, Faculty of Literature Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta. vida Pervaya Rusianti Kusmartono & Harry Widianto, 1998.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

“Excavation of the Great Temple Site of North Upper Coarse Regency, South Kalimantan”, in Archaeological Research News, 02/1998.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Banjarmasin: Archaeological Hall of Banjarmasin.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Vida Pervaya Rusianti Kusmartono, “The early state government of Dipa State in South Kalimantan.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Papers were submitted in the IX Archaeological Scientific Meeting and IAAI Congress 2002, Kediri, July 23-27, 2002.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Yusuf Hidayat, “Identity politics: From local identity to national identity”, in the Journal of Sociology of Universitas Airlangga, Volume 2, No. 1, 2006.


Question: Who is the longest-serving king of the Nan Sarunai Kingdom?

Kingdom of Nan Sarunai

Nansarunai Nansarunai


Question: who was the first president of Pakistan?

List of Presidents of Pakistan

The President of Pakistan (Sadr-e-Mamlikat or صدرملکت in Urdu) is the Head of State of Pakistan.


Question: who was the first president of Pakistan?

List of Presidents of Pakistan

Pakistan adheres to a semi-presidential system in its government.


Question: who was the first president of Pakistan?

List of Presidents of Pakistan

No.NamaFotomulai Lays the end of the term Political Party01Dr.


Question: who was the first president of Pakistan?

List of Presidents of Pakistan

Iskander Mirza23 March 195627 October 1958Republic02Muhammad Ayub Khan27 October 195825 March 1969Militer03Yahya Khan25 March 196920 December 1971Militer04Zulfikar Ali Bhutto20 December 197113 August 1973Pakistan05Fazal Divine Chaudhry13 August 197316 September 1978Party People's Pakistan06Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq16 September 197817 August 1988Militer07Ghulam Ishaq Khan17 August 198818 July 1993No Party08Wasim Sajjad18 July 199314 November 199314 November 1993Pakistan Muslim League (N) 09Farooq Leghari14 November 19932 December 1997People's Party Pakistan10Wasim Sajjad (Officials Provisional) 2 December 19971 January 1998Pakistan Muslim League (N) 11Muhammad Rafiq Tarar1 January 199820 June 2001Pakistan Muslim League (N) 12Pervez Musharraf20 June 200118 August 2008Military/Pakistan Muslim League (Q) 13Muhammad Mian Soomro (Temporary Official) 18 August 20086 September 2008Muslim League Pakistan (Q) 14Asif Ali Zardari6 September 20088 September 2013PakistanPeoples Party15Mamnun Hussain8 September 2013Is Programming Pakistan Muslim League (Q) Outside Link Reference


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The Internet is a computer network formed by the United States Department of Defense in 1969, through an ARPA agency project that developed a network called ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network), where they demonstrate how to do with hardware and Unix-based computer software.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The original purpose of building the project was for military use.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

At that time the United States Department of Defense (US Department of Defense) created a computer network system that was spread by connecting computers in vital areas to solve problems in the event of a nuclear attack and to avoid the occurrence of centralized information, which if going on war can be easily destroyed.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

At first ARPANET connected only 4 sites, namely Stanford Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Utah, where they formed a single integrated network in 1969, and in general ARPANET was introduced in October 1972.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Not long afterwards the project grew rapidly across the county, and all universities in the country wanted to join, thus making it difficult for ARPANET to organize it.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Therefore ARPANET was broken into two, namely “MILNET” for military purposes and the new smaller “ARPANET" (Advanced Research Project Agency Network) for non-military purposes such as, universities.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The combined two networks eventually became known under the name DARPA Internet, which was later simplified into the Internet.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Predecessors Before the Internet appeared, there had been several communication systems that were digitally based, one of which was the telegraph system that was often considered a precursor to the Internet.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The system emerged in the 19th century, or more than a hundred years before the internet came into widespread use in the 1990s. Telegraph technology itself originated from concepts that existed even before the first modern computers were invented, namely the concept of sending data through electromagnetic media such as radios or cables.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

But the technology is still limited because it is only able to connect a maximum of two devices.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In later eras, scientists such as Claude Shannon, Harry Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley, developed the theory of data and information transmission, which became the basis for many theories in this field.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Developments occurred among other things in the form of wider range and increased speed.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

But difficulties still occur because the connection between the two means of communication must occur physically, for example through a cable.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Such a system is certainly not safe because it can be easily disconnected especially during war.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Computer-Human Symbiosis In 1960, J. C. R. Licklider introduced the term “Man-Computer Symbiosis” (Computer-Human Symbiosis) in his scientific work.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The term he defines as “networks of computers connected to each other through wide communication bands that serve as libraries, equipped with information storage and search technologies.”


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Licklider along with another scientist named Welden Clark also published another work entitled “On-Line Man-Computer Communication” (Human-Machine Communication In-Network).


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In the work, he describes how human life changes in the presence of interconnected computer networks.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Two years later, Licklider secured an offer from Jack Runia to work as director of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), a new division within DARPA.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The goal of the team was to create a network connecting the three main computers of the United States Department of Defense in the Cheyenne Mountains, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

He approved it and soon formed a team which he referred to as the “Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network” (“Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network”).


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Although Licklider finally quit the IPTO in 1964, the vision of a universal network put forward by him led to the creation of ARPANET five years later, in 1969.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1973 Licklider again led for two years Packet switching The problem that arose in later developments was about how to unify separate physical networks into one logical network.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1960, Paul Baran published a study regarding network systems for the United States military.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The system is designed to be able to survive in case of nuclear war.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

With this system, the information that passes is shared in a smaller form, which is referred to as a message-block.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Elsewhere, Donal Davies is also developing almost similar networking technology.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

This technology is based on a system he named packet-switching, with various advantages over previous techniques, including having better network tape utilization and faster response times than traditional circuits.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The mathematical theory for this technology was later developed by Leonard Kleinrock of MIT.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Follow-up research was then conducted by Tommy Krash and Paul Baran.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Funded by the United States military, they sought to utilize previously discovered message-block systems to solve structure vulnerability problems on existing network system technologies.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

This vulnerability occurs as a result of a centralized routing structure, so that when broken the entire system will be the Internet is a computer network formed by the United States Department of Defense in 1969, through an ARPA agency project that developed a network called ARPANET ( Advanced Research Project Agency Network), where they demonstrated what about Unix-based computer hardware and software.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The original purpose of building the project was for military use.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

At that time the United States Department of Defense (US Department of Defense) created a computer network system that was spread by connecting computers in vital areas to solve problems in the event of a nuclear attack and to avoid the occurrence of centralized information, which if going on war can be easily destroyed.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

At first ARPANET connected only 4 sites, namely Stanford Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Utah, where they formed a single integrated network in 1969, and in general ARPANET was introduced in October 1972.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Not long afterwards the project grew rapidly across the county, and all universities in the country wanted to join, thus making it difficult for ARPANET to organize it.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Therefore ARPANET is broken into two, namely “MILNET” for military use and new smaller “ARPANET” for non-military purposes such as, universities.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The combined two networks eventually became known under the name DARPA Internet, which was later simplified into the Internet.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Predecessors Before the Internet appeared, there had been several communication systems that were digitally based, one of which was the telegraph system that was often considered a precursor to the Internet.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The system emerged in the 19th century, or more than a hundred years before the internet came into widespread use in the 1990s. Telegraph technology itself originated from concepts that existed even before the first modern computers were invented, namely the concept of sending data through electromagnetic media such as radios or cables.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

But the technology is still limited because it is only able to connect a maximum of two devices.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In later eras, scientists such as Claude Shannon, Harry Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley, developed the theory of data and information transmission, which became the basis for many theories in this field.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Developments occurred among other things in the form of wider range and increased speed.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

But difficulties still occur because the connection between the two means of communication must occur physically, for example through a cable.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Such a system is certainly not safe because it can be easily disconnected especially during war.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Computer-Human Symbiosis In 1960, J. C. R. Licklider introduced the term “Man-Computer Symbiosis” (Computer-Human Symbiosis) in his scientific work.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The term he defines as “networks of computers connected to each other through wide communication bands that serve as libraries, equipped with information storage and search technologies.”


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Lickdiler along with another scientist named Welden Clark also published another work entitled “On-Line Man-Computer Communication” (Human-Machine Communication In-Network).


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In the work, he describes how human life changes in the presence of interconnected computer networks.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Two years later, Licklider secured an offer from Jack Runia to work as director of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), a new division within DARPA.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The goal of the team was to create a network connecting the three main computers of the United States Department of Defense in the Cheyenne Mountains, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

He approved it and soon formed a team that he called as “Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network” (“Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network”).


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Although Licklider finally quit the IPTO in 1964, the vision of a universal network put forward by him led to the creation of ARPANET five years later, in 1969.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1973 Licklider returned to the lead for two years.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Packet switching The problem that arose in later developments was about how to unify separate physical networks into one logical network.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1960, Paul Baran published a study regarding network systems for the United States military.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The system is designed to be able to survive in case of nuclear war.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

With this system, the information that passes is shared in a smaller form, which is referred to as a message-block.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Elsewhere, Donal Davies is also developing almost similar networking technology.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

This technology is based on a system he named packet-switching, with various advantages over previous techniques, including having better network tape utilization and faster response times than traditional circuits.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The mathematical theory for this technology was later developed by Leonard Kleinrock of MIT.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Follow-up research was then conducted by Tommy Krash and Paul Baran.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Funded by the United States military, they sought to utilize previously discovered message-block systems to solve structure vulnerability problems on existing network system technologies.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

This vulnerability occurs due to a centralized routing structure, so when damaged the entire system will be disrupted by it.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Message-block provides an alternative as it allows network redundancy.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The list of important events is interrupted by it


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

A list of other important events. The year 1971, Ray Tomlinson successfully perfected the e-mail program he created a year ago for ARPANET.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

This e-mail program was so straightforward that it instantly became popular.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In the same year, the “@” icon was also introduced as an important emblem denoting “at” or “on”.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1973, the ARPANET computer network began to be developed outside the United States.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The University College computer in London was the first computer to exist outside America to become a member of the Arpanet network.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In the same year, two computer experts, Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn presented a bigger idea, which became the forerunner of internet thinking.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

This idea was presented for the first time at the University of Sussex.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The next historic day was March 26, 1976, when the Queen of England successfully sent out an e-mail from the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment in Malvern.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

A year later, more than 100 computers joined ARPANET to form a network or network.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1979, Tom Truscott, Jim Ellis and Steve Bellovin, created the first newsgroups to be named USENET.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1981 France Telecom created a buzz by launching the first television phone, where people could call each other while connecting with video links.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

As the computers that make up the network more and more days, it requires an official protocol that is recognized by all networks.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1982 was formed Transmission Control Protocol or TCP and Internet Protocol or IP that we know all.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Meanwhile in Europe appeared a counterpoint computer network known as Eunet, which provided computer networking services in the countries of the Netherlands, Britain, Denmark and Sweden.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The Eunet Network provides e-mail services and USENET newsgroups.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In order to unify addresses in existing computer networks, then in 1984 was introduced the domain name system, which is now known to us as DNS or Domain Name System.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Computers connected to existing networks have exceeded 1000 more computers.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1987 the number of computers connected to the network jumped 10 fold by 10,000 more.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1988, Jarko Oikarinen from Finland invented and simultaneously introduced IRC or Internet Relay Chat.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

A year later, the number of reconnected computers jumped 10-fold in a year.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

No less than 100,000 computers now form a network.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The year 1990 was the most historic year, when Tim Berners Lee invented an editor and browser program that could browse between one computer and another, which made up that network.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

It is this program called www, or World Wide Web.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

In 1992, the interconnected computers form a network already surpassed a million computers, and in the same year appeared the term surfing the internet.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

By 1994, Internet sites had grown to 3000 page addresses, and for the first time virtual-shopping or e-retail appeared on the internet.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

The world instantly changed.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

That same year Yahoo! was founded, which was also simultaneously the birth of Netscape Navigator.


Question: When was the internet invented?

History of the Internet

Outside Links Category:Internet Category:Computer Networks


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The Pacific War or Asia-Pacific War, or known in Japan by the name Greater East Asia War (Greater East Asia War (大東, Dai Tō-A Sensō)) was a war that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands, and in Asia.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

This conflict occurred between 1937 and 1945, but more important events occurred after December 7, 1941, when Japan attacked the United States and territories controlled by Great Britain and many other countries and those controlled by allies.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

This war started earlier than World War II, on July 8, 1937 by an incident called the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. The event ignited the war between China and Japan. The conflict between Japan and China and some of its events and attacks were important is also part of those wars.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The war was fought between the Central parties including Japan, Nazi Germany, and Italy with the Allies (including China), the United States, Great Britain, the Philippines, Australia, the Netherlands and New Zealand.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The Soviet Union successfully repulsed Japan in 1939, and remained neutral until 1945, when it played an important statement on the Allied side in the late days of the war.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

After being colonized in 1941, Thailand was forced to join the Japanese side.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Nazi Germany and Italy who were also allies of Japan, operated their Naval fleets in the Pacific and Indian Oceans between 1940 and 1945.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Between 1942 and 1945, there were 4 Allied authorities fighting against Japan: China, the Pacific Ocean region, Southeast Asia and the Southwest Pacific region.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The Pacific War ended on 15 August 1945 and the treaty to surrender Japan was signed by the representative of the allies namely General Douglas McArthur and the Japanese were represented by Mamoru Shigemitsu aboard the USS Missouri.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

As a result of the Pacific War The following are some of the consequences of the Asia-Pacific War that occurred between 1937 to 1945 this: The defeat of Japan made it lose its colonies such as Manchuria, Korea, Southeast Asia and mandate areas in the Pacific islands granted at the end of the War World II.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Some countries previously colonized by European countries managed to gain independence such as Indonesia.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The Emperor of Japan lost his status as a god.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The United States as the victors of the war in the Pacific did not want to prosecute Hirohito, the then emperor of Japan.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The United States needed buffer areas (buffers) to withstand the flow of influence of communism because Russia had already reached the eastern region of Asia.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Japan is not allowed to have a war force, except for self-defense forces.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Source Reference Blair, Jr., Clay.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Silent Victory.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975 (submarine war).


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Buell, Thomas.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Master of Seapower: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King Naval Institute Press, 1976.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Buell, Thomas.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond Spruance. 1974.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

CS1 maint: uses editors parameter (link) Channel 4 (UK).


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Hell in the Pacific (television documentary series). 2001.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Costello, John.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

The Pacific War. 1982, overview Craven, Wesley, and James Cate, eds.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 1, Plans and Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

University of Chicago Press, 1958.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Official history; Vol. 4, The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944. 1950; Vol. 5, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki. 1953.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Dunnigan, James F., and Albert A. Nofi.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

The Pacific War Encyclopedia.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Facts on File, 1998. 2 vols. 772p.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Gailey, Harry A.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

The War in the Pacific: From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay (1995) Gordon, David M.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

“The China—Japan War, 1931—1945" Journal of Military History (January 2006) v 70 #1, pp 137—82.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Historiographical overview of major books Seki, Eiji. (2006).


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Mrs.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

London: Global Oriental.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

ISBN978-1-905246-28-1 (cloth) (reprinted by University of Hawaii Press), Honolulu, 2007.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Saburo Hayashi and Alvin Coox.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Quantico, Virginia: Marine Corps Assoc., 1959.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine, eds. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937—1945 M. E. Sharpe, 1992 Hsi-sheng, Ch'i.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937—1945 University of Michigan Press, 1982 Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937—1945), 2nd Ed., 1971.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Inoguchi, Rikihei, Tadashi Nakajima, and Robert Pineau.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

The Divine Wind.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Ballantine, 1958.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Kamikaze.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

James, D. Clayton.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

The Years of MacArthur.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Vol.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Houghton Mifflin, 1972.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Kirby, S. Woodburn's The War Against Japan. 4 vols. London: H.M.S.O., 1957—1965.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Official Royal Navy history.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Leary, William M.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

We Shall Return: MacArthur's Commanders and the Defeat of Japan.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

University Press of Kentucky, 1988.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell, United States Army Center of Military History, Washington, D. C., 1990 Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 3, The Rising Sun in the Pacific.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Boston: Little, Brown, 1961; Vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions. 1949; Vol. 5, The Struggle for Guadalcanal. 1949; Vol. 6, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. 1950; Vol. 7, Aleutians, Gilberts, and Marshalls. 1951; Vol. 8, New Guinea and the Marianas. 1962; Vol. Leyte. 1958; vol. 13, The Liberation of the Philippines: Luzon, Mindanao, the Visayas. 1959; Vol. 14, Victory in the Pacific. 1961.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Masatake Okumiya, and Mitso Fuchida.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Midway: The Battle That Doomed Japan.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Naval Institute Press, 1955.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Potter, E. B. and Chester W. Nimitz.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Triumph in the Pacific.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Prentice Hall, 1963.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Naval battles Potter, E. B. Bull Halsey Naval Institute Press, 1985.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Potter, E. B. Nimitz.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1976.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Potter, John D.Yamamoto 1967.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Prange, Gordon W. Donald Goldstein, and Katherine Dillon.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

At Dawn We Slept.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Penguins, 1982.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Pearl Harbor ——, et al. Miracle at Midway.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Penguin, 1982. ——, et al. Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Sarantakes, Nicholas Evan. Allies against the Rising Sun: The United States, the British Nations, and the Defeat of Imperial Japan (2009). 458pp.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Shaw, Henry, and Douglas Kane.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 2, Isolation of Rabaul.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, 1963 Shaw, Henry, Bernard Nalty, and Edwin Turnbladh.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 3, Central Pacific Drive.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

E.B. Sledge, With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Presidio, 1981.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

Pacific War

Memoir.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Smith, J. Douglas, and Richard Jensen.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

World War II on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites. (2002) Ronald Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan Free Press, 1985.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

John Toland, The Rising Sun. 2 vols. Random House, 1970.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Japan's war.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Ian W. Toll. Pacific Crucible: War at Sea in the Pacific, 1941—1942 (2011) Willmott Empires in the Balance.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Press, 1982.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Willmott, H.P.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

The Barrier and the Javelin.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Press, 1983.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Weinberg, Gerhard L.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge University Press.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

ISBN0-521-44317-2. (2005).


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Y'Blood, William.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Red Sun Setting: The Battle of the Philippine Sea.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1980.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, (2003) United States War Department primary source.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

TM 30-480 Handbook On Japanese Military Forces, 1942 (1942); 384pp; highly detailed description of wartime IJA by U.S. Army Intelligence.


Question: What are the number of countries that have invaded Japan during the world war?

War of the Pacific

Further reading Outlinks, 4000 short articles — at The War Times Journal on YouTube War Category:Battles and military operations in World War II Category:Battles of World War II involved Japan Category:Battles of World War II involved the United States Category:World War II battles involving Great Britain Category:World War II battles involving China Category:World War II battles involving Australia Category:World War II battles involved the Netherlands Category:Battles of World War II involving New Zealand Category:World War II battles involving Canada Category:Battles of World War II involved Russians


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The Main Page Dragon Ball GT (Japanese:ドランールジーティー, Hepburn:Doragon Bōru Jī Tī) is a Japanese animated series based on the Dragon Ball manga by Akira Toriyama.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The series was produced by Toei Animation and premiered on February 7, 1996 in Japan on Fuji TV with a total number of episodes of 64 pieces until its outing on November 19, 1997.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Unlike the previous two anime series in the Dragon Ball franchise, Dragon Ball GT did not adapt Akira Toriyama's manga series, but let it be a sequel to the Dragon Ball Z anime show with an original story using the same characters and worlds.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The plot of the series continues again the adventures of Goku who was again made small by Emperor Pilaf who accidentally requested this using the Black Star Dragon Ball (ークドランール, Dāku Doragon Bōru, lit.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

“Dragon Ball Black”) 'at the beginning of the series and he is forced to go around the galaxy to recollect that Dragon Ball.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The first half of the series focuses on Goku, Pan and Trunks, while the second half again brings out the characters from Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z. The series tells the Z Fighter battling much stronger enemies such as Luud Cult, the Mutant Machine, Baby, Super 17 and the Shadow Dragons.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Production Unlike other Dragon Ball anime series, Dragon Bal GT does not adapt the manga series written by Akira Toriyama, but tells an original story conceptualized by Toei Animation staff that uses the same characters and worlds as the original Dragon Ball manga.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

But Toriyama has given the name Dragon Ball GT which means “Grand Touring” (a great journey) which refers to the story where his character has to explore space and he also designs the appearance of the main cast.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Toriyama himself mentioned GT as “a side story from the original Dragon Ball”. [1]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Head character designer, en said he felt tormented when designing Super Saiya 4 Goku which was the idea of the producer of this show, he always asked if it was necessary to continue his transformation further.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Because Super Saiya 4 was created while being in Ozaru (“Big Monkey”) form, she made her hair more “wild” and covered Goku's body with red feathers.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

There was only one final concept of her character, although Naktsuru had thought about making her hair blonde, she eventually chose black because it proved to be more contrasting with her red fur. [2]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The music of Dragon Ball GT is composed by Akihito Tokunaga, although the series uses five theme music from popular artists. en singing the opening theme of the series is “Dan Dan Kokoro Hikareteku" (DAN DAN)


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The “Hitori Janai" (


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Starting from episode 27, the series began using the song “Don't You See!”


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

from en for its closing theme.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Episode 42 marked the subsequent closing theme change, with “Blue Velvet” from en.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The “Sabitsuita Machine Gun de Ima o Uchinukō" (いマシンン


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The song was used as the closing theme for the rest of the series, with the exception of the final episode which again used its opening theme.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Localization Funimation Entertainment has licensed the series for English airing in the United States.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The series' English voiceover used their own musical compositions orchestrated by Mark Menza and aired on Cartoon Network from November 7, 2003 to April 16, 2005.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The company's home video release and television viewing omits the first 16 episodes of the series.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Instead, Funimation created a mixed episode titled “A Grand Problem”, which used scenes from the omitted episodes to summarize the story.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

These omitted episodes were later broadcast on Cartoon Network as “Missing Episodes” after the airing of the original one ended.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The English voiceover began to be rebroadcast in the US on Nicktoons from 16 Janurai 2012 to 13 December 2012 and was replayed until 2 January 2015. [3]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

AB Groupe (in collaboration with en) developed an alternative voiceover for Europe and Canada and aired on YTV and en, which split its episodes into two seasons while its original Japanese music was retained in Blue Water's English voiceover. [4] [5] Related media Home release In Japan, Dragon Ball GT did not receive home video releases until June 15, 2005 which means eight years after its broadcast.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

It is a remastering series loaded in a single 12-cassette DVD box made only by order.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The contents of this set began to be released as a mass production on February 6, 2008 and ended on June 4, 2008 with a total of eight volumes already released. [6] [7] In North America, Funimation began releasing Dragon Ball GT on VHS and DVD in edited and uncut formats in April 2003 [8] starting from episode 17.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

After the end of the 15th volume, they released the first sixteen episodes in five volumes called “Lost Episodes” between July 2004 and February 2005. [9] [10] They then released the series in a DVD box set; the first (beginning with episode 17) in October 2005 and finished in November 2007 with the first sixteen episodes as a “Lost Episode” box set. [11] [12] Two years later, they began releasing the series again in a “remastering season” DVD set whose episodes were eventually arranged sequentially; the first on December 9, 2008 and the second on February 10 2009. [13] [14] A DVD box set of this series complete with its TV special was later released on September 21, 2010. [15]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Manga Entertainment began distributing Dragon Ball GT on DVD in the United Kingdom on January 20, 2014 which was re-released by Funimation in 2008 and 2009. [16]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

MusitReleasesSagragon Ball GT: Season 19 December 2008Black Star Dragon Ball Saga and Baby SagaDragon Ball GT: Season 210 February 2009Super 17 Saga, Shadow Dragon Saga and Dragon Ball GT: A Hero's LegacyDragon Ball GT: The Complete SeriesSeptember 21, 2010All epsiode and Dragon Ball GT: A Hero's Legacy Art book and manga There are two books related to this series, the first titled Dragon Ball GT Perfect Files released in May 1997 and December 1997 in Shueisha's Jump Comics Selection issue.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

They include this series information, image galleries, behind-the-scenes information and more.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

They did not print it again for several years, but it was later re-released in April 2007 and this edition is still in printing. [17] [18] In 2013, an anime version of the comic from Dragon Ball GT began running in the magazine en Shueisha.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

This version began to be serialized in the January 2014 issue, which was already released on December 4, 2013. [19]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Video Games There are several video games produced based on the Dragon Ball GT series. En was the first one created in 1997 for the PlayStation that received an international release in the same year, this makes it the first Dragon Ball game released in North America.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Game Boy Advance game 2005 that is en has also been released exclusively in North America.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

TV specials To date Dragon Ball GT does not have a single movie and only has one TV special titled Dragon Ball GT: A Hero's Legacy.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

This TV special tells the story of a hundred years after the death of the Z Fighter and only Pan remains.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Pan has a grandson very similar to Goku whose name is also Goku, but the fans prefer to call it Goku Jr. Pan always tried to train Goku Jr to become a great fighter like his ancestors but unfortunately he wasn't like that.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

He is just a whiny kid who is fearful and has no combat ability.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Cast list Reception Contrary to Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z, Dragon Ball GT received mixed to negative reviews.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

IGN called it “downright repellent,”.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

IGN mentioned that the material and its characters have lost their uniqueness and cuteness.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

They also criticized GT's character designs for Vegeta and some other characters who look stupid. [20]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Anime News Network (ANN) also made negative comments on this event by calling that the fight from this series “is a very simple boyish gymnastics” and that many other anime are superior.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

The plot of the series was also criticized for providing a formula that its predecessors had already used. [21]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Although, ANN has called it “a fun ride when not taken very seriously”. [22]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Them Anime Reviews criticized the humor and its characters saying, “The humor is forced, crisp and stupid, the characters are always the same and the villains are ugly, power-hungry monsters with the slightest lack of personality”.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

They, however also gave some credit to his animation and music by saying, "At least Toei went to the trouble of bringing up the animation, and especially the music, up a notch, even if the character designs are ugly as sin and they ruined everything else about Dragon Ball in the process. “[23]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Most fans prefer “Dragon Ball” and “Dragon Ball Z” to “Dragon Ball GT” . “[24]


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Debate over Toriyama's involvement Akira Toriyama is recognized as the author at the end of the Dragon Ball GT credit; he oversaw the production of the series, this is the same process that was once done during the production of the Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z anime series. the GT logo, he designed the appearance of his main cast as well and he designed the appearance of the Giru and the GT starship used in the Black Star Dragon Ball Saga.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

He also snatched at least three color images of Goku, Pan and Trunks who were adventuring on various planets.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

When he drew his own version of Super Saiya 4 exclusively for Dragon Box GT, Toriyama seemed to have positive guesswork towards the continuation of his work.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Characters and events from GT have also been included in the latest Dragon Ball video game.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Despite the fact this way, some fans do not consider GT to be an official series, most often say that the series is not directly adapted from Toriyama's manga.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

In the same Dragon Box where Toriyama drew his Super Saiya 4 form, he called the series “a great side story from the original Dragon Ball”.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

This controversial remark was interpreted by some fans to mean that the series is considered by Toriyama as an official follow-up of his manganya and others interpreted otherwise.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

In December 2014, FUNimation's voice, Christopher Sabbath said that GT “isn't even a canon”, presumably meaning that the release of Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods has replaced GT as the official content, in Sabbath's opinion.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

This Sabbath statement became the only record using the word “canon” from anyone involved in the production of any Dragon Ball medium.


Question: who is the main character of Dragon Ball GT?

Dragon Ball GT

Reference See also Dragon Ball Dragon Ball Z Akira Toriyama Outlinks (in Japanese) (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia Category:Anime Category:Dragon Ball Category:Japanese Television Series Category:Funimation Category:YTV Category:Fuji Television Category:Animax Category:Toei Animation Category:Toonami Category:GMA Network Category:Madman Entertainment


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

By 1000 BC, civilization was using technology that would eventually form the basis of various branches of chemical science.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Examples include extracting metals from their seeds, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, removing chemicals from herbs for medicines and perfumes, converting fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys such as bronze.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Chemical protoscience, alchemy, did not manage to explain the nature of matter and its transformation.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

However, by conducting experiments and recording the results, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The distinction began to emerge when a clear differentiation between chemistry and alchemy was made by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist (1661).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

While alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformation, the chemist is recognized for applying the scientific method to his work.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Chemistry is considered to have become an established science through the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the law of mass immutability that demands careful measurement and quantitative observation of chemical phenomena.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The history of chemistry is closely connected with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. [1]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Ancient history Early metallurgy The earliest recorded metal used by humans appears to have been gold that could be found free or “native”.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. 40,000 BC. [2]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Silver, copper, tin and original meteor iron can also be found, which allowed limited processing of metals in ancient cultures. [3]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Egyptian weapons made of meteor iron in about 3000 BC are prized tub “Dagger from Heaven”. [4]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was fire.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

However, for thousands of years fire was only seen as a mystical force that could convert one substance into another (burning wood or boiling water) while producing heat and light.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The fire affected many aspects of early society.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

These range from the simplest aspects of everyday life, such as cooking and environmental lighting, to more advanced technologies, such as pottery, bricks, and metal melting to serve as tools.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

It was the fire that prompted the invention of glass and the refining of metals which in turn gave way to the revival of metallurgy.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

During the early stages of metallurgy, methods of refining metals were sought, and gold, known in the ancient Egyptian era as early as 2900 BC, became a valuable metal.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Bronze Age Certain metals can be extracted from their seeds by simply heating rocks in a fire: mainly tin, lead and copper (at higher temperatures), a process known as smelting.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The first evidence of this extractive metallurgy dates back to the 5th and 6th millennium BC, and was found at the archaeological sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik, all three in Serbia.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

To date, the earliest copper smelters were found at the Belovode site, [5] these examples include a copper axe from 5,500 BC belonging to the Vinča culture. [6]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Other signs of early metalwork are found from the third millennium BC in places such as Palmela (Portugal), Los Millares (Spain), and Stonehenge (Great Britain).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

However, as is often the case with the study of prehistoric times, the beginning cannot be clearly defined and new discoveries are ongoing.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

These first metals were single metals or as found.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

By combining copper and tin, it could be made a superior metal, an alloy called bronze, a major shift in technology that began in the Bronze Age around 3,500 B.C.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The Bronze Age was a period of human cultural development when the processing of the most advanced metals (at least systematically and widely used) included the techniques of smelting copper and tin from the forging of naturally occurring copper ores, and then smelting those ores to produce bronze.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

These naturally occurring ores usually contain arsenic as a purity.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The rarity of copper/tin ore is reflected by the fact that there was no tin bronze in western Asia before 3000 BC.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

After the Bronze Age, the history of metallurgy was marked by armies seeking better weaponry.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Countries in Eurasia became prosperous as they made superior alloys, which in turn made better armor and weapons.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

This often determines the outcome of a battle.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Significant advances in metallurgy and alchemy were made in ancient India. [7]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Iron Age Extraction of iron from its grain into a metal that can be processed is much more difficult than copper or tin.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

It appears to have been discovered by the Hittites in about 1200 BC, as a sign of the start of the Iron Age.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The secret of iron extraction and processing was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. [4] [8] In other words, the Iron Age refers to the emergence of iron metallurgy.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The historical development of ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of cultures and civilizations of the past.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

These include, among others, ancient and medieval kingdoms as well as the empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, ancient Nubia, and Anatolia (Turkey), Ancient Nok, Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, India ancient and medieval, ancient and medieval Japan.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Many applications, practices and devices related to or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China, such as the innovations of high furnaces, cast iron, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, and double-action piston bellows. [9] [10] Classical baharian and atomism Philosophical experiments to rationalize why different substances have different properties (color, density, smell), exist in diverse circumstances (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and react in different ways when exposed to the environment, for example being exposed to water or fire or changes in temperature, triggering ancient philosophers postulated the first theories about nature and chemistry.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The history of such philosophical theories dealing with chemical science could probably be traced back to every ancient civilization.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

A common aspect in all these theories is the attempt to identify a small number of major classical elements that make up all the variety of substances in nature.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Substances such as air, water, and land, forms of energy, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as ideas, aether, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations although there was no cross-culture; for example in ancient Greek, Indian, Mayan, and Chinese philosophy, all considered air, water, soil and fire as the main elements.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The ancient world Around 420 BC, Empedokles stated that all matter consisted of four elements—soil, fire, air and water.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Early theories of atomism can be traced back to the times of ancient Greece and ancient India. [11]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Greek atomism originated with the Greek philosopher Democritos, who held that matter consisted of inseparable and indestructible atoms, in about 380 BC.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Leukippos also states that atoms are the most inseparable parts of matter.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

This coincides with a similar declaration by the Indian philosopher named Canada in his Vaisheshikanya sutra around the same time period. [11]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In the same way he discusses the existence of gases.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

What Canada declares through his book of silk, Democritos states through his philosophical musings.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Both suffer from a lack of empirical data.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Without scientific evidence, the existence of atoms is easily denied.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Aristotle opposed the existence of atoms in 330 BC.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Earlier, in 380 BC, a Greek text attributed to Polibos argued that the human body was composed of quadrangles.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Around 300 BC, Epicuros postulated an undestroyable atomic universe in which humans themselves were responsible for achieving balanced life.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

With the aim of explaining Epicurean philosophy to Roman audiences, the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius [12] wrote De Rerum Natura (The Nature of Things, Indonesian: The Nature of Things) [13] in 50 BC.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In the work, Lucretius presents the principles of atomism; the nature of the mind and soul; the explanation of sensations and thoughts; the development of the world and phenomena; as well as explaining various celestial and terrestrial phenomena.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Much of the early development of purification methods is described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalist History.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He attempted to explain the method, as well as make a quick observation of the state of many minerals.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Medieval alchemy The system of elements used in Medieval alchemy was developed primarily by the Persian alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān and is rooted in the classical elements of the Greek tradition. [14]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

His system consists of four elements of Aristotle air, soil, fire, and water in addition to two philosophical elements: sulfur, which characterizes the principle of combustion; “burning stone”, and mercury, characterizing the principle of metallic properties.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

They were seen by early alchemists as ideal expressions of the infinite component of the universe [15] and greater considerations in philosophical alchemy.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The three principles of metals: sulfur against flammability or combustion, mercury against volatility and stability, and salt for solidity, became the tria prime of the Swiss alchemist, Paracelsus.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He reasoned that Aristotle's four-element theory appeared in the body as three principles.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental and justified them by way of explaining how wood burned.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Mercury includes the principle of cohesiveness, so that when left in smoke causes the wood to be scattered.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Smoke describes volatility (the capricious principle), the flame that gives the impression of heat explains the ease of burning (sulfur), and the remaining ash describes solidity (salt). [16]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The philosopher's stone of Alchemy is defined based on Hermitian investigation for philosopher's stone, the study of which is sheathed in mystical symbols, and is very different from modern science.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Alchemists work hard to perform transformations on an esoteric (spiritual) and/or exoteric (practical) level. [17]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The exoteric aspects of alchemy were protosaintifical, contributing greatly to the evolution of chemistry in Greco-Roman Egypt, the Islamic Golden Age, and later in Europe.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Alchemy and chemistry had an interest in the composition and properties of matter, and before the eighteenth century were not separated in different disciplines.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The term chymistry has been used to describe the fusion of alchemy and chemistry that existed before this time. [18]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The earliest Western alchemists, who lived in the first centuries after AD, invented chemical equipment.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Bain-marie, or water bath (English: water bath) is named for Mary the Jewess.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

His work also provided the first descriptions of tribikos and kerotakis. [19]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Cleopatra the Alchemist described the furnace and has been credited with the discovery of the alembic. [20]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Later, experimental skeletons created by Jabir ibn Hayyan influenced alchemists as the discipline migrated through the Islamic world, then to Europe in the twelfth century.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

During the Renaissance, exoteric alchemy remained popular in the iatrochemical form of Paracelsianism, while spiritual alchemy flourished, adapted to its Platonic, Hermetic, and Gnostic roots.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

As a result, the symbolic quest for the philosopher's stone was not replaced by scientific progress, and was still the domain of respected scientists and physicians until the early eighteenth century.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Early modern alchemists noted for their scientific contributions include Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Problems encountered with alchemy There are some problems with alchemy, as seen from the current point of view.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

There is no systematic naming scheme for new compounds, and the language is esoteric and vague to the point that a terminology has different meanings for different people.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In fact, according to The Fontana History of Chemistry (Brock, 1992): The language of alchemy soon developed an arcane and secretive technical vocabulary designed to conceal information from the uninitiated.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

To a large degree, this language is incomprehensible to us today, though it is apparent that readers of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canon's Yeoman's Tale or audiences of Ben Jonson's The Alchemist were able to construe it sufficiently to laugh at it. [21] [


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The language of alchemy soon developed an inner and secret technical vocabulary designed to hide information from the uninitiated.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

To a greater extent, this language we cannot understand right now, although it is clear that readers of Canon's Yeoman's Tale from Geoffrey Chaucer or Ben Jonson's The Alchemist audience can interpret it sufficiently enough to laugh at it.] error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help) [21] Chaucer's story further exposes the cheating side of alchemy, especially the manufacture of fake gold from cheap substances.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Less than a century earlier, Dante Alighieri had also shown awareness of this fraud, so that he wrote consigning all alchemists to the Inferno.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Not long after, in 1317, Pope John XXII Avignon ordered all alchemists to leave France for having made counterfeit money.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

A law was passed in England in 1403 making “metal doubling” punishable by death.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Although there are these actions and others that seem to be extreme, alchemy is not dead.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The noble and privileged classes are still trying to find the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life for themselves. [22]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

There is also no agreed upon scientific method for experiments to be repeatable.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Indeed, many alchemists incorporate irrelevant information into their methods such as the timing of tides or the phases of the moon.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The esoteric nature of alchemy as well as its codified vocabulary seem to be more useful in hiding the fact that they are actually completely unsure.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

By the early 14th century, a rift seemed to grow shaking up the robustness of alchemy; and people became skeptical.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Obviously, there needs to be a scientific method for experiments to be repeated by others, and the results need to be reported in clear language explaining what is known and unknown.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Alchemy in the Islamic world In the Islamic World, Muslims translated the works of ancient Greeks and Egyptians into Arabic and experimented with scientific ideas. [23]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The development of the modern scientific method was very slow and difficult, but early scientific methods for chemistry began to emerge among early Muslim chemists, beginning with the 9th-century chemist Jābir ibn Hayyān (known as “Geber” in Europe), who was considered the “father of chemical science”. [24] [25] [26] [27] He introduced a systematic and experimental approach to laboratory-based scientific research, in contrast to ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were largely allegorical and often incomprehensible. [28]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He also discovered and named it alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed many chemical substances, composed lapidari, distinguished between alkalis and acids, and produced hundreds of drugs. [29]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He also refined the classical five-element theory into the seven-element theory of alchemy after identifying mercury and sulfur as chemical elements. [30]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Among other influential Muslim chemists, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, [31] Ibn Sina [32] and Al-Kindi deny alchemical theories, especially the theory of metal transmutation; and al-Tusi explains a version of mass eternity, noting that a matter can change but cannot be lost. [33]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Ar-Razi refuted Aristotle's theory of the four classical elements for the first time and established a solid foundation of modern chemistry, using the laboratory in the modern sense, designing and describing more than twenty instruments, of which many parts are still in use until present, such as crucible, flask or flask round plinth for distillation, and alembic (Latin: alembic), and various types of furnaces or stoves.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

For practitioners in Europe, alchemy became an intellectual race after early Arabic alchemy became available through Latin translation, and over time, they rose.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Paracelsus (1493—1541), for example, rejected the 4-element theory and with only little understanding of chemicals and drugs, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in so-called iatrochemistry.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Paracelsus was imperfect in making his experiments truly scientific.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

For example, as an extension of his theory that new compounds could be made by combining mercury with sulfur, he once made what he considered “sulfur oil”, but was actually dimethyl ether, which contained neither mercury nor sulfur at all.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

17th and 18th centuries: Early chemistry of JMPL|150px|Workspace, from De re metallica, 1556, Chemical Heritage Foundation Practical efforts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction for smelting metals were an important source of information for early chemists of the 16th century pafa, among them Georgius Agricola (1494-1555), who published his great work De re metallica in 1556.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

His work shed light on the highly advanced and complex processes of metal ore mining, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

His approach got rid of the mysticism associated with the subject, creating a practical base that could be developed by others.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The work described the different types of furnaces used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in the mineral and its composition.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

It is no coincidence that he gives numerous references to earlier authors, Pliny the Elder and his Naturalist Historias.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Agricola has been described as the “father of metallurgy”. [34]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1605, Sir Francis Bacon published The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contained a description of what was then known as the scientific method. [35]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1605, Michal Sedziwój published the alchemical treatise A New Light of Alchemy which proposed the existence of a “food of life” in the air, later known as oxygen.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1615 Jean Beguin published the Tyrocinium Chymicum, an early chemistry textbook, and in it imaged chemical equations for the first time. [36]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1637 René Descartes published the Discours de la méthode, which contained an outline of the scientific method.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The work of Dutch chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont, Ortus medicinae was published in 1648; the book is cited by some as a great transitional work between alchemy and chemistry, and an important influence on Robert Boyle.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The book contains the results of various experiments and establishes an early version of the law of mass immutability.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Not long after Paracelsus and iatrochemistry, Jan Baptist van Helmont suggested that there was a substantial substance other than air and named it - “gas”, from the Greek word chaos.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In addition to introducing the word “gas” into the scientific vocabulary, van Helmont conducted several experiments involving gas.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Jan Baptist van Helmont is also remembered today for most of his ideas on spontaneous formation and his 5-year tree experiments, and is also considered the inventor of pneumatic chemistry.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Robert Boyle The Anglo-Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627-1691) is considered to have perfected the modern scientific method for alchemy and to have separated chemistry from alchemy. [37]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Although his research is clearly rooted in the alchemical tradition, most consider Boyle to be the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemical science, and one of the pioneers of the modern experimental scientific method.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Although Boyle was not the original discoverer, he is best known for Boyle's law, which he presented in 1662: [38] the law describes an inversely proportional relationship between absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature remains constant in a closed system. [39] :p.12 gives the original definition.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Boyle is also recognized for the publication of his masterpiece The Sceptical Chymist in 1661, which is seen as an important book in chemistry.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In his work, Boyle put forward his hypothesis that each phenomenon is the result of the collision of particles in motion.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Boyle asked chemists to experiment and asserted that experimenters disproved the restriction of chemical elements to only four classical elements: soil, fire, air, and water.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He also pleaded for it to stop degrading chemistry under medicine or alchemy, and raise its status to science.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The most important thing is, he advocated a rigorous approach to scientific experimentation: he believed that all theories must be experimentally proven before being considered truth.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

This work contains some of the earliest modern ideas: atoms, molecules, and chemical reactions, as well as the commencement milestones of modern chemical history.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Boyle also tries to purify chemicals to obtain repeatable (reproducible) reactions.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He was a vocal proponent of the mechanical philosophy put forward by René Descartes that explained and measured the nature of physics and the interaction of matter.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Boyle was an atomist, but preferred the word corpuscula (grain, English: corpuscle) rather than atom.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He commented that the breakdown of matter is smallest where its properties are maintained at the level of the corpuscula.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He also did a lot of research with air pumps, and noted that mercury drops when air is pumped out.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He also observed that pumping air from the container would extinguish the flame and kill the small animals placed in it.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Boyle helped lay the foundation of the Chemical Revolution with his mechanical corpuscular philosophy. [40]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Boyle repeated van Helmont's tree experiments, and was the first to use indicators that changed color along with changes in acidity.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The development and death of the flogiston theory In 1702, German chemist Georg Stahl coined the name “flogiston” for a substance believed to be released in the combustion process.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Around 1735, Swedish chemist Georg Brandt analyzed dark blue pigments found in copper ores.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Brandt showed that the pigment contained a new element, which was later named cobalt.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1751, a Swedish chemist named Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who was also a pupil of Stahl, identified the purity in copper ore as a separate metallic element, which he named nickel.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Cronstedt was one of the founders of modern mineralogy. [41]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Cronstedt also discovered the mineral scheelite in 1751, named tungsten, which means “heavy stone” in Swedish.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1754, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black isolated carbon dioxide, which he called “fixed air”. [42]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1757, Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt, while researching arsenic compounds, created the smoky liquid Cadet, later discovered as kakodyl oxide, considered the first synthetic organophytallic compound. [43]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1758, Joseph Black formulated the concept of latent calorific to explain the thermochemistry of phase change. [44]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1766, the English chemist Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen, which he called “combustible air”.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Cavendish discovered hydrogen to be a colorless, odorless gas that burns and can form explosive mixtures with air.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He published a paper on the production of water by burning combustible air (i.e., hydrogen) in deflogisticated air (now known as oxygen) Deflagisticated air is a constituent of the air atmosphere (flogiston theory).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1773, the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered oxygen, which he called “the air of fire”, but did not immediately publish his achievements. [45]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1774, the English chemist Joseph Priestley separately isolated oxygen in its gaseous state, calling it “deflogisticated air”, and published his work before Scheele. [46] [47] During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation lay in the discovery of soda water, his writings on electricity, and the invention of several “air” (gases), the most famous of which is what Priestley called “deflogisticated air” (oxygen).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Nevertheless, Priestley's determination to defend the flogiston theory and reject what would become a chemical revolution ultimately left him isolated among the scientific community.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1781, Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new acid, tungstat acid, could be made from Cronstedt's scheelite (at the time named tungsten).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggest there is a possibility to obtain new metals by reducing these acids. [48]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1783, José and Fausto Elhuyar discovered an acid made from wolframite that was identical to tungstatic acid.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Later that year, in Spain, the two brothers managed to isolate the metal now known as tungsten (or wolfram) by reducing this acid with charcoal, and they were recognized as the discoverers of the element. [49] [50] Volta and the Volta JMPL|199px|ka|A voltaic stack which is on display in the Tempio Voltiano (Volta Temple) near Volta's house in Como.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta created a device for accumulating large charges by a series of induction and grounding (grounding).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He researched the 1780 invention of “animal electricity” by Luigi Galvani, and found that electric currents generated from metal contact were different, and frog legs acted only as detectors.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Volta demonstrated in 1794 that when two metals and a brine soaked cloth or cardboard were arranged in a circuit, it would generate an electric current.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In 1800, Volta stacked several pairs of copper (or silver) and zinc (electrode) discs on a criss-cross basis separated by cloth or cardboard soaked in brine (electrolyte) to increase electrolyte conductivity. [51]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

When the upper and lower contacts are connected by a wire, an electric current flows through the voltaic stack and the connecting cable.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Thus, Volta is recognized as the inventor of the first electric battery to generate electricity.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The Volta method of stacking round plates of copper and zinc separated by cardboard discs moistened with saline solution is called voltaic stack.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Thus, Volta is considered the founder of the discipline of electrochemistry. [52]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

A galvani cell (or voltaic cell) is an electrochemical cell that generates electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions occurring within the cell. These cells usually consist of two different metals connected by a salt bridge, or half cells separated by a porous membrane.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Although the archive of chemical research dates back to the work of ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, and especially the Arabs and Persians after Islam, modern chemistry developed from the time of Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, a French chemist considered the “father of modern chemistry”.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Lavoisier pointed out meticulously that the transmutation of water into soil was not possible, but the observed sediment from boiling water came from the container.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He burns phosphorus and sulfur in the air, and proves that the product weighs more than the original.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Thus, in 1789, he established the Law of Immutability of the Masses, also called “Lavoisier's Law. “[53]


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

By repeating Priestley's experiments, Lavoisier showed that air consists of two parts, one of which is combined with the metal to form calx (calcium oxide).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

In the Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides (1778), he showed that the “air” responsible for combustion was also a source of acidity.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

The following year, he named this piece as oxygen (Greek for “former acid”), and another named it azote (Greek for “without life”).


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

Therefore, Lavoisier claimed the discovery of oxygen in conjunction with Priestley and Scheele.


Question: when was stoichiometry first introduced?

History of chemistry

He also discovered that the “combustible air” invented by Cavendish - which he called hydrogen (Greek for “former water”) - combined with oxygen to produce dew, as reported by Priestley, appeared to be water.