Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Al-Jāṣialso wrote a description of the food chain. [31]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

According to some commentators, some of Ibn Khaldūn's thoughts imply the evolutionary theory of biology. [32]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1377, Ibn Khaldūn wrote the Muqaddimah wherein he states that man evolved from the “world of monkeys,” in the process by which “species become incremented" [32] In chapter 1, he writes: “This world with the whole thing created in it has a certain order and solid construction.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It shows continuous use between the cause and the resulting thing, the combination of some parts of the creation with others, and the transformation of some existing gal with others, in a prominent and endless arrangement. “[33]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Muqaddimah also states in chapter 6: “We explain here that the whole existence in (the whole) world is composite and simply arancemented in the natural order of accents and derivatives, so that every thing constitutes an uninterrupted continuum.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The essences at the end of each particular stage of the world through nature are prepared to transform into essences that approach them, either or or below them.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This is the case with simple material elements; this is the case with the colder and the grape, (which constitutes) the final stage of plants, in their association with snails and shells, (which constitutes) the (lowest) animal stage.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This is also the case with monkeys, beings who combine cleverness and perception of themselves, in their relationship with humans, beings who have the ability to think and reflect.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The readiness (for transformation) that exists on each party, at every stage of the world, occurs when (we talk about) their connection. “[34]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Christian philosophy In the Early Middle Ages, classical understanding of Greece was all but lost in the West.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, contact with the Islamic world, where Greek manuscripts were presented and expanded, later led to a massive spread of Latin translations in the 12th century.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Europeans were reintroduced to the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as Islamic thought.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The Christian thinkers of the scholastic stream, notably Peter Abelard (1079 — 1142) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 — 1274), blended Aristotelian classification with Plato's idea of God's goodness, and all potential life forms present in perfect creation, to organize all things not living, living and spiritual become interconnected systens: the scala naturae, or chain of being. [9] [35] In this system, every thing that exists can be placed in an order, from “lowest” to “highest”, with hell below and God above—under God, a hierarchy angels are characterized by the orbits of planets, mankind in the intermediate position, and the animals are placed in the lowest part.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Since the universe is entirely perfect, the chain of existence is also perfect.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

There are no empty chains in those chains, and no chains are represented by more than one species.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

So, no species can be moved from one position to another.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Thus, the Christianized version of Plato's perfect universe, species never change, but settle forever, according to the text of the Book of Genesis.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Because humanity forgets their position as sinners, either they are treated like inferior animals or hold a higher share than that given to them by the Creator. [9]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The creatures of the adjacent stages have protrusions to each other, an idea expressed in the words: natura non facit saltum (“nature does not make leaps”). [9]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The basic concept of the chain of existence greatly influenced the thought of Western civilization for centuries (and entry has an influence on this point).


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It forms a part of the argument of the design presented by natural theology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

As a classification system, it became a large organized principle and foundation arising from biological science in the 17th and 18th centuries. [9]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Thomas Aquinas on the creation and processes of nature Although Christian theologians consider that the natural world is part of a fast and immutable hierarchy, some theologians speculate that the world developed through natural processes.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Thomas Aquinas even earlier than Augustine of Hippo in stating that scriptural texts such as the Book of Genesis should not be interpreted in a literal way that contradicts or clashes with what natural philosophers learn about the workings of the natural world.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He states that autonomic nature is a sign of God's goodness, and does not detect the conflict between the realms of divine creation and the idea that the universe is expanding all the time through natural mechanisms. [36]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, Aquinas disputes views from people (such as the ancient Greek philosopher Empedokles) who state that such natural processes suggest that the universe can expand without the necessities that compile it.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Aquinas later stated that: “Thus, it is clear that nature does not exist but certain types of art, such as divine art, are impressed upon things, whereby those things move towards a determined end.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Like boat builders who can give wood that they will cultivate themselves to make a ship. “[37]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Renaissance and Enlightenment Ages In the first half of the 17th century, the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes encouraged the use of the metaphor of the universe as a machine, a concept that would characterize the scientific revolution. [38]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Between 1650 and 1800, some naturalists, such as Benoît de Maillet, made theories stating that the universe, Earth and life evolved mechanically, without divine intervention. [39]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In contrast, most contemporary evolutionary theorists, such as Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Gottfried Herder, consider evolution to be a fundamentally spiritual process. [40]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1751, Pierre Louis Maupertuis advanced a more materialist basis.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He wrote of natural modifications occurring in reproduction and accumulation over several generations, producing races and even new species, a description that spearheaded the general term of the concept of natural selection. [41]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Maupertuis' ideas were in opposition to the influence of early taxonomist experts such as John Ray.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the late 17th century, Ray provided an official formal definition of biological species, which he described as characterized by essential and immutable displays, and stated that the seeds of one species could not be given to another. [10]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The ideas of Ray and other taxonomists from the 17th century were influenced by natural theology and the arguments of the draft. [42]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The word evolution (from the Latin word evolutio, meaning “not to roll like a roll”) was originally used to refer to embryological development; its first use in association with the development of species appeared in 1762, when Charles Bonnet wore it for the concept of “pre-formation,” whereby females holding miniature forms from across future generations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The term gradually progressed to a more general deciphering of progressive growth or development. [43]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Later in the 18th century, the French philosopher Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, one of the major naturalists of the time, argued that most people called species completely diverse, modified from the original form by environmental factors.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

For example, he believes that lions, tigers, eagles and house cats all have common ancestors.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He then stated that 200 or so mammal species were then known to be descended from at least 38 native animal forms.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Buffon's ideas of evolution were limited; he believed that each original form evolved through spontaneous generation and each was formed by “internal modules” that limited a number of changes.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Buffon's works, Histoire naturelle (1749—1789) and Époques de la nature (1778), which contained developed theories of an entirely materialistic origin for the Earth and whose ideas questioning the ordnance of species, were highly influential. [44] [45] Another French philosopher, Denis Diderot, also wrote that early living things evolved through spontaneous generation, which is that ever-changing through a process of constant experimentation by which new forms arise and persist or not based on filtering or error; an idea that can be considered anticipation partial to natural selection. [46]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Between 1767 and 1792, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, wrote not only the concept that humans descended from primates, but also that, in response to the environment, beings discovered methods of transformation of their characteristics throughout the interval. [47]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Charles Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, published Zoonomia (1794—1796) stating that “all warm-blooded animals arise from living filaments. “[48]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In his verse Temple of Nature (1803), he describes the rise of life from tiny mud-dwelling organisms to its entire modern diversity. [49]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Early 19th century Paleontology and geology In 1796, Georges Cuvier published his findings on the differences between living elephants and elephants found in trace fossils.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

His analysis identified mammoths and mastodons as distinctive species, distinct from any living animal, and effectively ended the long-term debate about whether species can become extinct. [51]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1788, James Hutton explained a gradual geological process that continues to operate all the time within. [52]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the 1790s, William Smith began the process of sequencing rock strata by testing fossils in layers as he worked on his artificial geological map of England.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Separately, in 1811, Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart published an influential study of the geological history of an area around Paris, based on the stratigraphic succession of rock layers.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The works aided the establishment of Earth's antiquity. [53]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Cuvier advocated catastrophism to explain the array of extinction and succession of fauna achieved from trace fossils.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Knowledge of trace fossils was still very advanced in the first few decades in the 19th century.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the 1840s, the explanation of the geological timescale became clear, and in 1841, John Phillips named three great eras, based on the faunan that dominated from each era: Paleozolicum, dominated by marine invertebrates and fish, Mesozoic, reptilian age, and Senozoic, epoch mammals.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Such progressive images of life history were accepted even by conservative English geologists such as Adam Sedgwick and William Buckland; however, like Cuvier, they attributed the progression to repeated catastrophic episodes of extinction overtaken by episodes- new creation episodes. [54]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Unlike Cuvier, Buckland and several other advocates of natural theology among British geologists explicitly linked the last catastrophic episode proposed by Cuvier to the story of the flood. [55] [56] From 1830 to 1833, geologist Charles Lyell published his artificial multi-volume work The Principles of Geology, which, built on Hutton's ideas, advocated a uniformitarian alternative to the theory of catastrophic geology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Lyell claims that, rather than being the product of cataclysmic (and possibly supernatural) events, the geological features of Earth are better explained as gradual geological observations in the present—but they occur over long periods.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Although Lyell opposed the ideas of evolution (even questioning the consensus that trace fossils demonstrate actual progressions), his concept that the earth was formed by gradual craftsmanship throughout a given period, and the time of the Earth assumed by his theories, would greatly influence evolutionary thinkers of the foreseeable future such as Charles Darwin. [57]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Transmutation of species In the Philosophie Zoologique from 1809, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of transmutation of species (transformism).


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Lamarck does not believe that every living thing forms a common ancestor but rather a simple life form created sustainably by spontaneous generation.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He also believes that an element of life encourages species to become more complex all the time, advancing the linear principal of the competence relating to the chain of being.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Lamarck acknowledged that species adapt to their surroundings. He explained it by saying that the same element moves complexity that causes the organs of animals (or plants) to change based on the wearing or unwearing of those organs, such as that is experienced by the muscles.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It argues that such changes will be inherited by the next generation and producing slow adaptations to the environment.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This was a secondary mechanism of adaptation through the inheritance of acquired characteristics that would become known as Lamarckism and would influence the discussion of evolution in the 20th century. [59] [60] A stream of radical British comparative anatomy covering the anatomist Robert Edmond Grant greatly touches with Lamarck's French flow of Transformationism.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

One of the French scientists who influenced Grant was the anatomist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, whose ideas about the unity of various animal body plans and the homology of certain anatomical structures would be highly influential and culminate in intense debate with his colleague Georges Cuvier.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Grant became an authority on the anatomy and reproduction of marine invertebrates.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He developed Lamarck and Erasmus Darwin's ideas of transmutation and evolutionism, and investigated homology, even proposing that plants and animals had a common evolutionary starting point.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In youth, Charles Darwin joined Grant in the investigation of the circumference of marine animal life.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1826, an anonymous paper, presumably written by Robert Jameson, praised Lamarck for explaining the way higher animals had “evolved” from the caterpillars of the sederhana; this was the first use of the word “evolution” in modern essence. [61] [62] In 1844, the publisher Scotsman Robert Chambers anonymously published a widely read but until controversial book entitled Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The book proposes evolutionary scenarios for the origin of the Solar System and life on Earth.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The work claimed that trace fossils showed a progressive accent of the animals, with recent animals branching off from a major line that progressively culminated in humans.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This implies that transmutation leads to the occurrence of a previously ordered plan that knits the laws governing the universe.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In those essence, it is overall less materialistic than radical ideas like Grant's, but its implications in humans are only the final step in the accents of animal life that some conservative thinkers hold.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The high profile of the public debate over the Vestiges, with its portrayal of evolution as a progressive process, would greatly influence the point of view of Darwin's theory in the next decade. [63] [64] The ideas of transmutation of species associate with the radical materialism of the Ages Enlightenment and attacked by more conservative thinkers.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Cuvier attacked the ideas of Lamarck and Geoffroy, agreeing with Aristotle that species are fixed.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Cuvier believes that individual parts of an animal are highly correlated with each other to allow one part of its anatomy to change from isolation from other animals, and argues that trace fossils indicate a catastrophic array of extinctions overtaken by repopulation, rather than gradual change all the time.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He also stated that the animals and animal mummies from Egypt, which are thousands of years old, show no sign of change when compared to modern animals.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The strength of Cuvier's arguments and his scientific reputation helped keep transmutational ideas out of the mainstream throughout the decades. [65]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In Great Britain, the philosophy of natural theology is still influential.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

William Paley's 1802 book Natural Theology by analogy to his famous watch maker was written at least partly in response to Erasmus Darwin's transmutational ideas. [67]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Geologists affected by natural theology, such as Buckland and Sedgwick, made regular practice of attacking the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck, Grant, and the Vestiges. [68] [69] Although Charles Lyell opposed scriptural geology, he also believed in the immutability of species, and in the Principles of Geology of his work, he criticized the theories of development of Lamarck. [57]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Idealists such as Louis Agassiz and Richard Owen believed that each species was fixed and immutable because it represented an idea in the mind of the Creator.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

They believe that relationships between species can stretch out of the arrangement of development in embryology, as well as in fossil traces, but that the relationship represents a culminated arrangement of divine thought, with progressive creation culminating in increased complexity and culminating in mankind.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Owen developed the idea of “archetypes” in the Divine mind that would result in a sequence of species related to anatomical homology, such as the arms of vertebrates.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Owen led a successful public campaign marginalizing Grant within the scientific community.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin would have made good use of the homology analyzed by Owen in his own theory, but the harsh treatment of Grant, and the controversy against the Vestiges, showed him the need to round that his own ideas sounded scientific. [62] [70] [71] The anticipation of selection It is believed to be ogled throughout the history of biology from ancient Greece and found anticipation of the whole important idea of Charles Darwin.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

For example, Loren Eiseley found isolated chapters written by Buffon suggestive that he barely read a piece of the theory of natural selection, but stated that such anticipation was not necessarily taken in the context of the author of the writings or cultural values of the time that made the idea of Darwinian evolution is unthinkable. [72]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

As Darwin developed his theory, he investigated selective fertilization and was intrigued by Sebright's observation that “A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying consciousness and invisibility, has a good effect from most selections,” thus” consciousness and invisibility cannot live to propagate their infirmity. “[73]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas about environmental changes that led to the ecological switch, which culminated in what Augustin de Candolle called a war between competing plant species, a rivalry also described by botanist William Herbert.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin used the phrase “struggle for existence” from Thomas Robert Malthus used the warring human tribes. [74] [75] Some authors anticipated the evolutionary aspects of Darwin's theory, and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861, Darwin referred to the people he knew in his introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, which he explained in subsequent editions. [76]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1813, William Charles Wells read essays of the Royal Society that assumed that there was human evolution, and acknowledged the principle of natural selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were unaware of the work when they both published the theory in 1858, but Darwin later realized that Wells recognized the principle before them, writing that the paper “An Account of a White Female, part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro” was published in 1818, and “he himself acknowledged the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition that has been indicated; yet he only applied it to the races of man, and to certain characters themselves. “[77]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Patrick Matthew wrote in his book On Naval Timber and Arboriculture (1831) that “the continuing balance of life towards the top...


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Pronegi of the same parent, under great differences from the peak, may, in a few generations, even become different species, unobtainable from co-reproduction. “[78]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin impilated that he discovered the work after its initial publication from Origin.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In a brief historical sketch that Darwin listed in the 3rd edition, he said “Unfortunately, the view given by Mr. Matthew is very brief in scattered chapters in an Appendix on a work on different subjects... however, he clearly states the full element of principle of natural selection. “[79]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, as historian of science Peter J. Bowler put it, “Through the combication of thickened theorization and comprehensive evaluation, Darwin advanced the unique concept of evolution at that time.”


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Bowler states that simple priorities do not themselves encourage placement in the history of science; some people develop an idea and encourage others from their field to have a real impact. [80]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Thomas Henry Huxley said in his essay responding to On the Origin of Species: “The suggestion that new species result from the selective action of external conditions over the variation of their specific types that are individualized today—and which they call “spontaneous,” because they describe the cause They—entirely unknown to historians of scientific ideas as were biological specialists before 1858.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, such suggestibility is the central notion of the 'Origin of Species, 'and comprises a quintesension of Darwinism. “[81]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Natural selection The arrangement of biogeography that Charles Darwin observed in places such as the Galápagos Islands on the second voyage of HMS Beagle led him to doubt the ordnance of species, and in 1837, Darwin began the first work of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of multiplication and branching, rather than the staple-like progression viewed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and others.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1838, he read the new 6th edition of An Essay on the Principle of Population, written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Malthus's idea of population growth culminating in a struggle for survival chimed with Darwin's knowledge of the ways of conception selecting traits, which led to the formation of Darwin's theory of natural selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin hasn't published his ideas about evolution for 20 years.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, he shared it with several other naturalists and friends, first with Joseph Dalton Hooker, where he discussed his unpublished 1844 esay on natural selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the period, he used time so that he could work on other scientific works to refine his ideas slowly and the evidence to support them, aware of the intense controversy against transmutation.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In September 1854, he began his full-time work in writing his book on natural selection. [71] [82] [83] Unlike Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, who was influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, suspected that the transmutation of species occurred as he began his career as naturalist.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1855, his biographical observations during fieldwork in South America and the Malay Archipelago led him to believe in the branching array of evolution by publishing a paper stating that each species originated in proximity to existing and allied species.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Like Darwin, it is Wallace's assertion of how Malthus's ideas were applied to animal populations that led him to provide a statement that greatly equaled the statements made by Darwin about the role of natural selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin's unpublished ideas, compounded his thoughts into an essay and distributed them to Darwin, questioning about his response.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The result was the joint publication of a citation of Darwin's 1844 essay along with Wallace's letter in July.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin also began work on a short explanation of his theory, which he would publish in 1859 under the title On the Origin of Species. [84] 1859—1930s: Darwin and his legacy In the 1850s, whether species evolved or not was the subject of intense debate, with influential scholars arguing on both sides over the issue. [86]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Charles Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species fundamentally transforms the discussion of the origin of biology. [87]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin argued that branching versions of evolution explain a wealth of facts in biogreography, anatomy, embryology, and other fields of biology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He also provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change can occur: his theory of artificial natural selection. [88]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

One of the first and most influential naturalists to be flattered by the evolutionary reality of Origin was the English anatomist, Thomas Henry Huxley.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Huxley acknowledged that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and the Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Darwin's theory provides a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement, even if Huxley himself did not fully state that natural selection is an important evolutionary mechanism.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Huxley would make his advocacy of evolution the footstone of the X Club's programme to reform and professionalise science by replacing natural theology with naturalism and ending Britain's dominance of natural science from the spiritualist.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

By the early 1870s in English-speaking countries, grateful for these efforts, evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species. [88]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin's theory, Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for evolution from paleontology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

These include evidence that poultry evolved from reptiles, which includes the discovery of Archaeopteryx in Europe, and a number of primitive fowl fossils with teeth found in North America.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Another important set of evidence is the finding of fossils that help explain the evolution of the horse from its little five-toed ancestor. [89]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, the acceptance of evolution among scientists in countries that do not wear English such as France and the southern countries of Europe and Latin America is slow.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

With an exception was Germany, where August Weismann and Ernst Haeckel won the idea: Haeckel used evolution to challenge the standing tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology, just as Huxley did in challenging natural theology in England. [90]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Haeckel and other German scientists used it in launching an ambitious program to reconstruct evolutionary life history based on morphology and embryology. [91]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin's theory was successful in providing scientific responses related to the development of life and producing small philosophic revolutions. [92]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, the theory cannot explain some critical components of the evolutionary process.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Scientifically, Darwin was unable to explain the source of variation in treating a species, and could not identify a mechanism that could authorize fully trusted treatment from one generation to the next.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin's hypothesis of pangenesis, although answering in part to the inheritance of accepted characteristics, supported the use for the statistical model of evolution developed by his cousin Francis Galton and his “biometric” flow of evolutionary thought.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, the idea is only slightly used among other biologists. [93]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The application to humans Charles Darwin realized the harsh reaction in some parts of the scientific community against the assertion made in the Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation that humans evolved from animals through transmutation processes.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Thus, he almost completely concerns the topic of human evolution in On the Origin of Species.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Aside from the waiver, the issue featured prominently in the debate following the book's publication.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

For much of the first half of the 19th century, the scientific community believed that, although geology suggests that Earth and life are very old, humans appeared abruptly several thousand years before the present.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, attacks of archaeological discoveries in the 1840s and 1850s show stone tools associated with the remains of extinct animals.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the early 1860s, in accordance with that described in Charles Lyell's 1863 book Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, many accepted that man had existed in pre-historic times—which unfolded several thousand years before the onset of written history.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This view of human history overlaps more with the origin of evolution for humans than the longer view.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

On the other hand, at that time, there was no fossil evidence showing human evolution.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The only human fossils found prior to the discovery of the Javanese Man in the 1890s were the too-close-knit anatomy of modern humans or Neanderthals, specifically in the critical characteristics of cranial capacities, with modern humans making them considered intermediates between humans and other primates. [96]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Thus, the debate that occurred directly after the publishing of On the Origin of Species centred on the similarities and differences of modern humans and apes.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Carolus Linnaeus was criticized in the 18th century for grouping humans and apes together as primates in his basic classification system. [97]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Richard Owen defended the classification suggestioned by Georges Cuvier and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach that placed humans in a separate order from other mammals, which by the early 19th century had become an orthodox view.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

On the other hand, Thomas Henry Huxley was intending to demonstrate the close anatomical relationship between humans and apes.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In one famous incident, known as the Great Hippocampus Question, Huxley showed that Owen falsely claimed that gorilla brains shrink current structures in the human brain.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Huxley explained his argument in his highly influential 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Another point of view was advocated by Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

They agreed that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but asked whether purely materialistic mechanisms could record all the differences between humans and apes, specifically some aspects of the human mind. [96]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1871, Darwin published The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, which contained his views on human evolution.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Darwin argued that the difference between the human mind and the minds of higher animals is matter of tiers rather than types.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

For example, he views morality as the growth of natural instincts beneficial to animals living in social groups.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He argues that all differences between humans and apes are explained by the combication of selective pressure coming from their ancestors moving from tree to ground, and sexual selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Debates about the origin of man, and the extent of human uniqueness still persisted in the 20th century. [96]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Alternatives to natural selection The concept of evolution was widely accepted in the scientific sphere within a few years of publication of Origin, but the acceptance of natural selection as its driving mechanism was less scattered.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The four great alternatives to natural selection in the late 19th century were theistic evolution, neo-Lamarckism, orthogenesis, and saltationism.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Alternatives supported by biologists at other times include structuralism, teleology from Georges Cuvier in addition to non-evolutionary functionalism, and vitalism.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Theistic evolution is the idea that God intervenes in the process of evolution, to guide it in such a way that living things can still be viable to design.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The term was promoted by Charles Darwin's greatest American advocate Asa Gray.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, the idea gradually became less in demand among scholars, as they became more and more interested in the idea of methodological naturalism and believed that direct appeals to supernatural involvement were not scientifically productive.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

By 1900, theistic evolution had largely disappeared from professional scientific discussion, although it was still very popular. [99] [100] In the late 19th century, the term neo-Lamarckism became associated with the position of naturalists who viewed inheritance of prominent characteristics as a mechanism of evolution most influential.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Advocates of the position include British author and critic AdarWin Samuel Butler, German biologist Ernst Haeckel, and American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

They considered Lamarckism higher philosophically than Darwinian ideas of selection acting on random variation.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Cope looked at, and through which he discovered, the arrangement of linear progressions in trace fossils.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The inheritance of prominent characteristics is part of Haeckel's theory of evolutionary recapitulation, which states that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history. [99] [100] Critics of neo-Lamarckism, such as German biologists August Weismann and Alfred Russel Wallace, emphasizing that no man has ever produced solid evidence for inheritance of prominent characteristics.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Besides the criticism, neo-Lamarckism became the most popular alternative to natural selection in the late 19th century, and still held by some naturalists in the 20th century. [99] [100] Orthogenesis is the hypothesis that life has a tendency to change, in unilinear fashion, towards greater perfection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It had a significant following in the 19th century, and its holders include Russian biologist Leo S. Berg and American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Orthogenesis became popular among some paleontologists, who believed that trace fossils showed gradual and constant unidirectional changes.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Saltationism is the idea that new species arise as a result of large mutations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It was seen as a faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of the gradual process of small random variation occurring in natural selection, and was popular among early genetic experts such as Hugo de Vries, William Bateson, and early in his career, Thomas Hunt Morgan.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This became the basis of the theory of evolutionary mutations. [99] [100] Mendelian genetic, biometric, and mutation The rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance in 1900 raised a pointed debate between two camps of biologists.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In one stronghold is Mendelian, which focuses on discrete variations and inheritance laws.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

They are led by William Bateson (who pronounces the word genetic) and Hugo de Vries (who pronounces the word mutation).


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Their opponents are biometrisians, who observe a sustainable variety of characteristics in the population.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Their leaders, Karl Pearson and Walter Frank Raphael Weldon, followed the tradition of Francis Galton, who focused on the size and statistical analysis of the variation within a population.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Biometrisians deny Mendelian genetics on the basis that discrete units of inheritance, such as genes, cannot explain the continuous array of variations seen in real populations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Weldon's work with crabs and snails provides evidence that the existence of selection from the environment can alter a set of variations in wild populations, but Mendelian states that those variations measured by biometrisian are too insignificant for the recording of the evolution of new species. [101] [ 102] As Thomas Hunt Morgan began experimenting with the fertilization of the Drosophila melanogaster fruit fly, he was a saltationist who broke to show that new species could be created in the lab by his own mutations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Nonetheless, work in his lab between 1910 and 1915 confirmed Mendelian genetics and provided solid experimental evidence linking it to chromosomal inheritance.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

His work also demonstrated that most mutations have relatively minor impacts, such as changes in eye color, and that instead of creating new species in a single stage, mutations occur to increase variation in existing populations. [101] [102] 1920—1940s Genetic Mendelian and biometrisian models population then econciliate with the genetic development of the population.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

An important step was the work of British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In a series of papers beginning in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Fisher showed that continuous variation measured by biometricians could be produced by the action of combinations of several discrete genes, and that Natural selection can change the frequencies of genes in a population, which results in evolution.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In a series of papers dating back to 1924, another British genetic expert, J. B. S. Haldane, applied statistical analysis to real-world examples of natural selection, such as the evolution of industrial melanism in moths, and showed that natural selection took place faster than which Fisher assumed. [103] [104] American biologist Sewall Wright, who has a background in animal fertilization experiments, focuses on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of fertilization on small, relatively isolated populations that show genetic rates.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of adaptive landscapes and argued that genetic rates and fertilization could move isolated and small sub-populations away from adaptive peaks, allowing natural selection to strive them towards different adaptive peaks.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright fondated the genetic discipline of populations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which became the first critical step in developing a unified theory of the way evolution works. [103] [104] The modern synthesis In the first few decades of the 20th century, most field naturalists believed that the mechanism of Evolutionary alternatives such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis provide the best explanation for the complexity they observe in living things.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

But as the genetic field continues to evolve, that view has become less fundamental. [105]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Theodosius Dobzhansky, a post-doctoral workforce in Thomas Hunt Morgan's lab, was influenced by the results of work on genetic diversity from Russian genetic experts such as Sergei Chetverikov.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

He helped bridge the divide between microevolutionary phonation developed by population genetic experts and the makeup of macroevolution observed by field biologists, with his 1937 book Genetics and the Origin of Species.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Dobzhansky tested the genetic diversity of the wild population and showed that, brcrossing assuming the population genetic experts, the population had a large amount of genetic diversity, by marking differences between sub-populations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The book also lists the results of high-level mathematical work from population genetic experts and places them in a more accessible form.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the United Kingdom, E. B. Ford, the genetic pioneer of ecology, continued to demonstrate the power of selection throughout the 1930s and 1940s because ecological factors include the ability to give priority to genetic diversity through polymorphisms such as human blood type.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Ford's later work contributed to the switch to modern synthesis towards natural selection over the genetic rate. [103] [104] [106] [107] Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr was influenced by the work results of German biologist Bernhard Rensch showing the influence of local environmental factors on the spread of geography of the sub-species and species are highly pertinent.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Mayr followed the results of Dobzhansky's work with his 1942 book Systematics and the Origin of Species, which contained about the influence of alopatric speciation in the formation of new species.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Such forms of speciation occur when geographic isolation from a sub-population is overtaken by the development of mechanisms for reproductive isolation.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Mayr also formulated the concept of species biology defining a species as a group of inter-fertilizing or potentially inter-fertilizing populations isolated reproductively from an entire other population. [103] [104] [108] In his 1944 book Tempo and Mode in Evolution, George Gaylord Simpson showed that trace fossils are in line with the non-directional arrangement of iregular predicted by the development of evolutionary synthesis, and that the linear trends that paleontologists of earlier times claim support orthogenesis and neo-Lamarckism do not hold near-examination.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1950, G. Ledyard Stebbins published Variation and Evolution in Plants, which helped integrate botany into synthesis.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The cross-disciplinary consensus on the results of evolutionary work is known as the modern synthesis.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It earned its name from Julian Huxley's 1942 book Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. [103] [104] Modern synthesis provides a conceptual nucleus—most notably, the natural and genetic selection of Mendelian population—paired together with several disciplines of biology, but not all: developmental biology is one of them.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

It aids the legitimacy of evolutionary biology, a major historical science, in a scientific climate that flatters experimental methods over the field of the history of science. [109]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Synthesis also resulted in a narrowing of the series of general-current evolutionary thoughts (what Stephen Jay Gould calls “hardening synthesis”): in the 1950s, natural selection acted on genetic variation that was virtually the only acceptable mechanism of extensive microevolution. [110] [ 111] 1940s—1960s: Molecular biology and evolution In the middle decades of the 20th century, molecular biology arose, and the field studied the chemical nature of genes as DNA sequences and their relationship to protein sequences through the genetic code.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

At the same time, powerful techniques improved for analyzing proteins, such as electrophoresis and protein fellowship, bringing biochemical phenomena into the realm of synthetic evolutionary theory.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the early 1960s, biochemists Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl proposed the molecular clock hypothesis: the difference in sequences between homologus proteins can be used to calculate the time since two species were instilled.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1969, Motoo Kimura and others provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock, arguing that—at the lowest molecular level—most genetic mutations are neither harmful nor helpful and that mutations and genetic movements (instead of natural selection) cause most changes Genetic: a neutral theory of molecular evolution. [112]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Studies of differentiated proteins within species also make molecular ambassadors pin down population genetics by providing estimates of the level of heterozygosity in natural populations. [113]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

From the early 1960s, molecular biology was increasingly seen as a threat to the traditional core of evolutionary biology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Bringing together evolutionary biologists—especially Ernst Mayr, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and George Gaylord Simpson, three architects of the modern synthesis—are highly skeptical of molecular agreement, particularly when it is connected (or combined) with natural selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The molecular clock hypothesis and neutral theory were controversial, giving rise to a neutralist-selectionist debate over the relative influence of mutation, movement and selection, which continued into the 1980s without clear agreement. [114] [115] Late 20th century Centralized view of genes In the mid-1960s, George C. Williams strongly criticized the adaptation explanation written in the term “life defense of species” (group selection argument).


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Such explanations are widely replaced by a centralized view of evolution of genes, epitomized by the kinship selection arguments of W. D. Hamilton, George R. Price and John Maynard Smith. [116]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The viewpoint was later described and popularized in Richard Dawkins' influential 1976 book The Selfish Gene. [117]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Period models appear to indicate that group selection is severely restricted in its strength; although newer models provide the possibility of multi-level selection. [118]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1973, Leigh Van Valen proposed the term “Red Queen,” which he took from Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass work, to explain a scenario whereby a species engages in one or more evolutionary arm races that then constantly changes the fixed container with the species coevolved.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Hamilton, Williams and others suggested that the idea could explain evolution from sexual reproduction: increased genetic diversity caused by sexual reproduction would help resistance against fast-evolving parasites, thus making sexual reproduction a thing general, although paid from a gene-centric point of view in which only half of the organism's genome escapes at the time of reproduction. [119] [120] However, opposite the explanation of the Red Queen hypothesis, Hanley and others found that the prevalence, abundance and intensity of deciphering from animals- small animals are more significant in staple sexuals than asexual animals that share the same habitat. [121]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In addition, Parker, after reviewing a number of genetic studies on plant disease resistance, failed to find examples of staying in line with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agents responsible for sexual reproduction in their hosts. [122]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

At an even more fundamental level, Heng [123] and Gorelick and Heng [124] review evidence that sex, instead of accumulating diversity, acts opposite genetic diversity.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

They assume that sex acts are a coarse filter, not giving major genetic changes, such as chromosomal rearrangement, but allowing minor variations, such as changes in nucleotides or gene levels (often even neutral) to pass through sexual filtering.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

At this time, the adaptation function of sex is still a major unresolved problem in biology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Models compete to explain the adaptation function of sex reviewed by Birdsell and Wills. [125]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

A major alternative view to the Red Queen hypothesis is that sex develops, and takes precedence, as a process for repairing DNA damage, and that genetic variation is produced as a biproduct. [126] [127] The gene-centric view also culminates in increased spinoff in long-standing ideas of Charles Darwin's artificial sexual selection, [128] and current topics such as sexual conflict and intragenomic conflict.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Sociobiology The results of W. D. Hamilton's work on kinship selection contributed to the founding of the discipline of sociobiology.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The existence of altruistic behaviors has been a difficult problem for evolutionary theorists from the beginning. [129]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Significant progress was made in 1964 when Hamilton formulated an inequality in kinship selection known as Hamilton's rule, which shows the way eusociality in insects (existence from a sterile working class) and some other examples of altruistic behavior can change through kinship selection.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Other theories followed, some coming from game theory, such as reciprosal altruism. [130]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In 1975, E. O. Wilson published the influential and highly controversial book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis which claimed evolutionary theory could help explain some aspects of animals, which include human behavior.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The critics of sociobiology, which include Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin, claim that sociobiology is beyond the degree to which complex human behavior can be determined by genetic factors.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Although criticized, workmanship persisted in sociobiology and related disciplines of evolutionary psychology, including work on other aspects of the problem of altruism. [131] [132] The process and container of evolution One of the most influential debates arising in the 1970s was around the theory of equilibrium interspersed.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould propose that there is an array of fossil species that remains largely unchanged for long periods (which they call stasis), interspersed with relatively short periods of rapid change in speciation. [133] [134] Advocates in the meotde-method Sequence resulted in a large improvement of the sequency genome, allowing testing and refinement of evolutionary theories using a large amount of genome data. [135]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Comparison between genomes provides vision in the molecular mechanisms of speciation and adaptation. [136] [137] Such genomic analysis produces fundamental changes in the understanding of the evolutionary history of life, such as the proporsal three-domain system by Carl Woese. [138]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The movement in computational software and hard allows testing and extrapolating from the increasing progress of evolutionary models and the development of the field of systems biology. [139]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

One result has been an exchange of ideas between the evolutionary theory of biology and the field of computer science known as evolutionary computing which now allows modification of the entire genome, advancing the study of evolution towards a stay where upcoming experiments involve the creation of organisms synthetic overall. [140]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Microbiology, horizontal gene transfer, and endosymbiosis Microbiology are widely described by early evolutionary theories.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This is due to the pausity of morphological treatment and the lack of species concepts in microbiology, especially prokaryotics. [141]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Currently, evolutionary researchers are giving movement to their entangled understanding of microbial psychology and economics, generated by youthful comparisons of microbial genomics, to explore the taxonomy and evolution of those organisms. [142]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The studies revealed unanticipated levels of diversity in the microbial group. [143] [144] One of the important developments in the study of microbial evolution arose in the discovery of horizontal gene transfer in Japan in 1959. [145]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The transfer of genetic material between different bacterial species is of concern to scientists because it plays a large role in the spread of antibiotic resistance. [146]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Today, as genome knowledge is still widening, this suggests that materal transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of the whole organism. [147]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

The high levels of the horizontal gene tranfer lead to the suggestion that the current family tree of organisms, called the “tree of life”, is more similar to an interconnected web network. [148] [149] In addition, the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of organelles looks at the shape of the Horizontal gene transfer as a critical step in the evolution of eucorites such as fungi, plants and animals. [150] [151] Endosymbiotic theory states that organelles in eucorite cells such as mitochondria and chloroplasts are derived from independent bacteria living symbiotically in other cells.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This was suggested in the late 19th century when the resemblance between mitochondria and bacterial was noted, but it was widely described until this was resurrected and championed by Lynn Margulis in the 1960s and 1970s; Margulis may wear new evidence that such organelles have their DNA itself is inherited independently of that in the cell nucleus. [152] Evolutionary developmental biology In the 1980s and 1990s, the understanding of modern evolutionary synthesis was more complicated.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

There is a renewal of structuralist themes in evolutionary biology in the work of biologists such as Brian Goodwin and Stuart Kauffman, [153] who incorporate ideas from cybernetics and systems theory, and state that the process of self-organization of development as factors that drive evolutionary events.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould evoked earlier ideas of heterocrony, alternating in alternate levels of developmental processes over evolutionary events, chronicling the generation of novel forms, and, with evolutionary biologist Richard Lewontin, wrote an influential paper in 1979 stating that a change in one biological structure, or even structural novelity, can arise involuntarily as a result of selection accidents on other structures, rather than through directed selection for specific adaptations.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

They call such incidental structural changes by the designation “spandrel” which takes its name from an architectural feature. [154]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Later, Gould and Elisabeth Vrba discussed the acquisition of new functions from novel structures arising in those modes, which they called “exaptation”. [155]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Mechanism-related molecular data in overlaying developments accumulated rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This explains that animal morphological diversity is not the result of different protein sets that regulate the development of different animals, but from changes in the storage of small amounts of proteins common in all animals. [156]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Those proteins became known as “genetic development tools. “[157]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Such viewpoints influenced the disciplines of phylogenetics, paleontology and comparative developmental biology, and gave rise to a new discipline of developmental biology also known as evo-devo. [158]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

21st century Macroevolution and microevolution One of the genetic suppressions of populations since their formation is that macroevolution (evolution of the phylogenic part at the species level upwards) is singularly the result of microevolutionary mechanisms (changes in gene frequency within the population) operating throughout the period of time that unfolds.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the last decades of the 20th century, some paleontologists developed the question of whether other factors, such as cross-balance and group selection operate at the level of whole species and even higher-rise phylogenic events, need to be conditioned to explain the arrangement in evolution is exposed by statistical analysis of trace fossils.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Towards the end of the 20th century, some researchers in evolutionary developmental biology suggested that interactions between the environment and developmental processes had been the source of some of the structural innovations seen in macroevolution, but other evo-devo researchers stated that the mechanism Genetically seen at the population level is fully capable of making a macroevolution. [159] [160] [161] Epigenetic inheritance is the study of inherited changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by other mechanisms rather than changes in the sequences of collected DNA.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

In the first decades of the 21st century, the view held that epigenetic mechanisms were a required part of the evolutionary origin of cellular differentiation. [162]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Although epigenetics in multicellular organisms is generally a mechanism involved in differenization, with the epigenetic makeup “recollected” as the organism reproduces, there are few observations of transgenerational epigentic inheritance.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This suggests that in some cases, non-genetic changes in an organism can be inherited and this suggests that such inheritance can be assisted by adaptation to local conditions and exert an impact on evolution. [163] [164] Some people state that in certain cases , a form of Lamarckian evolution may occur. [165]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Expansion of evolutionary synthesis The idea of expanding evolutionary synthesis arises in the modern synthesis of the 20th century to encompass concepts and mechanisms such as multi-level selection theory, tran-generational epigenetic inheritance, niche construction and evolvability—despite some differences of such syntheses proposed, with no agreement on what to cover. [166] [167] [168] [168] [169] The theory of unconventional evolution of Omega Points The metaphysical theory of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's artificial Omega Points, found in his book The Phenomenon of Man (1955), [170] describes the gradual development from the universe from subatomic particles to human society, which he sees as its final stage and goal, a form of orthogenesis. [171]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Gaia hypothesis The Gaia hypothesis was first established by James Lovelock who states that living and non-living things on Earth can be viewed as complex systems that interact with each other just as much as an organism does. [172]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Proponents of the Gaia hypothesis felt that Teilhard de Chardin's ideas were ideas related to Lovelock's ideas. [173]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Lynn Margulis [174] and others also view the Gaia hypothesis as an expansion of the concepts of endosymbiosis and exosymbiosis. [175]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

This kind of hypothesis states that all living things have a regulatory effect on Earth's environment that drives life as a whole.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Self-organization Mathematical biologist Stuart Kauffman states that self-organization can play roles along with natural selection in three areas of evolutionary biology, namely population dynamics, molecular evolution, and morphogenesis. [176]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

However, Kauffman did not provide a record of the essential role of energy (e.g. pyrophosphate use) in the rate of biochemical reactions in cells, as proposed by Christian DeDuve and in terms of mathematical models by Richard Bagley and Walter Fontana.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Their systems are self-catalyzed but are not simple self-organization as they become open systems of thermodynamics relating to continuous inputs of energy. [177]


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

See also Origin of modern man from Africa Multiregional origin of modern man Human race Reference Outside links.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Part of the Talk.Origins Archive.


Question: When was the theory of evolution invented?

History of evolutionary thought

Category:Evolution Category:History of science


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

Snow (from Arabic ح لج, thalaj) is water falling from clouds that have frozen to dense and rain-like.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

Snow consists of water vapor particles that then cool in the upper air (see atmosphere, biosphere, climate, meteorology, weather) falling to the earth as soft, white, and crystal-like soft snowflakes, ferns like ice crystals, clusters of all of them).


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

At a certain temperature (called freezing point, 0° Celsius, 32° Fahrenheit), regular snow melts and disappears.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

The process when snow/ice turns directly into water vapor without first melting is called sublimating.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

The process of his opponent is called deposition.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

When the snow freezes, it often becomes small shards called “snowflakes”.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

Snow is a prerequisite for winter sports activities such as skiing and sledding).


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

In the world, snow is common in subtropical and temperate temperate countries.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

However, there are also snowy tropics, namely in the Jayawijaya Mountains and Barisan Sudirman in Papua, Indonesia.


Question: What is the process of snow formation?

Snow

See also Avalanche Acretion Ablation Blizzard Climatology Condensation Dendrites Evaporation Icestone Moisture Metamorphism Rain Polycrystalline Frost Pressure Saturated steam Snow core Snow density Snowfall Snow altitude Snow load Snowfall Snowfall Snowfall Snowfall Snowfall Supersaturation Vapor Pressure Category:Weather


Question: What is the name of the Dayak Traditional House?

Dayak Architecture

Dayak architecture is an architectural art that developed in the Dayak community which generally bears a resemblance to each other among sub-sub Dayak clumps, generally in the form of longhouses called in various terms such as panjai house (Dayuk Iban Sarawak), radank house (Dayak) Kanayatn), huma betang (Dayak Ngaju), Balay House (Dayak Meratus), Baloy house (Dayak Tidung).


Question: What is the name of the Dayak Traditional House?

Dayak Architecture

In East Kalimantan there is Rumah Lamin, but each sub-ethnicity actually has its own designation for other houses.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak Traditional House?

Dayak Architecture

The Tonyooi (Tunjung) people call it Luuq, Benuaq people call it Lou, Bahau people refer to it as Amin, Kenyah people call it by the name Amin Bioq and the Aoheng people mention it Baang Adet as well as the Malays (Kutai) mention it by the name Lamin.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak Traditional House?

Dayak Architecture

In general, the shape of the building is elongated and in the front yard there are statues and brisket.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak Traditional House?

Dayak Architecture

West Kalimantan Radakng House Central Kalimantan Betang House North Kalimantan House Baloy Dayak Kenyah Uma Da'du East Kalimantan Lamin House South Kalimantan Rumah Balay Category:Dayak


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

The Society of the Sabda of God (Latin: Societas Verbi Divini, abbreviated SVD) or popularly by the designation The Society of the Divine Word or Divine Word Missionaries, and sometimes also referred to as Steyler Missionaries, is one of the orders of the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1875 in Steyl, Netherlands by Santo Arnoldus Janssen.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

In addition to founding the SVD congregation, Saint Arnoldus Janssen also founded the Congregation of the Sisters of the Mission of the Abdi of the Holy Spirit on December 8, 1889.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

Today the United Sabda Allah Conggregation is active in more than 70 countries, with most of its missionaries being in Indonesia.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

History Established in Steyl the Netherlands in 1875 by Catholic priest Arnoldus Janssen, generally they came from residents and church followers in Germany who went and took refuge in the Netherlands during the occurrence of church and state disputes called Kulturkampf.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

That event led to many religious orders and conggregations being expelled as well as the seminary being closed.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

The Order began sending missionaries to China in 1978. [1]


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

SVD in the Philippines In the Philippines, SVD missionaries arrived in Bangued, Abra in 1909, establishing schools in Bangued, Vigan, in Ilocos Sur and Laoag city in Ilocos Norte as well as in various other places in the Philippines.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

There are currently about 500 SVD priests, about 150 of whom serve missions outside the Philippines on all continents.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

SVD in Indonesia Bibliography Kurt Piskaty: Die katholische Missionsschule in Nusa Tenggara (Sudost-Indonesien) — ihre geschichtliche Entfaltung und ihre Bedeutung für die Missionsarbeit, (Studia Instituti Missiologici SVD — 5), 1964, Steyler Verlag: St. Augustin. XXIV + 270 pp., ISBN 3-87787-020-1.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

Ortrud Stegmaier SSPs, Der missionarische Einsatz der Schwestern auf den Inseln Flores und Timor, Studia Instituti Missiologici SVD 15, Steyler Verl. :


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

St. Augustin 1974, 118 S., ISBN 3-87787-075-3.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

Kurt Piskaty: The Work of the Divine Word Missionaries in Indonesia, in: Verbum SVD 27 (1986) 269-288; Transclusion error Outer link reference: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: what is elongation/meaning of SABDA?

Union of the Sabda of God

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak traditional house?

Dayak Architecture

Dayak architecture is an architectural art that developed in the Dayak community which generally bears a resemblance to each other among sub-sub Dayak clumps, generally in the form of longhouses called in various terms such as panjai house (Dayuk Iban Sarawak), radank house (Dayak) Kanayatn), huma betang (Dayak Ngaju), Balay House (Dayak Meratus), Baloy house (Dayak Tidung).


Question: What is the name of the Dayak traditional house?

Dayak Architecture

In East Kalimantan there is Rumah Lamin, but each sub-ethnicity actually has its own designation for other houses.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak traditional house?

Dayak Architecture

The Tonyooi (Tunjung) people call it Luuq, Benuaq people call it Lou, Bahau people refer to it as Amin, Kenyah people call it by the name Amin Bioq and the Aoheng people mention it Baang Adet as well as the Malays (Kutai) mention it by the name Lamin.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak traditional house?

Dayak Architecture

In general, the shape of the building is elongated and in the front yard there are statues and brisket.


Question: What is the name of the Dayak traditional house?

Dayak Architecture

West Kalimantan Radakng House Central Kalimantan Betang House North Kalimantan House Baloy Dayak Kenyah Uma Da'du East Kalimantan Lamin House South Kalimantan Rumah Balay Category:Dayak


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Douglas MacArthur () was a five-star general of United States origin and field marshal of the Philippine Army.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army in the 1930s decade and had a large donation in the Pacific theater during World War II.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He was awarded the Medal of Honor thanks to his services during the Philippine military campaign, resulting in himself and his father, Arthur MacArthur, Jr., becoming the first father and son couple to equally earn the medal.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He was also one of only five men granted the rank of Major General in the United States Army, and the only person ever to be appointed a field marshal in the Philippine Army.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Douglas grew up in a family of military background in the American Old West.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He was an accomplished student at West Texas Military Academy, and he continued his military education at the United States Military Academy at West Point with the rank of First Captain.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He successfully graduated from West Point with a first rank in 1903.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

During the occupation of Veracruz by the United States in 1914, he held a reconnaissance mission, and thanks to his gait he was nominated as a Medal of Honor recipient.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

In 1917, his rank was raised from major to colonel and he became chief of staff of the 42nd Division (which was also called the Rainbow Division).


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

While he was fighting on the Western Front during World War I, he was elevated to brigadier general, again nominated as a Medal of Honor recipient, and awarded the Distinguished Service Cross twice and the Silver Star seven times.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

From 1919 to 1922, MacArthur served as Governor of the United States Military Academy at West Point, and during this term he sought a series of reforms.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He was then commissioned in the Philippines, and in 1924, he was instrumental in quelling the Philippine Guidance Rebellion.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

In 1925, he became the youngest major general in the Army.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He became one of the judges on the Military Tribunal that judged Brigadier General Billy Mitchell, and he also headed the United States Olympic Committee during the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

In 1930, he became Chief of Staff of the United States Army.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Thus, he was involved in the events of the expulsion of Bonus Army protesters from the city of Washington, D.C. in 1932.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

During this tenure, he also co-founded the Civilian Conservation Corps.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He retired from the army in 1937 to become Military Advisor to the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

In 1941, MacArthur was called up again for duty as commander-in-chief of United States Army Forces in the Far East.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Then there were a number of military disasters, namely the destruction of the United States Far East Air Force on December 8, 1941 and the Japanese incursion into the Philippines.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur's forces were then forced to retreat to Bataan, and they held on to the premises until May 1942.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

In March 1942, MacArthur, his family, and members of his staff went to Corregidor Island located not far from Bataan on patrol torpedo boats, and then they fled to Australia.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

There, MacArthur became Commander-in-Chief of the Southwest Pacific Area.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Upon arriving in Australia, MacArthur delivered a speech and promised that he would return to the Philippines.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

After a battle that raged for more than two years in the Pacific theater, he managed to deliver on his promise.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Thanks to his efforts to defend the Philippines, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

She officially received Japan's declaration of unconditional surrender on 2 September 1945 aboard the USS<i>Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He was then in charge of the Japanese occupation from 1945 to 1951.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

As Japan's de facto ruler, he oversaw the process of overhauling the country's economic, political, and social system.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He then led the United Nations Command during the Korean War and initially he was quite successful; however, attacks on North Korea have provoked interference from the People's Republic of China.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

After suffering defeats in various precarious battles, he was dismissed by President Harry S. Truman on April 11, 1951.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He later became chairman of the board at Remington Rand.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

His early life and education As a soldier boy, Douglas MacArthur was born on January 26, 1880, at Little Rock Barracks, Little Rock, Arkansas, to the couple Arthur MacArthur, Jr., a U.S. Army captain, and his wife, Mary Pinkney Hardy MacArthur (nicknamed “Pinky”). [1]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Arthur, Jr. was the son of a Scottish-born jurist and politician, Arthur MacArthur, Sr., [2] Arthur Jr. later earned the Medal of Honor as an award for his services to the United States Army in the Battle of Missionary Ridge during the American Civil War, [3] and his rank was also raised to lieutenant general. [4]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Meanwhile, Pinkney came from an important family from Norfolk, Virginia. [1]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Two of his brothers fought for the Confederate side during the Civil War, and they refused to attend Pinkney's wedding. [5]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Arthur and Pinky were endowed with three sons, and Douglas was the youngest, after his older brother Arthur III, born on 1 August 1876, and his second older brother, Malcolm, born on 17 October 1878. [6]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

His family lived in various Army posts in the American Old West.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Circumstances in the region were fairly primitive, and Malcolm closed the age due to measles in 1883. [7]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

In his memoir entitled Reminiscences, MacArthur wrote, “I learned to ride horses and shoot before I could even read or write—even before I could walk and talk. “[8]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur's life at the forefront of the United States ended in July 1889 after his family moved to Washington, D.C., [9] and there Douglas entered Force Public School.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

His father was assigned to San Antonio, Texas, in September 1893.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

There, MacArthur entered West Texas Military Academy, [10] and there he was awarded a gold medal as an award for his academic achievement and attitude.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He also joined his school's tennis team, and in addition he became a quarterback on the football team and shortstop on the school's baseball team.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He succeeded as valedictorian with a last year grade-point average of 97.33 out of 100. [11]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

However, MacArthur's father and grandfather were unsuccessful in convincing the President to nominate Douglas as a student at the United States Military Academy at West Point, both in the time of President Grover Cleveland and during the time of President William McKinley. [12]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

After the two rejections, [13] Douglas was privately tutored by a high school teacher from Milwaukee, Gertrude Hull. [14]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He then successfully passed the test which earned him the nomination to enter West Point from a Congressman named Theobald Otjen, [10] and he himself earned a score of 93.3 in the test. [15]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He later wrote: “This is a lesson I have never forgotten.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Preparation is the key to success and victory. “[15]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur entered West Point on June 13, 1899, [16] and his mother also moved into a room in the Craney Hotel adjacent to the Academy courtyard. [17]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Hazing was a commonplace practice at West Point in those days, and MacArthur and his classmate, Ulysses S. Grant III, drew particular attention from southern cadets, as they were the children of a general and their mothers both stayed at the Craney Hotel.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

After cadet Oscar Booz left West Point due to perploncoan and then age cap due to tuberculosis, Congress held an inquiry.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur was called to face a special committee in Congress in 1901, and in the meeting, he testified about cadets involved in perploncoan, but he himself played down the events of perploncoan against himself although other cadets told everything that had happened to the committee.


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

Congress then prohibited acts that were harassing, insulting, humiliating, or cruel, but perploncoan still continued. [18]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

MacArthur became a corporal in Company B in his second year, first sergeant in Company A in his third year, and First Captain in his final year. [19]


Question: Where's LetJend. Arthur Ernest Percival grew up?

Douglas MacArthur

He became a left fielder in the school's baseball squad, and academically he earned a score of 2424.12 out of 2470.00, or 98.14; this was the third highest score ever recorded, and he graduated with the first rank in his class of 93 men on June 11 1903. [20]