Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Selim III (1789—1807) made the first major effort in modernizing his army, but these reforms were hampered by a religious leadership and the Yanisari corps.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Being envious of military rights and resisting change, Yanisari also pioneered rebellion.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

All of Selim's efforts cost himself the throne and his life.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

However, this rebellion was successfully muted spectacularly and ruthlessly by his dynamic successor, Mahmud II.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

He removed the Yanisari corps in 1826.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Serbian Revolution (1804—1815) became the beginning of an era of national revival in the Balkan region at the time of the Eastern Question.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Suzeraintas of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy with its own dynasty were recognized de jure in 1830. [61] [62] In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The revolt that broke out in Moldavia as a form of diversion was followed by the main revolution in Peloponnesos.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Peloponnesos and the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth became the territory of the first independent Ottoman Sultanate, precisely in 1829.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Sultanate was dubbed the “sick man” by the Europeans.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The suzerain states (Princedom of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Montenegro) achieved de jure independence in the 1860s and 1870s. Setbacks and modernizations (1828—1908) In the time of Tanzimat (1839—1876), a series of constitutional reforms of the government came to fruition, namely modern conscription forces, reform of the banking system, decriminalization of homosexuals, the change of religious law into secular law, [63] and the guild has a modern factory.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Ministry of Posts was formed in Istanbul on October 23, 1840. [64] [65] Samuel Morse received his first telegraph patent in 1847.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The patent was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who directly tested the new invention. [66]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

After successful trials, the world's first telegraph cable line (Istanbul-Adrianopel-Şumnu) [67] began to be installed on 9 August 1847. [68]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This reformist period culminated with the drafting of a Constitution called Kanûn-u Esâsî.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The First Constitutional Era of this sultanate did not last long.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

His parliament only lasted for two years before being dissolved by the sultan.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Due to the higher level of education, the Christian population of the sultanate began to excel than the majority Muslim population, so the Muslim population was dissatisfied. [69]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1861, there were 571 primary schools and 94 Ottoman Christian high schools with 140,000 students.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

That number far outstrips Muslim students at the school at the same time.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The progress of Muslim students continues to slow due to the length of time for Arabic and Islamic theology subjects. [69]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The higher level of education of Christian students allows them to play an important role in the country's economy. [69]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1911, 528 of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul owned ethnic Greeks. [69]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Crimean War (1853—1856) was part of a long rivalry between the great European powers fighting for influence in the territory of the weakened Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The burden of the war from a financial point of view forced the Ottoman government to apply for a foreign loan worth 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. [70] [71] This war resulted in an exodus of Crimean Tatars.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

About 200,000 of them moved to the Ottoman Sultanate in the form of a wave of emigration. [72]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Towards the end of the Caucasus Wars, 90% of ethnic Circassians were obliterated, [73] expelled from their homeland in the Caucasus, and forced to evacuate to the Ottoman Sultanate. [74]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

About 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians took refuge in Turkey. [75] [76] [77] Some sources give a higher figure, which is 1 million-1.5 million people were deported and/or murdered. [78]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Russo-Turkish War (1877—1878) ended in absolute victory for Russia.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

As a result, the Ottoman region in Europe is shrinking rapidly.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Bulgaria was established as an independent princedom within the Ottoman Sultanate, Romania got full independence.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Serbia and Montenegro got full independence with smaller territories.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1878, Austria-Hungary jointly occupied the provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Although the Ottoman government opposed this action, its army was defeated in the space of three weeks.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In return for the assistance of Prime Minister of the Exchequer Benjamin Disraeli in the return of Ottoman territories in the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, the United Kingdom gained the right of government in Cyprus in 1878. [79]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Britain then dispatched its soldiers to Egypt in 1882 to help the Ottoman government dampen the Urabi Rebellion.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Britain is also in full control in Cyprus and Egypt.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1894—96, about 100,000 to 300,000 ethnic Armenians living throughout the sultanate were murdered in an event called the Hamidian massacre. [80]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

As the Ottoman Sultanate's territory shrank, many Balkan Muslims moved to the remaining Ottoman territories in the Balkans or to the sultanate's heartland in Anatolia. [81]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

As of 1923, only Anatolia and Eastern Trakia were Muslim-controlled. [82]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The defeat and dissolution (1908—1922) of the Second Constitutional Era began post the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) through the sultan's announcement of the reuse of the 1876 constitution and the re-establishment of the Ottoman Parliament.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This announcement served as a prelude to the dissolution of the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This era was dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress and the movement which later became known as Young Turk.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Utilizing civil divisions, Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina of 1908, but it withdrew its soldiers from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested territory Austria and the Ottomans, to avoid war.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the Italy—Turkish War (1911—12), the Ottoman Sultanate lost Libya and the Balkan League declared war on the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottomans lost the Balkan Wars (1912—13) and lost their Balkan territories except Eastern Trakia and the historical capital of Adrianople.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Some 400,000 Muslims who feared facing ethnic Greek, Serb, or Bulgarian violence, were displaced retreated with Ottoman forces. [83]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

According to Justin McCarthy's estimate, from 1821 to 1922, ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims in the Balkans resulted in the death and expulsion of a million people from the region. [84] [85] [86] As of 1914, the Ottoman Sultanate had been retreated from almost all of Europe and North Africa.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Even so, the sultanate is still inhabited by 28 million people. 15.5 million of them in modern-day Turkey, 4.5 million in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan, and 2.5 million in Iraq. The remaining 5.5 million are under the shadow government of the Ottomans in the Arab Peninsula. [87]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In November 1914, the Ottoman Sultanate took part in World War I in the Central Powers bloc.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This sultanate took part in the theatre of the Middle East.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottomans were victorious several times in the first years of the war, for example at the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but there were also defeats such as in the Caucasus Campaign against the Russians.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The United States has never issued a declaration of war on the Ottoman Sultanate. [88]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to drive into eastern Anatolia, [89] assisted by a number of Ottoman Armenian militias, the Ottoman government began deporting and massacring the ethnic Armenian population.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This action later became known as the Armenian Genocide. [90]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Genocide acts were also carried out against ethnic minorities of Greeks and Assyrians. [91]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Arab revolt beginning in 1916 turned against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottomans briefly excelled in the Middle East during the first two years of the war.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Armistice of Mudros signed on 30 October 1918 ended warfare in the Middle Eastern theatre, followed by the occupation of Constantinople and the breakdown of the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

With the Treaty of Sèvres, the breakdown of the Ottoman Sultanate became official.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the last quarter of the 19th and early 20th centuries, some 7—9 million Turkish Muslim refugees from the Caucasus region, Crimea, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands moved to Anatolia and Eastern Trakia. [92]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The occupation of Constantinople and İzmir spawned a Turkish national movement that won the Turkish War of Independence (1919—22) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha (or Mustafa Kemal Atatürk).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The sultanate was dissolved on 1 November 1922, and its last sultan, Mehmed VI (ruling 1918—22), left the country on 17 November 1922.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The National Grand Assembly of Turkey declared the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The caliphate was dissolved on March 3, 1924. [93]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The administrative administration of the Ottoman Sultanate was a very simple system and divided into two main dimensions, military administration and civil administration.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Sultan is the highest office in the system.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The civil system is created based on the units of local administration based on the characteristics of its territory.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Sultanate used a state system (like the Eastern Roman Empire) controlled the clergy.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Pre-Islamic Turkic traditions that persisted after the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran are still instrumental to the Ottoman government. [94]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

According to Ottoman understanding, the main task of the state is to defend and expand Muslim lands and ensure security and alignment within its borders according to the context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty. [95]”


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Dynasty” or “Wangsa Osman” is incomparable and not exceeded in size or duration in the Islamic world. [96]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman dynasty originated in Turkey.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Eleven sultans were once deposed for being considered a threat to the country by his enemies.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Only two attempted overthrow of the Osmanlı ruling dynasty ever took place.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Both failed and urged the need for a political system that in its period extension was able to handle revolutions without creating unnecessary instability. [95]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The highest office in Islam, caliph, was claimed by the sultan so his country also bears the name of the Ottoman Caliphate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or “king of kings”, became the sole leader of the sultanate and was considered the representative of its government, although his control was not always absolute.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Sultanate's harem was one of the most important powers in Ottoman rule.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The institute is headed by the Valide Sultan.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Sometimes the Valide Sultan was involved in the politicization of the country.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Harem women once controlled the country at a period called the “Sultanate of Women”.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The new sultan was always chosen from the son of the previous sultan.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The robust system of palace school education was geared towards eliminating unsuitable would-be heirs and rally the ruling elite's support against an heir.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Palace schools that also educate prospective state officials are not single-track.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The first track, madrasah ([Medrese] error: {{lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)), is designed for Muslims and educate scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The financial burden of Medrese is borne by vakif, so that children of poor families can raise their social status and income. [97]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The second line is a free boarding school for Christians, Enderûn, [98] which recruits 3,000 students annually from 8 to 20 years of age from one to forty families in Rumelia and/or the Balkans.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This process is called Devshirme (Devşirme). [99]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Although the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated to others.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

State politics involved a number of advisers and ministers who formed a council called Divan (after the 17th century the name changed to “Porte”).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Divan, when the Ottoman state was still Beylik, consisted of tribal elders.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Its composition was later changed to involve military officials and local elites (such as religious and political advisers).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

From as early as 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to continue certain duties of the sultan.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Grand Vizier was relieved of the sultan and held virtually unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Starting in the late 16th century, the sultan withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state. [100]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Throughout Ottoman history, there have been many instances when local governors took action independently even in opposition to the ruler.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Post the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Sultan no longer held executive power.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

A parliament is formed whose representatives are elected from the provinces of the country.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The vicars then formed the Ottoman Sultanate Imperium Government.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Eclectic governance is evident in the sultanate's diplomatic letters.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The letter is usually sent to the west in Greek. [101]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Tughra is a calligraphic monogram or signature of the Ottoman Sultans of 35 people.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Chiseled in the Sultan's coat of arms, the tughra bore the names of the Sultan and


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Statements and prayers of “eternal victory” are also sculpted in most emblems.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The first Tughra was owned by Orhan Gazi.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This ornation-style Tughra later pioneered the Ottoman-Turkish branch of calligraphy.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Law The Ottoman legal system recognized religious law upon its people.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

At the same time, Qanun (or Kanun), a secular legal system, was applied in conjunction with religious law or Sharia. [102]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Sultanate was always structured with a system of local jurisprudence.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Legal affairs in the Ottoman Sultanate were part of a larger scheme to balance central and regional authority. [103]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman powers dwell more on land rights affairs, so local governments are given space to meet local millet needs. [103]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The complicated jurisdiction of the Ottoman Sultanate aimed at preventing cultural and religious integration from different circles. [103]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman system has three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims involving Jewish and Christian officials who control their respective religious communities, and “mercantile courts”.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The whole system is organized from above, namely Qanun, i.e. law, a system created based on Yassa and Töre Turk.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Both were developed before the advent of Islam.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

These categories of courts are not entirely exclusive.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

For example, Islamic courts—primary courts of sultanes—can be used to resolve conflicts or trade disputes between parties of different religions.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Usually Jewish and Christian claimants choose Islamic courts in order to get a stronger verdict on an issue.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottomans did not interfere with the religious legal system of non-Muslims, although legally had the right to do so through a governor.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Islamic Sharia legal system is formed from the combined Qur'an; Hadīts, a collection of sayings of Muhammad; ijmā', a consensus of members of Muslims; qiyas, an analogical reasoning system of previous events; and local customs.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Both systems are taught in the two law schools of the sultanate, precisely in Istanbul and Bursa.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Islamic legal system is different from that of the traditional European courts.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The party present in the Islamic court is Qadi which means judge.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Since the closure of the itjihad, or “Gate of Interpretation”, Qadi's throughout the Ottoman Sultanate have not focused too much on previous legal decisions, but rather on local customs and traditions of the regions where they work. [104]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Unfortunately, the Ottoman court system does not have an appellate court structure, so a legal case strategy arises when the prosecution can bring his case from one court system to another until they get the appropriate verdict.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system was massively overhauled.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The process of modernization of the law began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839. [105]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The reforms included “fair trial before the public for all defendants regardless of their religion,” the establishment of a system of “separate competences, religious and civil,” and recognition of non-Muslim testimony. [106]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Land law (1858), civil law (1869—1876), and civil procedure law were also enacted. [106]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman law reform strongly influenced the French model.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This can be seen from the use of a three-tier court system.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This system called Nizamiye was extended to the level of local courts by the final application of Mecelle, namely civil law governing marriage, divorce, alimony, testament, and other personal status. [106]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

To clarify the division of legal competences, the governing council determined that all religious affairs be submitted to the religious court and status affairs be handed over to the Nizamiye court. [106]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Military |JMPL|left|250px|Ottoman irregular forces in the territory of modern Hungary, painted in 1568 The first military unit of the Ottoman Sultanate was an army formed by Osman I from tribal members in the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The military system also turned into a complicated organization as the sultanate progressed.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman military represents a complex recruitment and defense system.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Major corps of the Ottoman Army include Yanisari, Sipahi, Akıncı, and Mehterân.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Army was once one of the world's most advanced combat forces as it was among the first users of the springing rifle and cannon.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman Turk forces began utilizing the falconet, a short but wide cannon, during the Siege of Constantinople.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman cavalry relied on speed and high mobility instead of heavy weaponry.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

They used short bows and arrows with Turkoman and Arabian fast horses (originators of the Thoroughbred racehorse), [107] [108] and often applied tactics similar to Mongol Empire tactics, such as pretending to retreat while caging enemies with crescent formations then launching attacks .


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The deterioration of the army's performance was increasingly evident since the mid-17th century and after the Great Turkish War.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the 18th century, there briefly appeared little success against Venice, but European-style Russian forces in the north forced the Ottoman Sultanate to cede its territory.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Modernization of the Ottoman Sultanate in the 19th century was started by the military.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II removed the Yanisari corps and formed the modern army of Ottomans.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

His army was named Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Army was also the first institution to hire overseas experts and dispatch its officers to training centers in Western European countries.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Therefore, the Young Turk movement was pioneered when these young and trained soldiers came home to their country.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Navy took part in the expansion of the sultanate's territory in continental Europe.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This expansion stemmed from the conquest of North Africa that incorporated Algeria and Egypt into the Ottoman Sultanate in 1517.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Since the loss of Algeria (1830 and Greece (1821), sea power and Ottoman control over its colonies across the sea began to weaken.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Sultan Abdülaziz (ruling 1861—1876) attempted to build a strong navy by making his fleet the third largest in the world after Great Britain and France.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The shipyard in Barrow, England, built its first submarine for the Ottoman Sultanate in 1886. [109]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Even so, the weakened Ottoman economy could not sustain the sea fleet in the long term.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Sultan claimed that a large and expensive fleet was useless to fight Russia during the Russo-Turkish War.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

He locked most of his fleet inside the Golden Cape and left his ship to rust for the following 30 years.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop strong marine forces.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to purchase new ships through community donations.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The history of Ottoman military aviation can be traced to 1909 between June 1909 and July 1911. [110] [111] The Ottoman Sultanate began preparing its first pilots and aircraft.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Through the establishment of the Flight School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy dated 3 July 1912, the government began teaching its own aviators.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The establishment of the Flight School accelerated the progress of military aviation programs, increased the number of enlisted officers, and gave new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The month of May 1913, the world's first special Reconnaissance Exercise Program was pioneered by the Flight School and the first separate reconnaissance division was formed.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In June 1914, a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi), was established.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process came to an abrupt halt.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The scadron of Ottoman aviation fought on various fronts during World War I, from Galisia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The administrative division of the Ottoman Sultanate was initially divided into several provinces in the late 14th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Provinces mean permanent territorial units whose governors were appointed by the sultan, at the end of the 14th century. [112]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Eyalet (also called pashalic or beglerbeglic) is the working territory of a beylerbeyi.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The territory is further divided into several sanjaks. [113]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The vilayet was introduced through the attestation of the “Vilayet Law” (Turkish: Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi) [114] in 1864 as part of the tanzimat reform. [115]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Unlike previous eyalet systems, this law of 1864 established a hierarchy of administrative units: vilayet, liva/sanjak, kaza, and village councils.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Vilayet law of 1871 added nahiye among the kaza and the village. [116]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Government Economy implemented a policy of developing Bursa, Adrianople, and Istanbul (all of which were Ottoman capitals) into major trade and industrial centers as merchants and artisans played a large role in the establishment of the new metropolis. [117]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Until then, Mehmed and his successor, Bayezid, also encouraged and accepted the migration of Jews from different regions of Europe.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

They settled in Istanbul and port cities such as Salonica.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In a number of places in Europe, Jews were oppressed by the Christian population.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The tolerance that the Turk nation has is warmly welcomed by immigrants.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The foundation of the Ottoman economy is strongly linked to the basic concepts of Middle Eastern states and peoples.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The main goal of the state of the time was to strengthen and expand the leader's power.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The way to achieve it is to gain a large source of income by prospering the working class. [118]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Its main goal is to increase state revenues without destabilizing the prosperity of its people for the sake of preventing unrest and protecting the traditional order of society.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The composition of financial bodies and treasurer developed better in the Ottoman Sultanate than any other Islamic government.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the 17th century, the Ottoman financial organization was the most advanced compared to other financial organizations of the time. [100]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The organization developed a bureaucracy of scribes (known as “men of the pen”) as a separate group whose half filled highly experienced clerics.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The group later evolved into a professional institution. [100]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The effectiveness of professional financial institutions was behind the success of the great Ottoman statesmen. [119]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The economic structure of the sultanate was determined by its geopolitical structure.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Sultanate was between the Western and Eastern worlds, thus blocking the land route to the east and forcing Spanish and Portuguese explorers to sail in search of a new route to the east.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Sultanate controlled the spice route that Marco Polo used to use.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

When Vasco da Gama skirted the Ottoman route and made a direct trade route to India in 1498, and Christopher Columbus sailed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Sultanate was at the height of its glory.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Modern Ottoman studies argue that the change in relations between Ottoman Turkey and Central Europe was created by the opening of new sea routes.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Historians could have ascribed the decline in land traffic to the east after Western Europe opened up sea routes that shunned the Middle East and the parallel Mediterranean to the decline of the Ottoman Sultanate itself.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The British-Ottoman Agreement, also called the Balta Liman Agreement, which opened the Ottoman market to its rivals in the United Kingdom and France can be seen as one of the challenges of the development of the Ottoman economy.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

By developing trade centers and routes, encouraging the people to expand the country's agricultural lands, and encouraging international trade through its colonies, the government managed to carry out basic economic functions throughout the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Even so, the country's financial and political interests are more dominant.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the social and political system they ran, Ottoman officials were either unaware or unaware of the demands of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economy that was then developing in Western Europe. [120]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Demographics The population of the Ottoman Sultanate was estimated at 11,692,480 inhabitants in 1520—1535.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This figure was obtained by counting the number of families in the Ottoman donation record, then 5. [121]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

For reasons that are not yet clear, the population of the 18th century is fewer than in the 16th century. [122]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The estimate of 7,230,660 inhabitants for the first census of 1831 was considered too few because this census aimed at counting potential conscripts. [121]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The census in Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Census results from 1831 onwards are officially available, but the censuses do not cover the entire population.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

For example, the 1831 census counted only men and did not cover the entire territory of the sultanate. [45] [121] For earlier periods, the estimated size and distribution of the population was based on observed demographic patterns. [123]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Its population began to rise to 25—32 million in 1800. 10 million of them in European provinces (mostly in the Balkans), 11 million in Asiatic provinces, and 3 million in African provinces.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The highest population density is in European provinces, twice the size of Anatolia, tripling Iraq and Syria, and five times the size of Arabia. [124]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the run-up to the dissolution of the sultanate, life expectancy reached 49 years, higher than the 20 yearly in Serbia in the early 19th century. [125]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Outbreaks of disease and famine resulted in major disruption and demographic changes.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1785, about one-sixth of Egypt's population died as a result of the plague and the population of Aleppo was reduced by 20% in the 18th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Six famines struck Egypt between 1687 and 1731 and a final famine struck Anatolia four decades later. [126]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The rise of port cities gave rise to population groupings encouraged by the development of steamboats and railroads.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Urbanization increased and cities large as well as small grew in 1700—1922.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Improvements in health and sanitation made those cities attract the attention of the arrivals to settle and work.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Port cities such as Salonica in Greece experienced a population increase from the 55,000 inhabitants of 1800 to 160,000 in 1912.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Izmir's population grew from 150,000 in 1800 to 300,000 in 1914. [127] [128] Some areas experienced population declines, such as Belgrade whose population dropped from 25,000 to 8,000 because of political strife. [127]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Economic and political migration gave great influence to the entire sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

For example, successive annexations of Crimea and the Balkans by Russia and Austria-Habsburg resulted in the migration of large numbers of Muslim refugees. 200,000 Crimean Tatars were displaced to Dobruja. [129]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5—7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Sultanate, 3.8 million of whom came from Russia.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Some migrations left enduring marks, such as political tensions between the territories of the sultanates (e.g. Turkey and Bulgaria) The centralizing impact was seen in other areas, such as the simple demographics that emerged from the diversity of the population.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The economy was also hit by dwindling artisans, merchants, producers, and farmers. [130]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Since the 19th century, the Muslim population was massively exodus to modern Turkey from the Balkans.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

They are called Muhacir according to the general definition. [131]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

When the Ottoman Sultanate ended in 1922, half the Turkish city population was descendants of Muslim refugees from Russia. [69]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman Turkic language is the official language of the sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

It is a Turk language that is heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Ottoman Sultanate has several populous languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of Anatolia and a majority of Balkan Muslims in addition to Albania and Bosnia; Persian, spoken only by educated citizens; [132] Arabic, widely spoken in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait, the Levant, and parts of the Horn of Africa; and Somali throughout the Horn of Africa.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the last two centuries, the usage of such languages has been limited and specific.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Persian, for example, tends to be used as a book language for educated citizens, [132] whereas Arabic is worn for worship.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Turkic, with its Ottoman variations, was the language of the military and government since the beginning of the founding of the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The 1876 Ottoman Constitution established the status of Turkish as the official language of the sultanate. [133]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Due to the low literacy rate (about 2— 3% until the early 19th century and 15% in the late 19th century), commoners needed to employ scribes as “special request writers” (arzuhâlci) in order to communicate with the government. [134]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

A number of tribes speak to their families or members of their settlements (mahalle) using their own languages (e.g. Jewish, Greek, Armenian, etc.).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In villages where two or more people live together, the inhabitants speak using the language of the interlocutor.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the cosmopolitan city, people tend to speak their family language and many non-Turk citizens speak Turkish as a second language.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Religion In the Ottoman Sultanate system, despite the Muslim hegemon's power over the non-Muslim population, non-Muslim communities received state recognition and protection according to Islamic tradition. [135]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Until the second half of the 15th century, the population of this sultanate was predominantly Christian and led by a Muslim minority. [103]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

By the end of the 19th century, the non-Muslim population began to decrease drastically, not due to loss of territory alone, but also population displacement. [135]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The percentage of Muslims rose to 60% in the 1820s, then slowly rose to 69% in the 1870s, and 76% in the 1890s. [135] As of 1914, only 19.1% of the sultanate's inhabitants were non-Islamic.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Most of them are Greek, Assyrian, Armenian, and Jewish Christians. [135]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Islamic JMPL|250px|Calligraphic writings on fritware tiles list the names of Allah, Muhammad, and the first caliphs.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

c.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

1727, Islamic Middle East Gallery, Victoria & Albert Museum. [136]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Turk tribes practiced various forms of shamanism before embracing Islam.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The influence of the Abbasids in Central Asia was strengthened by a process heavily influenced by the victory of the Abbasids at the Battle of Talas against the Chinese Tang Dynasty in 751.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

After this battle, many Turk tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman ancestors—slowly embraced Islam and spread it to Anatolia in the 11th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Muslim sects considered heretical, such as Druze, Ismaili and Alawi, were placed under Jewish and Christian adherents. [137]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1514, Sultan Selim I, nicknamed the “Repeal of Lives” for his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevi (Qizilbash) whom he considered heretical. [138]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

He reportedly said that “killing an Alevi his reward is equivalent to killing 70 Christians. “[139]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Christianity and Judaism In the Ottoman Sultanate, as per the zimmi system of Islam, Christians were given limited freedoms (such as the right to worship), but were treated like second class citizens.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Christians and Jews are not considered equal to Muslims.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Testimony against a Muslim defendant by a Christian and a Jew is not considered valid in court.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

They are forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses, their homes should not face Muslim homes, and their worship practices must be different from Islamic worship practices.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In a system commonly known as devşirme, a number of Christian sons, mostly from the Balkans and Anatolia, were routinely required to follow conscription before adulthood, then raised as a Muslim. [141]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Under the millet system, non-Muslim citizens were obliged to obey sultanate law, but were not obliged to obey Islamic law.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Orthodox millet was legally still officially compliant to the Justinian Code, the law in force in the Eastern Roman Empire for 900 years.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In addition, as the largest non-Muslim group (or zimmi) in the Ottoman-Islamic country, Orthodox millets gained privileges in politics and commerce and were required to pay higher taxes than Muslims. [142] [143] Similar millets were designated for the Jewish community Ottomans who are under the authority of Haham Başı or the chief rabbi of the Ottomans; the Armenian Orthodox community which is under the authority of the chief bishop; and various other religious communities.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The millet system in Islamic law is widely recognized as an early example of pre-modern religious pluralism. [144]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The culture of the Ottoman Sultanate absorbed a number of traditions, arts, and cultural institutions in the areas they conquered, then added a new dimension to it.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Various traditions and cultures of the earlier imperium (in the fields of architecture, cuisine, music, entertainment, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Turk nation then changed it to new forms and created a new and very different Ottoman cultural identity.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Intercultural marriage also played a role in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

When compared to Turkish folk culture, the influence of the new culture in shaping the culture of the Ottoman elite is very clearly visible.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Slavery was part of Ottoman society. [145]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Female slaves were still sold in the sultanate until 1908. [146]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

During the 19th century, the sultanate was urged by European countries to abolish the practice of slavery.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The sultans also developed policies aimed at hindering the slave trade, but as slavery received religious support and sanction for centuries, it never wiped out slavery outright.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Plague was still a frightening scourge for Ottoman peoples until the second quarter of the 19th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Between 1701 and 1750, 37 major and minor epidemics were recorded in Istanbul.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Between 1751 and 1801, there were 31 epidemics in the same city. [147]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Literature The two main streams of Ottoman writing literature are verse and prose.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Syair is by far the dominant stream.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose contained no fiction.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

No work compares to romances, short stories, or European novels.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

A similar genre does exist, but in the form of Turkish folk literature and Divan verse.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Divan verse is a highly ritualized and symbolic art form.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

From the Persian verse that inspired him, the Divan verse inherits many symbols whose meaning and related—both the equation (مراعات نير mura'ât-i nazîr/تناسب tenâsüb) and the difference (تضاد tezâd) are explained plainly or simply.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Divan verse is composed through constant mixing of multiple images inside a strict metric framework, resulting in many possible meanings.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Most Divan verses take the form of lyrics, both gazels (forming the largest part of this tradition's repertoire) and kasîdes.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

There are also other common genres, one of which is mesnevî, a type of line romance and a wide variety of narrative poems.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Two famous mesnevî examples are Leyli and Majnun by Fuzûlî and Hüsn Ü Aşk by Şeyh Gâlib. 250px|JMPL|Ahmet Nedîm Efendi, one of the leading Ottoman poets Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent of contemporary Divan verse.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

One of the main reasons is that many prose must adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated into seci), or rhyming prose, [148] a type of writing derived from only 'Arabic that requires the presence of rhymes between each adjective and noun in a series of words, such as sentence.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Therefore, there arose a prose tradition in the literature of the time despite its non-fiction nature.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

An example of the exception is the Muhayyelât by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of fantastic stories written in 1796 and only published in 1867.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Due to its close historical relationship with France, French literature became part of the great Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the later half of the 19th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

As a result, many streams in France at that time also appeared in the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

For example, in the development of the Ottoman prose tradition, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and the influence of the flow of Realists and Naturalism emerged in later periods.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the tradition of verse, Symbolist and Parnassian influences are more striking.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Many writers of the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

For example, poet Namık Kemal wrote the important novel İntibâh (“Resurrection”) of 1876, whereas journalist İbrahim Şinasi is known for writing the first modern Turkish play in 1860, namely the one-chapter comedy “Şair Evlenmesi” (“Marriage of the Poet”).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

An earlier play, namely a farse titled “Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefșger Ahmed” (“Strange Events and Surprising Genesis of Ahmed the Cobbler”), was made in the early 19th century, but its authenticity is still in doubt.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the same spirit, novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote novels essential to each major stream: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; “Hasan the Sailor, or the Mystery Inside the Mystery”), Realism (Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; “New Seventeen Years”), and Naturalism), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; “Observations”).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This diversity was half driven by the desire of Tanzimat writers who wanted to include as much new literature as possible in hopes of contributing to the revitalization of the Ottoman social structure. [149]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The architecture of Ottoman Architecture was influenced by Persian, Byzantine Greek, and Islamic architecture.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

During the revival, there was an early or first Ottoman architectural period and Ottoman art was in the stage of searching for new ideas.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

During the development period, the period of classical architecture and Ottoman art was at its prime.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the unstuck period, Ottoman architecture moved away from the classical style.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Throughout the Tulip Era, Ottoman architecture was influenced by Western European high ornamentation styles; Baroque, Rococo, Empire, and other styles intermixed.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The concept of Ottoman architecture is more centered on mosques.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Mosques are an indispensable part of society, urban planning, and communal life.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In addition to mosques, perfect examples of Ottoman architecture can be found in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths, and cemeteries.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Examples of Ottoman architecture from the classical period other than Istanbul and Edirne can also be found in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans, and Romania.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

There are many mosques, bridges, fountains, and Ottoman schools.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The art of Ottoman decoration developed with many influences due to ethnic diversity in the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The artisans enriched the Ottoman Sultanate with pluralistic art influences, such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art. [150]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Decoration art The tradition of Ottoman miniatures painted to illustrate manuscripts or used on special albums was heavily influenced by Persian art.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Nevertheless, Ottoman miniatures also involved a number of elements of the Byzantine tradition of lighting and painting.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

An academy of Greek painters, Nakkashane-i-Rum, was founded in the Topkapi Palace in the 15th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

At the beginning of the next century, a Persian academy named Nakkashane-i-Irani was founded.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman illumination includes non-figure painting or image decoration art in books or sheets of muraqqa or albums, in contrast to Ottoman miniature figure drawings.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Illumination, miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt), and paper parting (ebru) are all parts of Ottoman book art.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In the Ottoman Sultanate, bright and illustrated manuscripts were made at the behest of the sultan or government officials.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

At Topkapi Palace, the manuscripts were made by artists working at Nakkashane, a center for miniature artists and lighting.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Religious and non-religious books can be illuminated.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The levha album slabs consist of bright calligraphy (hat) tughra, religious texts, quotations of verse or proverbs, and images of decorations.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The art of carpet spinning was very flourishing in the Ottoman Sultanate.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Carpets are of high value both as decoration fixtures rich in religious and other symbolism and as practical considerations, as residents must remove shoes before entering the house. [151]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Carpet spinning originated in the nomadic cultures of Central Asia (carpets are an easy-to-carry form of gear), then spread to settled Anatolian peoples.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Turk people wear rugs, rugs and kilims not only for the base of the room, but also hangers on the walls and hallways to serve as additional insulation.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Carpets are also often donated to mosques and therefore mosques generally have a large collection of carpets. [152]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Performing arts Ottoman classical music is an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

A number of Ottoman sultans were great musicians and composers, such as Selim III whose compositions are still played today.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman classical music is mostly derived from a composite of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

From its composition, Ottoman music utilizes a unit of rhythm named usul, somewhat similar to the meter in Western music, and a unit of melody named tomb, similarly-similar to the Western musical mode.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The instruments worn are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (saz, bağlama, kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (ud, tanbur, kanun, ney), and Western instruments (violin and piano).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

New Western instruments were included last.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Due to geographical and cultural differences between the capital and the rest of the region, two very different musical styles also emerged in the Ottoman Sultanate, namely Ottoman classical music and folk music.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In its provinces, a wide variety of folk music was formed.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The regions whose musical style is most dominant are: Türküs Balkan-Trakia, Northeastern Türküs (Laz), Türküs Aegean, Türküs Central Anatolia, Türküs Eastern Anatolia, and Türküs Caucasus.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Some of his musical styles are: Yanisari music, Roma music, belly dancing, and Turkish folk music.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Traditional shadow plays named Karagöz and Hacivat are scattered throughout the Ottoman Sultanate and feature figures representing all ethnic and major social groups in the culture. [153] [154] This play is staged by a puppet who also fills the voices of all figures and accompanied by tambourine (def).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Its origin is obscure, possibly from Egyptian or Asian traditions.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Ottoman cuisine refers to the cuisine of the capital city of Istanbul and the regional capital, where the mix of cultures produces a shared mass that the entire population enjoys.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This diverse cuisine was prepared in the kitchen of the Sultanate Palace by chefs brought from different regions of the sultanate to create and experiment with a variety of ingredients.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

The results of the kitchen of the Ottoman Palace are filtered to the community, for example, when Ramadan or the cooking process in Yalı para Pasha the recipe spreads itself from there to the community.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Today, Ottoman cuisine still exists in Turkey, the Balkans, and the Middle East.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

This is “a shared inheritance in the form of something that used to be the Ottoman lifestyle, and their cuisines are strong evidence of this fact”. [155]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Usually any great cuisine in the world is created from local variations and the mutual exchange and enrichment that takes place in it, but at the same time homogenized and harmonized by the tradition of metropolitan flavor improvement. [155]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Science and technology Throughout the history of the Ottoman Sultanate, its people sought to build large libraries equipped with translated books from other civilizations and original manuscripts. [28]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Most requests for local and foreign manuscripts appeared in the 15th century.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amirutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and disseminate Ptolomeus' geography books to Ottoman educational institutions.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Another example is Ali Qushji, astronomer, mathematician, and physicist from Samarkand, who became a professor in two madrasahs and successfully influenced the Ottoman government through his writings and student activities.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

He spent only two or three years in the Ottoman Sultanate before passing away in Istanbul. [156]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

Taqi al-Din built Istanbul's Taqi al-Din Observatory in 1577.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

He made astronomical observations there until 1580.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

He calculated the eccentricity of the Sun's orbit and the annual movement of the apogeo. [157]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

His observatory was torn down in 1580 [158] due to the rise of a clerical faction opposed or at least not indifferent to science. [159]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand?

Ottoman Sultanate

In 1660, the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's astronomical work written in 1637 into Arabic. [160]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu is the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major medical encyclopedia of the Islamic world.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

Although most of his works were based on Al-Tasrif by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Sabuncuoğlu introduced many of his own innovations.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

Female surgeon illustrated for the first time. [161]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

An example of a clock measuring time in minutes was made by an Ottoman clock craftsman, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702. [162]


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

See also Index of articles on Ottoman Sultanate Outline of Ottoman Sultanate List of libraries of Ottoman Sultanates Footnotes Reference notes Library resources about Main Page Encyclopaedia Britannica (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

Included also in 13th edition (1926) Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Dimitri Kitsikis, L'Empire ottoman, Presses universitaires de France, 3rd ed., 1994 Advanced reading Fromkin, David (1989).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

A Peace to End All Peace: the Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

New York: Avon Books. 635 p., ill. with [34] p. of b&w photos.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

ISBN 0-380-71300-4 Palmer, Alan (1992).


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

New York: M. Evans and Co. ix, [4], 306 p., maps.


Question: When did the Ottoman Sultanate stand up?

Ottoman Sultanate

ISBN 0-87131-754-0 Outlinks Shapell Manuscript Foundation, 1920 Category:Muslim Dynasties Category:Turkish Dynasties Category:State of Turk Category:Old Turk Category:Substitute States of Eastern Roman Empire Category:Countries and territories established year 1299 Category:Countries in Middle Anatolia Category:World War I Category:History of the Turk Category:Middle East


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al-Mas'udi and Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Mas'udi (المسعودي) were historians and geographers born in Baghdad, Iraq towards the end of the 9th century.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

According to the book called Al-Mas'udi and His World, al-Mas'udi was born in 283H or 895 AD in the city of Baghdad.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al Masudi reportedly died in Fustat (Egypt) in 345H or 956AD.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He is of Arabic origin is a descendant of Abdullah ibn Mas'ud a friend of the Prophet Muhammad (saw).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al- Mas'udi was an expert on history, geography, geology, zoology, encyclopaedia in Islamic science, as well as a nomad.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Many countries he has visited and dozens of works that have been produced.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al Mas'udi is referred to as the Pilinius of Arabic literature, due to his geographical knowledge.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In his book Muruj az-Zahab wa Ma'adin al-Jawahir, he describes how earthquakes occur.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He also tells the story of the dead sea; and about the first windmill, which he thinks may once have been an invention of the Islamists.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He also formulated a theory that can be said to be the initial basis of the theory of evolution. [1]


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Biographer Al Masudi was born in Baghdad in 895 A.D. After completing the first education received from his father, al-Mas'udi immediately planned to be steeped in the history, customs, customs, and way of life of each land.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He also studied a lot of Christian and Jewish teachings, as well as western and Eastern history of Christian and Jewish background.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

His Intellectual wanderings began by visiting the lands of Iran and Kirman (915).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He also settled in Ushtukhar, Persia and from there went to India, visiting Multan and al-Manshura.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

With the merchants, he continued his wanderings to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and he took part in the sea of China.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

On the return trip he circumnavigated the Indian Ocean and then visited Oman, Zanzibar, the East African Coast, Sudan, and Madagascar.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In 926 AD he again made trips to several lands such as Tiberias, (Syria) and Palestine, as well as in 943 AD to antioch (Syria).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He also surrounded the countries of Iraq and South Arabia.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The last ten years of his life were traversed in Syria and and then in Egypt, where he died.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Summary of Voyages and Geographical Investigations The earliest records show al-Mas'udi began sailing (roading) was between 914-915AD that was when he went to Persia. [2]


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In Persia, he lived for more or less a year in Istakhar which is in 305H/915AD.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

And Baghdad he went to India (916AD) and visited the city of Multan and the city of al-Mansurah (Mansura).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Later he returned to Persia after visiting Kusman.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Mansura in the time of al-Mas'udi was the most developed city in Western India and became the capital of the state of Sind in his work Muruj Aldhahab wa Ma'adin al-Jawahir, he narrates that the city was located on the banks of the Indus River (near Hyderabad Slang).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The name of the town was taken the name Mansur bin Jumhur (governor of the Bani Umayyad government in Sind).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

It is inhabited by a number of inhabitants of the sayid group (kabar leaders).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Before the hermitage of Islam, some areas around the Indus River valley were controlled by Hindu kings.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

However, in the wake of da'wah by Islamic da'i-da'i, those Hindu kings have been affected by Islamic teachings and regarded the Islamic man as the epitome of peace and good life.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In India al-Mas'udi also conducted research on flora and fauna.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The study was carried out on the seafront close to Bombay.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Among Al Masudi's research materials are elephants, peacocks, cockatoos, oranges, coconuts and others.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Then Al-Mas'udi together with other explorers went on a voyage through Bombay, Deccan and Sri Lanka and sailed to Southeast Asia, Indochina and China.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

On his way home he layovers in Madagascar, Zanzibar, Oman and reaches Basrah.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In Basrah he settled for some time and wrote his great work entitled Muruj al-Dhahab.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The book mi tells about her personal experiences in different countries.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In this book he mentions several places in Southeast Asia, including among them the Malaya Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In his writings he mentioned the wealth and glory of the kingdom of Sribuza which is none other than Sriwijaya.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Pictured Sriwijaya was a large, wealthy kingdom, with a very numerous army.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Mentioned the fastest ship within two years was not enough to surround the entire island territory. [3]


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

It is possible he reached the region during his voyage to China.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The book has been published in Paris (1861—1877) and Cairo (1303 AH) in 9 volumes.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He represents the largest work al-Mas'udi has been discovered and exists to this day.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

It can be considered an encyclopedia because the talk starts from human events to his day. [4]


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al Masudi also visited the Caspian Sea Coast and ventured through Central Asia and Turkistan.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He also visited Tiberias, and here he acquired the impression of relief-reliefs of the Christian church.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Then he went to Gujarat (303H) and found Chamur, the port of Gujarat with occupants of 10 thousand Arabs and the rest of their descendants.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Here he received descriptions from Jews, Persians, Indians and Christian bishops.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

After leaving Basrah and Syria he returned to Fustat (Ancient Khairo).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Here he composed his second work entitled Qoran al-Zaman (historical stories) consisting of 30 volumes.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Twenty volumes of them exist stored in the library of Aya Sofia (Istanbul), but so far only one volume has been found in Aleppo and brought to Vienna.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

However, the content of this book, which touches much on the history and geographies of the world, has been outlined in the book of Muruj al-Dhahab.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In this book she combines geographical science with history and recounts people's lives in the countries she once passed.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

After travelling so long to the East he took some time settling in Basrah where he recorded his experiences in Muruj Aldhahab wa Ma'adin al-Jawahir.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The book was completed in 947AD and in 956M was completed also its second edition containing 9 volumes of which the translation was published in Paris (1861-1877).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

From Basrah he then moved to Fustat where he wrote the more famous book of al-Zaman Koran as Annal (historical record) consisting of 30 volumes on general history.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

This work was completed in 956M.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

His last written work in the year of his death (956M in Fustat) was Kitab al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In this book he made additions and complements to the works of the earlier ones.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Based on the voyage journey, al-Mas'udi made a lot of research and also made writings about his experiences in various sciences.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al-Mas'udi's work produced many works including: Zakha'ir al-Ulum wa Ma Kana fi Sa'ir ad Duhur (Khazanah of Science in Every Krun) Al-Istizhar Lima Marra fi Salif al-A'mar about past events.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

This book and the above book have been reissued in Najaf in 1955.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Tarikh al-Akhbar al-Umam min al-Arab wa al'Ajam (History of the Arabs and Persians) Akhbar az-Zaman wa Man Abadahu al-Hidsan min al-Umam al-Madiyan wa al-Ajyal al-Haliyah wa al-Mamalik al-Dasirah, contains about the history of mankind past and present nations and their kingdoms.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

This book of 30 volumes did not reach the hands of the current generation.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

What exists now is the summary, but it is not known to the author.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Some manuscripts mention that the summary is precisely the first volume of the book.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Nonetheless, his material is contained in his next two works.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al-Ausat, contains a chronology of the General's history.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Muruj az-Zahab wa Ma'adin al-Jawahir (Golden Pasture and Gemstone Mine) was composed in 947 A.D.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

First, it contains the history of natural and human creation, the properties of the earth, the sea of extraordinary events, the history of the prophets, the history of ancient nations with their religion and flow, as well as customs and traditions.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al-Mas'udi was heavily motive of the work of earlier historians.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Second, it contains the history of Islam from the end of the period of al-Khulafa ur-Rasyidun (four great caliphs) to the early days of the reign of Caliph al-Mu'ti of the Abbasids, the lives of leleaki slaves and women, mawali (foreigners, especially Persians), the life of the common people, construction (such as castles) along with all the equipment, the habits of the magnifiers, and the customs and traditions of the countries he visited.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al-Mas'udi expounded heavily on the division of the earth into several regions.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

According to him the shape of the land and the ocean is a segment of a sphere.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The book, now called kutab turas (Classical Islamic Khazanah) was reissued in 1895 in Cairo.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The book was translated into French by A. Sprenger (London, 1841).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

In 956 al-Mas'udi had actually completed the writing of a book which is said to be wider than the book above, but the book has not yet been found.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

At-Tanbih wa al-Israf (Indications and Revisions) was written in 956. The book is a summary and contains some revisions of his other writings, also contains his philosophers' views on nature and history.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

He exposes his thoughts on the evolution of nature, namely from minerals, tanamas, animals, to humans.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

As an example of the occurrence of that evolution, he argues that the giraffe is a hybrid of a camel and a leopard (phanter).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

This opinion differs from the opinions of other muslim scholars, namely al-Jahiz and Abu Yahya al-Qazwini, who state that the giraffe is a hybrid of a wild female camel and a male hiena.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The book was edited by M.J de Goeje (Leiden, 1894) and has anyway been translated into French by Carra de Vaux (Paris, 1897).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Al-Qadaya wa at-Tajarib (Events and Experiences) Mazahir al-Akhbar wa Tara'if al-Asar (Phenomena and Historical Relics) As-Safwah fi al-Imamah (on Leadership).


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Footnotes Reference Shboul, Ahmad A. M. Al-Mas'udi and His World.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

London: Ithaca Press, 1979, pp.3—4.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Mas'udi.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

The Meadows of Gold, The Abbasids.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

transl.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone, Kegan Paul.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

London and New York, 1989, “Masūdī, al-.”


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Encyclopædia Britannica.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite.


Question: When was al-Mas'udi born?

Al-Mas'udi

Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006 Outside Category:Islamic Geographers Category:Islamic Historians


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Greek (Greek: Ελλάδα, Elláda [eˈlaða] (listen)), official name of the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Ellīnikīʼ Dīmokratía [eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a]), also known since antiquity as Hellas (Ancient Greek: λλάς Ellás [ˈhɛləs]) [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] is a country where he was born Western World culture residing in southeastern Europe, located at the southern tip of the Balkan Peninsula, in the eastern part of the Central Sea (Mediterranean).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Geography The boundary of the Northern region borders with Albania, Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia (Republic of Macedonia former Yugoslavia) East bordering Turkey and South Aegean Sea: Central Sea (Mediterranean) West: Ionian Sea The region has a long and rich history during which brings influence great culture on three continents.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

In these modern times, Greece is a developed country with a high per capita income development index.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The land of Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world, 13,676km (8,498mi), with many islands (about 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including the island of Crete (Crete), the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian archipelago.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Eighty percent of Greece's land consists of mountains.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The highest mountain is Mount Olympus 2,917 m (9,570 ft).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Etymology The Greeks called their country Hellas, and in modern lafaz it is called Ellas.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

In colloquial language the form Ellada is worn.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The name Greece is in English and similar forms in several other European languages, taken from the name in Latin, Graecia, which originated in an area now located to the north of Greece, and was inhabited by the Graekos.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

In Indonesian is also known the term Gerika, especially Gerika to call Greek, which is derived from the word.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

While the etymology of the Greek word in Indonesian comes from Arabic, which in turn takes from the Ionian name.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Ionia is the western coast of the country now called Turkey.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The Greek economy has a mixed capitalist economy with the public sector accounting for about half of GDP.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Tourism plays an important role, providing a large portion of GDP and income from foreign currency exchanges.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Greece is also the first world leader in ship ownership and third in flag registration. [9]


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Exports from manufactured goods, including telecommunications, software and hardware, foodstuffs, and fuels became a large part in Greece's income.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The country has a high standard of living, ranked 24th in the 2005 Human Development Index and 22nd in The Economist's 2005 World Quality of Life Index.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Its economy has steadily improved in recent years, in line with the government that tightened fiscal policy in the framework of Greece's incorporation into the Eurozone on 1 January 2001.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The average per capita income in 2004 was estimated to be US$22,000.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Greece also carries out labor imports (mostly from Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Pakistan, and Africa).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The people of the area are now about 10% of the total population.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Major challenges faced by the country include the reduction of unemployment, privation from state-owned enterprises, social security reform, changing the tax system, and suppressing bureaucratic inefficiencies.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Estimated economic growth was around 4-4.5% in 2004.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Government deficit reduction also remains a major issue, because now the deficit is twice the target of 3% GDP in the Eurozone.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The new conservative administration revealed to Eurostat that the previous figures provided, which were the basis of Greece's entry into the Eurozone, were incorrect.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Under negotiated approval, the EU gave Greece 2 years (budgets in 2005 and 2006) to bring the economy into line with the criteria of the European stability agreement.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The Bank of Greece, now a subsidiary of the European Central Bank, serves as the country's central bank.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The bank is not the same as the National Bank of Greece, a commercial bank.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Population According to the 2001 census, Greece had a population of 10,964,020 inhabitants. 58.8% of them lived in urban areas, the remaining 28.4% lived in the countryside.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The population in Greece's two largest cities, Athens and Thessaloniki, is close to 4 million people.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Although Greece's population continues to grow, Greece still faces quite serious demographic problems.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The year 2002 was the first year in which the number of deaths was greater than the number of births.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The number of immigrants settling in Greece today is estimated at more than one million inhabitants.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

A total of 65% came from Albania inviting conflict as the Greek-Albanian border was opened in the absence of approval from the Greek government.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Albanians are often harassed and exploited in Greece.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Recently they have also gained a reputation as troublemakers and perpetrators of the most crimes.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

However, today many Greeks are willing to acknowledge their contribution to the country's economy.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Aside from Albania, there are a small number of immigrants coming from Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, Pakistan, Ukraine, Belarusian, Polish, Egyptian, Palestinian, Ethiopian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Georgian.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The exact number is unknown as most settled illegally.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

JMPL|220px|Kalymnos Island.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The Greek constitution guarantees absolute freedom in religion.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Greece also stated that everyone living in Greek territory would enjoy the full protection of their trust.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

In addition, any activity related to the construction of an official house of worship must be approved in advance by the Orthodox Church.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

In fact, the majority religion in Greece is the Eastern Orthodox Church (94%).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Tourism In 2004, Greece ranked 12th as an international tourism destination. 14.18 million tourists visited the country, mainly to watch the Summer Olympics.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Prehistoric History The area around Attica was inhabited since Upper Paleolithic times (30,000—10,000 BC), but archaeological evidence can only show that small caves around the “Acropolis of Athens” and the springs of “Klepsythra” were used in Neolithic times (3000—2800 BC).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

It was in this area of Greece that European culture first emerged, starting with the “Cycladic” civilization of the Aegean Sea archipelago around 3000 BC, the “Minoan” civilization on the island of Crete (2700—1500 BC) and the “Mycenaean Greece” civilization in the main lands (1900—1100 BC).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The period between 1200 and 800 BC known as the “Greek Dark Ages” is thought to be after the attacks of the Dorians, which ended the Mycenean epoch.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Two notable works of Greek literature, Homer's Illiad and Odyssey, were written in this epoch.jmpl|Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens as a classical Greek emblem.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

At the end of the Greek dark ages, there appeared various countries and city-states throughout the Greek peninsula up to the Black Sea coast, Magna Grecia (Southern Italy) and Anatolia (Asia Minor/Asia Minor), reaching a high level of prosperity with rapid cultural development, such as evidence relics of architecture, drama, science and philosophy, which are preserved in a democratic environment.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

However, because it is not a unity, there are frequent conflicts between small countries in Greece.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The most severe was the Peloponnesian War, as it marked the breakdown of the Kingdom of Athena as an important ruler in Greece.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

In 500 BC, the Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire) took control of the region.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Aleksander the Great Kingdom of Aleksander the Great stretched starting from Greece on the west through to Pakistan to the east and Egypt to the south, before dying suddenly in 323 BC.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

After his death, the kingdom was split into a number of small states, eventually becoming 4 leading nations: 1.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt (south) 2.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Seleucic Empire in Persia (east) 3.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor (north) 4.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

Kingdom of Macedonia in Greece (west).


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The Byzantine Empire of the Byzantine Empire lasted more than 1000 years, starting in the 4th century AD until 1453.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

During its foundation, it was one important force in the economic, cultural and military fields in Europe.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

The Ottoman Empire of the Ottoman Empire began to lampoon Greek territory in the late 14th century.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

By the time Istanbul (Constatinople) fell in 1453, many territories of the Byzantine Empire, including its second largest city (which is now the second largest city in modern Greece), Thessaloniki, were already seized by the Ottoman kingdom.


Question: Vast blessings of the territory of Greece

Hellenic

By the 1500s most of Greece existed under Ottoman rule, including Cyprus (seized in 1571) and Crete (seized in 1670).