Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

On February 25, 1956, Khrushchev surprised delegates in the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party by denouncing Stalin's crimes. [113]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

As part of his de-Stalinization campaign, he stated that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin's policies was to acknowledge the mistakes he made in the past. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

On 18 November 1956, while making a speech to Western ambassadors in a reception at the Polish embassy in Moscow, Khrushchev expressed his famous sentence: “Whether you guys like it or not, history is on our side.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

We will bury you”, this statement surprised all the guests present. [114]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Khrushchev later claimed that he was not talking about nuclear war, but rather about the victory of communism over capitalism. [115]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1961, Khrushchev stated: “even if the Soviet Union is behind the West, within a decade the housing shortage will disappear, consumer goods will be abundant, and in two decades, the construction of communist societies in the USSR will be completed”. [116]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Eisenhower's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated the “New Look” policy as a new containment (containment) strategy, which called for the U.S. to rely more on nuclear weapons to fight its enemies in wartime. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Dulles also called for a doctrine of “massive retaliation” and told the U.S. not to respond to any Soviet aggression.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

For example, because the Soviets had nuclear superiority, Eisenhower, under threat from Khrushchev, refused to intervene in the Suez Crisis in the Middle East in 1956. [16]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Warsaw Pact and the Hungarian Revolution After Stalin's death in 1953, tensions took place slightly more casually, although the situation in Europe remained not yet conducive. [117]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviets, who had established a network of mutual aid agreements within the Eastern Bloc in 1949, [118] also formed a formal alliance to complete it, the Warsaw Pact in 1955. [31]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The 1956 Hungarian Revolution occurred shortly after Khrushchev abolished the power of Hungary's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi. [119]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In response to the uprising, [120] this new regime was formally dissolved by the secret police, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and promised to hold free general elections.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviet army began to storm. [121]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned, deported to the Soviet Union, [122] and more than 200,000 citizens fled out of Hungary. [123]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Hungary's leader Imre Nagy and others were executed after being processed in a secret trial. [124]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

From 1957 to 1961, Khrushchev publicly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, and capable of annihilating cities in America or Europe.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

However, Khrushchev rejected Stalin's belief in the inevitability of war and stated that his new goal was to “peacefully coexist”. [125]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This policy was in contrast to the Soviets of the Stalin era, where international class struggle meant that the two opposing camps were at inevitable conflict with communism that would prevail through global war.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Now, peace would allow capitalism to face its own collapse, [126] and also give time for the Soviets to improve their military capabilities, [127] which would remain for decades until the advent of Gorbachev's era of “new thinking”. [128]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Events in Hungary crippled the ideology of the world's Communist parties, especially in Western Europe, and there was a large decline in the number of party memberships.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Western and communist countries were dismayed by the brutal Soviet response. [129]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Communist parties in the West never recovered from the influence of the Hungarian Revolution in terms of party membership, a fact that was soon acknowledged by some parties, such as Yugoslav politician Milovan Djilas, who stated that: “the wounds incised by the Hungarian Revolution against communism were never true -properly healed”. [129]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Ultimatum of Berlin and European integration During November 1958, Khrushchev failed to turn all of Berlin into an “independent, demilitarized and free city”, this made the United States, Britain, and France given a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sector which was still occupied in West Berlin, or Khrushchev would transfer control of Western access rights to East Germany.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Khrushchev had earlier explained to Mao Zedong that “Berlin is the testicle of the West.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Whenever I wanted to make the West scream, then I would squeeze Berlin. “[130]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

NATO formally rejected this ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev retracted his ultimatum in the Geneva conference. [131]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

More broadly, one feature of the 1950s was the beginning of integration-Europe, which was a product of the Cold War that accommodated the politics, economics, and militaries of Truman and Eisenhower, but later this was seen as ambiguous policy, fearing that an independent Europe would perform a separate détente from the Soviet Union, which could be used to exacerbate the Western divide. [132]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Competition in the Third World Nationalist movements in some countries such as Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina are often allied with communist groups, or those considered by the West to be communist-assisted. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In this context, the United States and the Soviet Union further increased their competition to spread influence by means of seeking proxies in the Third World, and this coincided with the momentum of decolonization in the 1950s and early 1960s. [133] In addition, the Soviets continued to be disadvantaged by power- imperialist power. [134]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Both sides began shipping and selling arms to Third World countries to gain influence. [135]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The United States utilized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to infiltrate political upheaval in the Third World and also to support their allies. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1953, the CIA carried out Operation Ajax, a covert operation aimed at overthrowing Iran's prime minister, Mohammed Mossadegh.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Mosadegh who adhered to Non-Aligned principles has been a Middle Eastern nemesis for Britain since he nationalised the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1951.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Winston Churchill told the US that Mossadegh “increasingly turned to communism”. [136] [137] [138] [139] The pro-Western Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, later rose to office as an autocratic monarchist. [140]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

These new Shah policies among them banned the activities of the Tudeh communist party and the suppression of political dissent by SAVAK, the Shah's domestic security and intelligence agency.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Guatemala, a CIA-backed military coup succeeded in overthrowing left-wing president Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in 1954. [141]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The post-Arbenz government led by Carlos Castillo Armas restored all nationalized U.S.-owned property, formed the National Committee for Defense Against Communism, and decriticized the Preventive Criminal Law Against Communism at the request of the United States. [142]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Indonesian president, Soekarno, who adhered to Non-Aligned principles, was faced with a major threat as early as 1956, when some regional commanders began demanding autonomy from Jakarta.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After the mediation process failed, Soekarno took decisive action to remove those who disbelieved.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In February 1958, military commanders in Central Sumatra (Colonel Ahmad Husein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumaual) declared the formation of the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia-Permesta, aimed at overthrowing the Soekarno regime.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

They were joined by other civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, who opposed growing influence from the Indonesian Communist Party.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Because of their anti-communist rhetoric, their insurgency received the aid of weapons, funds, and other assistance from the CIA.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This was evident when an American plane piloted by Allen Lawrence Pope was shot down at Ambon in April 1958.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The central government responded to it by launching military invasions by sea and air via Padang and Manado.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In late 1958, the rebels were successfully defeated, and the remaining rebels surrendered in August 1961. [143]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Iraq, Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew the Hashemite monarchy in 1958 and built alliances with the Iraqi Communist Party and the Soviet Union. [144]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although the anti-communist Ba'ath Party was the dominant faction in Qasim's cabinet, [145] the U.S. began to worry that an uprising might inspire a “chain reaction” across the Middle East. [146]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Egypt and Syria also attempted to assassinate Qasim for their own reasons, [147] The CIA was also thought to have played a role in sending a poisoned handkerchief to Qasim (though it is still disputed). [148]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After a series of coups, the Ba'athist managed to seize power in 1968, likely with support from the KGB, [149] although the Iraqi military also carried out a coup. [150]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In the Republic of the Congo, newly independent from Belgium in June 1960, the CIA incited president Joseph Kasa-Vubu to fire Prime Minister-elect Patrice Lumumba and dissolve Lumumba's cabinet in September. [151]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In the Congo Crisis that ensued thereafter, the CIA supported Colonel Mobutu by mobilizing his forces to seize power through a military coup. [151]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Guiana Britain, the left-leaning People's Progressive Party (PPP) candidate, Cheddi Jagan, won the position of chief minister in the colonial general election held in 1953, but was quickly forced to resign his post after a suspension from Britain Raya still has authority to the constitution of the country. [152]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Humiliated by Jagan's supposedly Marxist landslide victory, Britain imprisoned the PPP chairman in 1955 and engineered a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues. [153]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Jagan again won colonial elections in 1957 and 1961.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The United States pressured Britain to delay granting independence to the Guianas until Jagan's political bow had been identified. [154]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Being blighted by the communist guerrilla war demanding Vietnamese independence, France agreed to negotiations with the Vietnamese communists.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In the Geneva Conference, a peace treaty was signed, and Vietnam was divided into a pro-Soviet North Vietnam and a pro-Western South Vietnam.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Between 1954 and 1961, the United States dispatched economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam's pro-Western regime in blocking attempts by communists intending to destabilize it. [16]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Many developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America are resisting pressure to side with either bloc.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1955, during the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third World countries decided to exit the Cold War. [155]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Consesus set in Bandung reached its peak with the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement based in Belgrade in 1961. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, Khrushchev expanded Moscow's policy by establishing relations with India and other neutral countries.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The independence movement in the Third World changed the post-war world order to become more pluralistic with the implementation of decolonization for African and Middle Eastern countries and the spirit of nationalism also increased in Asia and Latin America. [16]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Sino-Soviet split and Space Race The period after 1956 was marked by serious setbacks for the Soviet Union, especially the breakup of the Chinese-Soviet alliance, which began with the Sino-Soviet split.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Mao defended Stalin when Khrushchev criticized him after his death in 1956, and considered the new Soviet leader a “shallow novice”, Mao also accused him of having lost the revolutionary side. [156]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, Khrushchev, who was annoyed at Mao's anti-nuclear war stance, called the Chinese leader a “crazy man to the throne”. [157]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After that happened, Khrushchev made various attempts to re-establish an alliance with China, but Mao rejected each of his proposals. [156]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This Chinese-Soviet hostility eventually spilled over in an intra-communist propaganda war. [158]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Subsequently, the Soviets began to focus on the fierce competition with China to fight for a position as the leader of the world communist movement. [159]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Driven by nuclear weapons, the United States and the Soviet Union began competing to build nuclear arsenals and develop long-range weapons that they could use to attack each other. [31]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the first intercontinental ballistic control bullet (ICBM), [160] and in October, the Soviets launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik. [161]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This launch of Sputnik marked the beginning of the Space Race between the Soviets and the United States.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This rivalry culminated with the Apollo landing on the Moon, which astronaut Frank Borman described as “a battle in the Cold War”. [162]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cuban Revolution and the Bay of Pigs Invasion In Cuba, the 26 July Movement successfully seized power in January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose regime was unpopular and not condoned by the Eisenhower administration. [163]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista's downfall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting with Cuban revolutionary youth leader Fidel Castro in April, and ordered Vice President Richard Nixon to hold a meeting with Castro at his residence. [164]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Eisenhower wasn't sure, whether Castro was a communist or not.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Eisenhower also opposed Cubans' efforts to reduce their economic dependence on the United States. [165]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Cuba began negotiating arms purchases with Eastern Europe in March 1960. [166]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The month of January 1961, shortly before stepping down from office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In April 1961, the newly elected American President, John F. Kennedy, with assistance from the CIA, failed to invade the islands of Playa Girón and Playa Larga in Las Villas Province—a failure that embarrassed the United States in the eyes of the world. [165]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Castro responded by adopting a sense of Marxism-Leninism, and the Soviets promised to provide further support to Cuba. [165]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The 1961 Berlin crisis The 1961 Berlin crisis was the last major incident to occur in the Cold War period related to the status of Berlin and the condition of post-World War II Germany.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In the early 1950s, the Soviet approach on the policy of restricting emigration was emulated by most other Eastern Bloc countries. [167]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

However, hundreds of thousands of East German citizens emigrated to West Germany each year through the “gaps” contained in the system between East Berlin and West Berlin and with assistance from Allied forces in West Germany. [168]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Emigration led to a potentially moving of human resources such as among educated professionals from East Germany to West Germany, almost 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961. [169]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In June, the Soviet Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Allied forces from West Berlin. [170]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The request was denied, and on 13 August, East Germany erected a barbed wire barrier which later its construction expanded to later form the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the “gap” between the two areas. [171]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cuban Missile Crisis and the overthrow of Khrushchev After the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Kennedy continued to seek ways to overthrow Castro, Kennedy and his administration experimented secretly with facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Significant hopes were pinned on a secret program called the Cuba Project, devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In February 1962, Khrushchev learned of American plans against Cuba: the “Cuba project"—approved by the CIA and decreed the overthrow of the Cuban government in October, likely involving the American military—and Kennedy possibly ordered an assassination operation against Castro. [172]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In response, the Soviets prepared for the installation of its nuclear missiles in Cuba. [172]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Alarmed, Kennedy decided on various reactions to respond, and eventually responded to Soviet nuclear missile installations in Cuba by conducting a sea blockade and giving an ultimatum to the Soviets.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Khrushchev backed away from the confrontation, and the Soviet Union dismantled its missiles in exchange for an American promise to no longer attack Cuba. [173]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cuban Missile Crisis (October—November 1962) brought the world closer to the direction of nuclear war than ever before. [174]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Furthermore, the event also demonstrated the concept of mutual assurance of the danger of destruction, that superpowers were not prepared to use their nuclear weapons, fearing total global destruction due to mutual revenge. [175]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The impact of this crisis led to the first attempt to limit the nuclear arms race by disarmament and improvement of relations, [117] although efforts to prevent the eruption of nuclear war have been established since 1961 through the Antarctic Treaty. [176]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin associates succeeded in overthrowing him, but still allowed him to retire peacefully. [177]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Khrushchev was accused of ruling harshly and incompetence, he was also considered to have destroyed the Soviet agricultural sector and brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. [177]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Khrushchev is also said to have embarrassed the communist world when he inaugurated the construction of the Berlin Wall, which was considered a public humiliation for Marxism-Leninism. [177]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Nikita Khrushchev's position of office was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev as leader of the Communist Party and while Alexei Kosygin occupied the Prime Minister's seat.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Confrontation amid détente (1962—1979) In the period of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations, the world no longer divided into two large, conflicting blocs. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan quickly recovered from the devastation of World War II and began to experience strong economic growth throughout the 1950s and 1960s, with GDP per capita that was almost close to that of the United States, whereas the Eastern Bloc economy experienced stagnation. [70] [178] As a result of the 1973 oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of the Third World by establishing organizations such as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Non-Aligned Movement, Third World countries have more room to proclaimed their independence and increasingly demonstrated that they were resilient to pressure from superpowers. [98]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, the Soviets were forced to turn its attention to internal issues such as economic problems in the country. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

During this period, Soviet leaders such as Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin began to apply a détente approach. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The resignation of France from NATO The sustainability of NATO already faced challenges at the beginning of its history, crises occurred during Charles de Gaulle's leadership of France in 1958 onwards.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

De Gaulle protests over the strong role of the United States in the organization and is jealous over the “privileged relationship” between the United States and Great Britain.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In a memo transmitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on September 17, 1958, he argued for forming a triad of directorates that would position France on equal standing with the United States and Great Britain, and also the expansion of NATO's coverage into geographical areas of interest with France, such as French Algeria, whose rebellion was supported by France. [179]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Because the response given was unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began to develop the French nuclear antidote independently and in 1966, France withdrew from NATO, followed by the expulsion of all NATO troops from mainland France. [180]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Invasion of Czechoslovakia In 1968, the period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia, dubbed the Prague Spring, took place with various actions, among them the liberalization “Program of Action”, which demanded the expansion of freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, also suppression economy on consumer goods, the possibility of a multi-party system, limiting the power of the secret police, [181] [182] and the possibility of Czechoslovakia to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. [183]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In answer to the Prague Spring action, the Soviet army along with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, overran Czechoslovakia. [184]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, about 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks fled, and the total eventually reached 300,000 inhabitants. [185]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This invasion sparked violent protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and also from communist parties in Western Europe. [186]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Brezhnev Doctrine In September 1968, in his speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish Workers' Union Party, a month after invading Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev delivered the Brezhnev Doctrine; which claimed that “our right to violate the sovereignty of any country if anyone seeks to replacing Marxism-Leninism with capitalism”.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In his speech, Brezhnev stated: [183] “When forces hostile to socialism try to convert the development of a particular socialist state into capitalism, it is not only a problem for the country concerned, but also a common problem of all countries socialist.”


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The doctrine was backwarded by the failure of Marxism—Leninism in improving welfare in countries such as Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which suffered declines in living standards contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and other Western European countries. [187]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Crisis in the Third World In late April 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson landed 22,000 of his soldiers in the Dominican Republic and then occupied it for one year through an invasion coded Operation Power Pack.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The operation was carried out to stem the threat of spreading Cuban-style revolutions in Latin America. [16]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Presidential elections were held in 1966, which resulted in a victory for conservative Joaquín Balaguer.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although Balaguer had the support of elite sectors and peasant groups, his political opponent from the PRD party, former president Juan Bosch, did not actively campaign. [188]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

PRD activists were crippled with violence by Dominican police and armed forces. [188]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Indonesia, hardline anti-communist General Soeharto grabbed control of government from his predecessor, Soekarno, and then began to establish the “New Order”.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

From 1965 to 1966, the Indonesian military committed mass killings of about half a million members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other left-wing organizations. [189]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The escalating ongoing conflict between South Vietnamese leader Ngô Đình Diệm and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) led Johnson to dispatch 575,000 American troops to Southeast Asia to cripple the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the War Vietnam, but these policies cost a lot and weakened the U.S. economy, and in 1975, this crisis culminated with the failure of the United States.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The world views this event as a humiliating defeat for a most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's poorest nations. [16]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

North Vietnam received Soviet approval to start the war in 1959.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviet Union sent 15,000 military advisors and $450 million in aid to North Vietnam during the war, while China sent 320,000 troops and $180 million in aid. [190]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Chile, Socialist Party candidate Salvador Allende won the 1970 presidential election, becoming the first democratically elected Marxist to become president in American states. [191]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

General Augusto Pinochet carried out a coup against the government on September 11, 1973 and quickly ambled all political power into a military dictatorship, this action was condoned by the US.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The economic Allende reforms were condoned and left-wing opponents were killed or interned in internment camps under direction from the Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA).


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, Operation Condor Bird in South America—used by dictators in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay to suppress dissent with the left wing—also received support from the United States, and (sometimes accurately) it was also thought that there was also a result of Cuba or the Soviets behind the opposition movement. [192]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The United States was also unhappy when Jamaica began to establish closer ties with the Cuban government after the election of Michael Manley in 1972. [193]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The United States responded to it by funding Manley's political opponents, encouraging rebellion within the body of the Jamaican army, and hiring mercenaries to oppose Manley's rule. [153]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Violence also ensued.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The situation in the Middle East continues to be a source of dispute.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Egypt, which received much arms aid and economic aid from the Soviet Union, was a troublesome Soviet client.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Compelled to, the Soviet Union was obliged to assist Egypt in the Six-Day War (by sending military advisers and technicians) and the War of Attribution (by sending pilots and aircraft) to fight pro-Western Israel. [194]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Alongside Egyptian defections, from previously pro-Soviet to pro-American in 1972 (under the leadership of Anwar El Sadat), [195] rumors of Soviet intervention in the Yom Kippur War in 1973 led to massive American army dispatches and threatened to smash détente. [196]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although in the pre-Sadat era Egypt was the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets also had success in establishing close ties with communists in South Yemen, as well as the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq. [195]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviets directly sided with and assisted the Palestinians in dealing with conflict with Israel, including support for Yasser Arafat and the Palestine Liberation Organization. [197]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

From 1973—1975, the CIA colluded with the Iranian government to finance and arm Kurdish rebels in the Second Iraq—Kurdish War with the aim of disabling Iraqi leader Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

When Iran and Iraq signed the Algeria Agreement in 1975, support for Iran also ceased. [198]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Africa, the Somali military led by Mohamed Siad Barre staged a bloodless coup in 1969 and established the socialist-savvy Somali Democratic Republic.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviet Union pledged to support Somalia.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Four years later, the pro-American Emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie was overthrown in a 1974 coup by the Derg group, a pro-Soviet radical military group led by Mengistu Haile Mariam.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Mariem established relations with Cuba and the Soviets. [199]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

As warfare between Somalia and Ethiopia broke out in 1977-1978, Barre lost Soviet support and later allied with the United States.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cuban army also played a role in this war by siding with Ethiopia. [199]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Carnation Revolution in Portuguese in 1974 which resisted the authoritary of Estado Novo made the Portuguese return to a multi-party system and simultaneously facilitated the independence of Portuguese colonies in Angola and East Timor.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Africa, Angolan rebels fought a multi-factional war of independence opposed to Portuguese rule since 1961, after the war was over, the two-decade war replaced the anti-colonial war, which was characterized by warfare between the communist Angolan Liberation People's Movement (MPLA), which was supported by Cuba and the Soviets, with the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), which was supported by the United States, the People's Republic of China, and the Mobutu administration in Zaire.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The US, South Africa's apartheid administration, and several other African countries also supported a third faction, the National Union for the Full Independence of Angola (UNITA).


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Without consulting the Soviets, Cuba dispatched its soldiers to fight alongside the MPLA. [199]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

South Africa's apartheid government also dispatched soldiers to assist UNITA, but the MPLA was up-handed because it was supported by Cuba and the Soviets. [199]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In Southeast Asia, the colony of East Timor unilaterally proclaimed its independence from the Portuguese under the left wing Fretilin in November 1975.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

With support from Australia and the United States, Soeharto invaded East Timor in December—beginning Indonesia's occupation of East Timor for a quarter century. [200]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam invaded and occupied parts of Cambodia for use as a military base, which was also instrumental in triggering the outbreak of the Cambodian Civil War between the pro-American government of Lon Nol and the Maoist Khmer Rouge rebels.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Documents uncovered from Soviet archives reveal that the North Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1970 was carried out at the request of the Khmer Rouge after negotiating with Nuon Chea. [201]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The U.S. and South Vietnam responded to it by waging bombing campaigns and ground attacks, the effects of these operations are still debated by historians. [202]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Under Pol Pot's leadership, the Khmer Rouge massacred 1-3 million, out of 8.4 million in Cambodia's total population, in the killing fields. [203] [204] [205] Sociologist Martin Shaw describes these atrocities as “the purest genocide of the Cold War era”. [206]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Vietnam overthrew Pol Pot in 1979 and formed a puppet government under the leadership of Heng Samrin.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Improvement of Chinese-American relations As a result of the Sino-Soviet split, tensions lasting along the Chinese-Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, and United States President Richard Nixon decided to take advantage of the conflict as a tool to shift balance of power toward the West in the Cold War. [207]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

China also sought to improve relations with the United States in its efforts to take advantage of the Soviets.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In February 1972, Nixon announced the restoration of relations with China. [208]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

He paid a visit to Beijing and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

At that time, the Soviet Union's nuclear resources had been on par with the United States. The Vietnam War had also weakened American influence in the Third World and cooled its relations with Western Europe. [209]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although indirect conflict between the two superpowers in the Cold War continued until the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions slowly began to ease. [117]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Nixon, Brezhnev, détente, and the Shooting of Korean Air Lines Flight 902 After his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow. [210]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Strategic Arms Restriction (SALT) talks between the two parties resulted in two agreements on surveillance of weapons use, namely SALT I, the first comprehensive arms restriction pact signed by both superpowers, [211] and the Anti-Ballistic Controlled Bullet Tract, which regulating the restriction of anti-ballistic control bullet systems used to defend territory against missile-carrying nuclear weapons.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

It aims to limit the development of anti-ballistic controlled bullets and expensive nuclear missiles. [70]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Nixon and Brezhnev announced a new era of “peacefully coexisting” and built a new relationship approach called détente (appeasement of tension) between the two superpowers.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, Brezhnev sought to rectify the Soviet economy which was in decline due to the size of military expenditures. [16]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic relations, [16] of them by entering into agreements in order to increase trade activity.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

As a result of their talks, détente replaced the era of hostilities from the Cold War and the two countries could coexist. [210]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, the development of U.S. and Soviet relations also coincided with the “Ostpolitik” of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt. [186]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Another treaty passed to stabilize the situation in Europe was the Helsinki Agreement, signed at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975. [212]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Deteriorating relations in the late 1970s In the 1970s, the KGB, headed by Yuri Andropov, continued to suppress well-known critics who criticized the Soviet leadership such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov. [213]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

During this period of détente, indirect conflicts between the two superpowers still continued to occur in the Third World, particularly in political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia, and Angola. [214]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

President Jimmy Carter attempted to establish further restrictions on the armaments race by authorizing SALT II in 1979, [215] but this attempt was undermined by other events of that year, namely the Iranian Revolution supported by the KGB, [216] The Nicaraguan Revolution to overthrow Pro-US regime, and the most that makes the US beaver; Soviet intervention in the Afghan War in December. [16]”


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Second Cold War” (1979—1985) The term “Second Cold War” refers to a period of re-escalating Cold War tensions and conflicts between the two sides in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the United States and the Soviet Union and each of them became more militaristic. [12]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Diggins revealed: “Reagan deployed everything to fight in the 'Second Cold War' by supporting counter-insurgencies in the Third World. “[217]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

While Cox stated: “The intensity of 'Second Cold War' is as great as its short duration. “[218]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Soviet-Afghan War In April 1978, the communist-leaning Afghan People's Democracy Party (PDPA) seized power over Afghanistan through the Saur Revolution.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In a matter of months, opponents of communist rule waged an insurgency in eastern Afghanistan, which quickly developed into a civil war between mujahideen guerrillas against government soldiers.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Pakistani government facilitated the insurgents with secret training centers, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA administration. [219]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, increasing friction between competing factions in the PDPA—the dominant Khalq faction and the more moderate Parcham—led to the dismissal of cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami's military officers under the pretext of a coup against Parchami.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In mid-1979, the United States began a secret program to aid the mujahideen. [220]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a PDPA coup orchestrated by his fellow Khalq member named Hafizullah Amin, who later became president.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Amin was killed by Soviet special forces in December 1979.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After his death, a government organized by the Soviets, under the leadership of Babrak Karmal, filled the power vacuum.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Soviet forces were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under the rule of Karmal, who had become a puppet of the Soviets.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

As a result, the Soviets were directly involved in what later became a domestic war in Afghanistan. [221]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Carter responded to the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan by pulling back the SALT II treaty from the Senate, placing an embargo in shipments of grain and technological goods on the Soviet Union, as well as increasing military spending.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The United States also staged a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Carter stated that Soviet actions constituted “the most serious threat to peace during the Second Cold War”. [222]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Reagan and Thatcher In January 1977, four years before becoming president, Ronald Reagan revealed in his conversation with Richard V. Allen, regarding his basic expectations related to the Cold War: “My idea regarding American policy toward the Soviet Union was simple, and some people would call it very simple, ie: We win and they lose.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

What do you think?”. [223]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1980, Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After his victory, he vowed to increase the military budget and confront the Soviets anywhere. [224]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Both Reagan and the new Prime Minister of the Exchequer, Margaret Thatcher, both denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Reagan called the Soviet Union an “evil empire” and predicted that communism would disintegrate into “the ash heap of history”. [225]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although anti-American sentiment in Iran after the Iranian Revolution increased, the Reagan administration nonetheless reached out to the anti-communist government of Ayatollah Khomeini in its efforts to recruit a theocracy for America in the 1980s. CIA Director William Casey described the Khomeini administration as an administration that was “shaky and [perhaps] in its movement toward truth...


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The US had almost no cards to play; while the USSR had many cards. “[226]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

One method that America does to support Iran is by selling arms in secret.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1983, the CIA released a long list of Iranian communists and other left-wing activists suspected of working within the Khomeini administration. [227]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

A special commission later reported that the list was drawn up to take “measures, including mass executions, to eliminate all pro-Soviet infrastructure in Iran. “[227]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

By early 1985, Reagan's anti-communist principles had evolved into a stance known as the Reagan Doctrine—for which, in addition to incarceration, also formulated additional rights to subvert the existing communist government. [228]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In addition to continuing Carter's policy of supporting opponents of Islam in resisting the Soviets and the PDPA in Afghanistan, the CIA also sought to weaken the Soviet Union by promoting Islamic politics in the predominantly Islamic region of Soviet Central Asia. [229]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In addition, the CIA encouraged the anti-communist ISI in Pakistan to be willing to train Muslims from around the world to participate in jihad against the Soviet Union. [229]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Solidarity movement and military emergency in Poland The visit of Pope John Paul II to his country of birth, Poland, in 1979 has spurred a spiritual and nationalist awakening that sparked the birth of solidarity movements and the spirit of anti-communism.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This is thought to have been the cause of an assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II two years later. [230]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In December 1981, Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis in Poland by imposing a period of military emergency.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

To respond, Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland. [231]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Mikhail Suslov, a top ideologue in the Kremlin, suggested that the Soviet leader would not intervene if Poland fell under the control of the Solidarity movement, fearing that it would inflict even heavier economic sanctions, meaning it would be a catastrophe for the Soviet economy. [231]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Soviet and U.S. economic and military issues Moscow had built up military resources that consumed 25 percent of the USSR's gross national product, at the expense of consumer goods and investment in the civilian sector. [232]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War competitions was further aggravated by structural problems in the Soviet economic system, [233] which had economic stagnation for a decade in the final years of Brezhnev's government.jmpl|left|300px|Olympic boycott Moscow 1980 (blue) and 1984 Los Angeles Olympics (red).


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military interests, but largely to support the interests of the major parties and the state bureaucracy, which depended on the military sector to support their power and privileges. [234]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The military of the Soviet Union was the largest military in the world in terms of the number and type of weapons, the number of soldiers, and the number of military bases they had. [235]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

However, the quantitative advantage held by the Soviet military was often kept secret of its existence, so the Eastern Bloc was dramatically left behind by the West. [236]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

By the early 1980s, the Soviet Union had built up weaponry and military forces that exceeded that of the United States.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Soon after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, President Carter began a massive build-up of the United States military.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

These efforts were further intensified by the Reagan administration, which increased military spending from 5.3 percent/total GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986, [237] the largest military budget amount throughout United States history. [238]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Tensions continued to rise in the early 1980s when Reagan reactivated the B-1 Lancer program previously canceled by the Carter administration, manufactured the LGM-118 Peacekeeper, [239] installed U.S. cruise missiles in Europe, and announced the Defense Initiative Strategy experimental program, dubbed “Star Wars” by the media, namely a defense program to shoot down enemy missiles in the midst of its flight. [240]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Backed by rising tensions between the Soviets and the United States, as well as the installation of Soviet-owned RSD-10 Pioneer ballistic missiles leading to Western Europe, NATO decided—under the encouragement of President Carter—to install cruise missiles and the U.S.-owned MGM-31 Pershing in Europe, especially in West Germany. [241]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

These missiles are placed with striking distance, just 10 minutes away from Moscow. [242]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After Reagan's military build-up was complete, the Soviets did not respond by developing their military resources even greater because Soviet military expenditures were already enormous. [243]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The size of the Soviet military budget resulted in inefficient development within the manufacturing and agricultural sectors, which eventually became a heavy burden on the Soviet economy. [244]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

At the same time, oil production in Saudi Arabia increased, [245] even oil production in non-OPEC countries also increased in the period, including the Soviets. [246]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

These developments contributed to the 1980s oil flood phenomenon affecting the Soviet Union.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Oil began to become the main source of Soviet export revenue. [232] [244] However, the headwinds of the command economy, [247] falling oil prices, and permanent military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation. [244]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

On September 1, 1983, the Soviet Union shot down Korean Air Flight 007, a Boeing 747 aircraft carrying 269 passengers, including Congressman Larry McDonald.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The aircraft was shot at for violating Soviet airspace by passing over the west coast of Sakhalin Island, near the Moneron Islands—actions that Reagan deemed a “massacre”.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This Soviet action further increased support for the US in order to quickly advance its military. [248]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

NATO held the Able Archer 83 military exercise in November 1983, which was a simulation of a nuclear launch in real terms.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

These events were touted as the most dangerous moment for the world since the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Once the Soviet leader understood the intent of the military exercise, it was decided that nuclear war was approaching. [249]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

U.S. public disapproval of U.S. interference in other countries' conflicts has been ongoing since the end of the Vietnam War. [250]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Reagan administration emphasized counter-insurgency and quick settlement tactics in interfering in foreign conflicts. [250]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the Lebanese Civil War, invaded Grenada, bombed Libya, and supported the Contras movement in Central America—anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the pro-Soviet Sandinista government in Nicaragua. [98]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Reagan's interventions on Grenada and Libya received support from the U.S. public, but his support of the Contras invited controversy. [251]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Meanwhile, the Soviets themselves incurred high costs in facilitating their intervention against foreigners.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although Brezhnev believed in 1979 that the Soviet-Afghan War would be short-lived, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the U.S. and other countries, inflamed fierce resistance to the invasion. [252]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Kremlin dispatched nearly 100,000 troops to support the puppet regime in Afghanistan, dubbed by outside observers with the “Soviet 'Vietnam' war”. [252]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

However, the impact of this Afghan war was much more severe for the Soviets than the impact of the Vietnam War for the United States, as this conflict also coincided with a period of chaos and internal crises in the Soviet bureaucracy and economy. [253]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

A senior official in the US State Department predicated in the early 1980s, he stated that “the invasion that resulted in a domestic crisis for the Soviets... perhaps it was the law of thermodynamics of entropy... that stuck with the Soviet system, which now seems more expends energy to maintain his balance rather than to fix it.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

We can see a period of foreign awakening at a time of internal collapse”. [254] [255] The last years (1985—1991) of Gorbachev's Reforms After March 11, 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the fifth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to replace Konstantin Chernenko who died.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

By the time Mikhail Gorbachev, who was relatively young, became General Secretary in 1985, [225] the Soviet economy was stagnating and experiencing a sharp decline in foreign currency receipts due to falling world oil prices in the 1980s. [256] This problem forced Gorbachev to took steps to reawaken the Soviet downturn. [256]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Gorbachev stated that in order to resurrect the Soviets, profound structural changes were needed.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In June 1987, Gorbachev announced his reform agenda called perestroika or restructuring. [257]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Perestroika allowed more effectively a system of production quotas, private ownership of businesses and also paved the way for foreign investors.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The move was intended to direct the country's resources from costly military financing to support the Cold War to the development of a more productive civilian sector. [257]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Despite emerging skepticism from Western countries, the new Soviet leader proved committed to improving the poor condition of the Soviet economy, instead of continuing an arms race with the West. [117] [258] To counter opponents of his reforms coming from internal party, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

This policy allowed increased freedom of the press and transparency of state institutions. [259]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Glasnost was intended to reduce corruption within the Communist Party body and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee. [260]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Glasnost also allowed increased contact between Soviet citizens and the Western World, in particular with the United States, which contributed to increased détente between the two countries. [261]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Improvement of relations In response to the Kremlin's new political and military concessions, Reagan agreed to reconvene negotiations with the Soviets related to economic issues and the arms race. [262]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The first talks were held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. [262]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In the negotiations, the two countries' leaders, accompanied by an interpreter, agreed to reduce nuclear arsenals in each country by 50 percent. [263]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The second talks, the Reykjavík High-Level Conference, were hosted in Iceland.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The negotiations proceeded smoothly until talks shifted toward Reagan's Defense Initiative Strategy that Gorbachev wanted to eliminate, but Reagan rejected. [264]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Negotiations ultimately failed, but in the third round of talks in 1987, both sides managed to produce a breakthrough with the signing of the Medium-Term Nuclear Force (INF) Tracts.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

These tracts abolish the presence of all nuclear weapons, ballistic missiles, and cruise missiles on both sides with distances between 500 and 5,500 kilometers along with their infrastructure. [265]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Tensions between East and West eased rapidly in the mid-1980s. In 1989, set in Moscow, Gorbachev and Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush, signed the START I treaty, which ended the arms race between the two countries. [266]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

During the following years, the Soviets were faced with economic collapse resulting from falling world oil prices and the size of military financing. [267]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Moreover, military stationing in its allied countries was recognized as irrelevant to the Soviets, and in 1987, the Soviets officially announced that it would not interfere again in the domestic affairs of its allied countries in Eastern Europe. [268]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan, [269] and a year later Gorbachev agreed to German reunification, [267] the only alternative to respond to the Tiananmen scenario. [270]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

When the Berlin Wall collapsed, the concept of “Common European Home” established by Gorbachev began to take shape. [271]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

On December 3, 1989, during the Malta High-Level Conference, Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush officially declared that the Cold War was over. [272]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

A year later, the two countries partnered in the Gulf War against Iraq. [273]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The faltering of the Soviet system In 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the verge of collapse.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

As a result of the loss of military support from the Soviets, the leaders of the communist countries of the Warsaw Pact also lost power. [269]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In the Soviet Union itself, glasnost policies weakened the ties that had so long united the Soviets. [268]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In February 1990, with the growing issue of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Communist Party leaders were forced to give up their powers that had endured for 73 years. [274]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

At the same time, the issue of independence sparked by glasnost further prompted Soviet states to secede from Moscow.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Baltic states began to withdraw from the Soviets completely. [275]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The 1989 wave of peaceful revolutions that swept through Central Europe and Eastern Europe razed Soviet communism in countries such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. [276]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Romania became the only Eastern Bloc country to violently overthrow communist power by executing its head of state. [277]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Dissolution of the Soviet Union Gorbachev's permissive attitude toward Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory, even Bush, who struggled to maintain friendly relations with the Soviets, condemned the killings in January 1991 in Latvia and Lithuania.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Bush warned that economic relations would be frozen if violence continued to occur. [278]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviet Union was fatally weakened by a failed coup in 1991 and the growing number of Soviet republicans, particularly in Russia, who threatened to secede from the Soviet Union.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Commonwealth of Independent States, established on 21 December 1991, was seen as a successor entity to the Soviet Union, but, according to Russian leaders, its aim was to “enable a civilized breakup” between the Soviet republics and also outweighed the leeway confederacy. [279]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Soviet Union was officially dissolved on December 25, 1991. [280]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Impact of JMPL|Ka|600px|NATO/CSTO After the Cold War, Russia as the main heir to the Soviet Union cut military spending drastically.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Economic restructuring caused millions of citizens throughout the Soviet Union to be unemployed. [281]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Whereas capitalist reforms resulted in severe recessions, more severe than those experienced by the US and Germany during the Great Depression. [282]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After its end, the Cold War still continues to affect the world. [12]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post-Cold War world was widely regarded as a unipolar world, leaving the United States as the world's only superpower. [283] [284] [285] [285] The Cold War also helped to defend the political role of the United States in the post-World War II world: In 1989 the US established military cooperation with 50 countries and had 526,000 [286] soldiers overseas spread across dozens of countries, with 326,000 contained in Europe (two-thirds of them in West Germany), [287] and about 130,000 contained in Asia (mainly in Japan and South Korea). [286]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cold War also marked the culmination of industrial-military development, especially in the United States, and massive military funding. [288]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The development of this military industry has had a major impact on the country concerned; helping to shape the country's community life, policy, and foreign relations. [289]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

United States military expenditures during the Cold War were estimated at around $8 trillion, while nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean War and Vietnam War. [290]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

It is difficult to estimate the number of casualties and losses on the part of the Soviets, but judging by the comparison of their gross national product, then the financial costs incurred by the Soviets during the Cold War were much greater than those incurred by the United States. [291]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In addition to the loss of civilian lives by ununiformed soldiers, millions of lives were also killed in proxy wars between the two superpowers in various parts of the world, especially in Southeast Asia. [292]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Most proxy wars and assistance to local conflicts also ended with the Cold War.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Inter-state wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as the number of refugees declined sharply in the post-Cold War years. [293]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

On the other hand, inter-state conflicts in the Third World were not completely erased post-Cold War.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Economic and social tensions that used to be exploited as “fuel” of the Cold War continue to take hold in the Third World. [12]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The failure of state control in a number of areas once controlled by the communist government has resulted in new civil and ethnic conflicts, especially in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. [12]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The end of the Cold War has delivered Eastern Europe during an era of economic growth and an increase in the number of liberal democracies, whereas in other parts of the world, such as in Afghanistan, independence followed by state failure. [12]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Historiography After the term “Cold War” was popularized to refer to post-World War II US-Soviet tensions, the interpretation of the origin of the conflict has become a source of debate among historians, political scientists, and journalists. [294]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

In particular, historians disagree as to who was responsible for the deterioration of Soviet-U.S. relations after World War II, and whether conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable or could have been avoided. [295]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Historians also disagree on what the exact defensiveness of the Cold War was, what was the source of the conflict, and how to decipher the pattern of action and reaction between the two sides. [12]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Although explanations of the origins of the Cold War conflicts in academic discussions take place complex and varied, some public schools set thinking on identifiable subjects.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Historians generally argue that there are three different approaches to the study of the Cold War, namely: the “orthodox” approach, “revisionism”, and “post-revisionism”. [288]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The “orthodox” approach states that the Soviet Union and its expansion into Eastern Europe was what triggered the blaze of the Cold War. [288]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

“Revisionist” circles consider that the United States is responsible for the post-World War II peace breakdown as it seeks to confront and isolate the Soviet Union before the end of World War II. [288]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Whereas “post-revisionists” viewed the Cold War as a more nuanced event, and sought to better balance over who was the responsible party in the Cold War. [288]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Most historiographies regarding the Cold War use two or the entirety of these approaches. [31]


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

See also Great Game of Imperialism United States Canada in Cold War Cold War (general term) Cold War (TV series) Culture during the Cold War Danube River Conference 1948 List of conferences of the Soviet Union—United States McCarthyism Foreign interventions Post-World War II economic expansion of the Soviet Empire A timeline of events in the Cold War Unethical human experiments in the United States of World War III Category:Cold War Footnotes Reference and advanced reading Davis, Simon, and Joseph Smith.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The A to Z of the Cold War (Scarecrow, 2005), encyclopedia focused on military aspects Haslam, Jonathan.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall (Yale University Press; 2011) 512 pages Hoffman, David E.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (2010) Judge, Edward H.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cold War: A Global History With Documents (2012) Leffler, Melvyn P. and Odd Arne Westad, eds.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cambridge History of the Cold War (3 vol, 2010) 2000pp; new essays by leading scholars Mastny, Vojtech.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cold War and Soviet insecurity: the Stalin years (1996) CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Pulitzer Prize Tucker, Spencer, ed. Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2008), world coverage Walker, Martin.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cold War: A History (1995), British perspective Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Zubok, Vladislav M.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (2008) Historiography and memory of Hopkins, Michael F. “Continuing Debate and New Approaches in Cold War History,” Historical Journal, Dec 2007, Vol. 50 Issue 4, pp 913—934, Isaac, Joel, and Duncan Bell, eds. Uncertain Empire: American History and the Idea of the Cold War (2012) Johnston, Gordon.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

“Revisited the Cultural Cold War,” Social History, Aug 2010, Vol. 35 Issue 3, pp 290—307 Nuti, Leopoldo, et al., eds. Europe and the End of the Cold War: A Reappraisal (2012) Wiener, Jon.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

How We Forgot the Cold War: A Historical Journey across America (2012) Primary source Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Hanhimaki, Jussi and Odd Arne Westad, eds.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts (Oxford University Press, 2003).


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

ISBN 0-19-927280-8.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Unknown parameter |unused_data= ignored (help), conference and forum at the JFK Library, Boston, October 12, 2009.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Four panels: “The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It”, “Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty”, “The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race”, and “Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency”.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

() Outlink Archive from the comparison of articles on Cold War topics in the Western and the Soviet press between 1945 and 1991 —This collection of declassified analytic monographs and reference aids, designated within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Directorate of Intelligence (DI) as the CAESAR, ESAU, and POLO series, highlights the CIA's efforts from the 1950s through the mid-1970s to pursue in-depth research on Soviet and Chinese internal politics and Sino-Soviet relations.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

The documents reflect the views of seasoned analysts who had followed closely their special areas of research and whose views were shaped in often heated debate.


Question: When was Mao Zedong born?

Cold War

Bibliographic News Educational Sources Category:Global conflicts Category:Historic times Category:Wars involving the United States Category:Wars involving the Soviet Union Category:20th Century Category:International relations


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Martin Luther, O.S.A. (German: [ˈmatiːn ˈlɪt] (listen);) [1] was a professor of theology, composer, priest, and monk [2] of German nationality, as well as an influential figure in the Protestant Reformation.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther became an opponent of some teachings and practices within the Roman Catholic Church.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He strongly disputed the Catholic view of indulgence as he understood it, that freedom from punishment due to sin could be bought with money.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther proposed an academic discussion around the practice and effectiveness of indulgences in his 95 Theses of his work of 1517.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His refusal to retract all the teachings in his writings at the request of Pope Leo X in 1520 and Holy Roman Emperor Karl V in 1521 at the Session of Worms resulted in his excommunication by the pope as well as his imminence as a lawbreaker by the emperor.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther taught that salvation and, consequently, eternal life are not obtained by good works, but are accepted by believers solely as free grace from God's mercy through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His theology challenged papal authority and office by teaching that the Bible was the only divinely revealed source of knowledge from God [3] and opposed sacerdotalism by viewing all Christians as holy priests. [4]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Those who identify themselves with these things, and all of Luther's broader teachings, are called Lutherans, although Luther insisted on Christian or Evangelical purely as acceptable names to call individuals who confess Christ.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His translation of the Bible into the German vernacular (rather than Latin) made the Bible more accessible to the laity, resulting in a tremendous impact on the church as well as German culture.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

This helped the development of the standard German version, added a number of principles to the art of translation, [5] and influenced the writing of an English translation, the Tyndale Bible. [6]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches. [7]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, became a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant spiritualists to marry. [8]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

In his last two works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards the Jews, writing that Jewish houses and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated, and their freedom restricted.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Condemned by almost all Lutheran denominations, those statements and their effect on antisemitism contributed to its controversial status. [9]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Early life The birth and education of Martin Luther was born to the couple Hans Luder (or Ludher, later Luther) [10] and Margarethe (née Lindemann) his wife on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Sachsen, which at that time was part of the Holy Roman Empire.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He was baptized the next day at the memorial feast of St. Martinus of Tours.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father became the business tenant of a number of smelters and copper mines [11] as well as serving as one of the four resident representatives in the local council.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Hans Luther was elected as a member of the city council in 1492. [12] [10] Martin Marty, a religious academician, described Luther's mother as a hardworking woman from the middle class and a descendant of a progeny and argued that Luther's later enemies were mistakenly describes her mother as a prostitute and a bathhouse servant. [10]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He had a number of brothers and sisters, and was known to be close to one of them, Jacob. [13]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Hans Luther had ambitions for himself and his family, as well as determined to watch Martin, his oldest son, become a lawyer.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He sent Martin to the Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he entered one school run by a lay schooner called the Brotherhood of Living Together, and Eisenach in 1498. [14]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

All three schools focused on the so-called “trivium”: grammar, rhetoric, and logic.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther then compared his education there to a purgatorium and hell. [15]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

In 1501, when he was 17, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beer house and a place of prostitution. [16]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He had to wake up every four o'clock in the morning for what he described as “a day of learning memorization and a gruelling time of spiritual exercises”. [16]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He earned his magister title in 1505. [17]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

In harmony with his father's wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the same university that year but soon he dropped out of college, in the belief that the law represented uncertainty. [17]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther sought assurance of life and felt interested in theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, and Gabriel Biel. [17]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He gained much influence from two of his tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious, even of the greatest thinkers, [17] and to test for himself everything based on experience. [18]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Philosophy proved unsatisfactory, as he thought it offered assurances around the use of reason or thought without alluding about loving God, which for Luther was the more important.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He felt that reason could not lead man to God, and he later developed a simultaneous love-hate relationship with Aristotle because of his emphasis on reason. [18]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

For Luther, reason can be used to question related matters of man and institution, but not God.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He believed that man could learn about God only through divine revelation, and so Scripture became increasingly important to him. [18]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He later attributed his decision to an event: on 2 July 1505, he returned to the university on horseback after a return journey home.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

When there was a rainstorm, lightning struck nearby.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He screamed, “Help!


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Santa Anna, I will be a monk!” , then he told his father that he feared death and divine judgment. [19] [20] He realized that his scream for help was a vow that he could never break.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He left law school, sold his books, and entered the Monastery of St. Augustine in Erfurt on 17 July 1505. [21]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

A friend attributed the decision to Luther's grief as a result of the rapture of two of his friends.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther himself seemed grieved at his decision to leave.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Those attending the farewell dinner escorted him to the door of the Black Klausura his destination.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

“Today you see me, and at a later date never again,” he said. [18]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His father was furious at what he saw as an extravagance to have given Luther an education. [22]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther's early and academic life dedicated himself to the Augustinian tarecat, devoting himself to the practice of fasting, prayer for hours, pilgrimages, and periodic confessions. [23]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther described this period of his life as one of spiritual despair.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He said: “I lost touch with Christ the Savior and the Comforter, and made Him the warden and executioner of my poor soul. “[24]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Johann von Staupitz, his superior, sought to divert Luther's mind from his continual contemplation of his sins to the services of Christ.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He taught that true repentance is not about punishment and swakarsa distribution, but a change of heart. [25]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

On 3 April 1507, Jerome Scultetus, Bishop of Brandenburg, ordained Luther in Erfurt Cathedral.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

In 1508, von Staupitz, the first dean of the newly founded University of Wittenberg, called Luther to teach theology. [26] [27] He earned a bachelor's degree in biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another bachelor's degree in Sententiae studies by Petrus Lombardus in 1509. [28]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

On 19 October 1512, he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Theology, and, on 21 October 1512, he was admitted to the senate of the faculty of theology at the University of Wittenberg, [29] replacing Staupitz's post as professor of theology. [30]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He was appointed to the provincial vicarists of Sachsen and Thüringen by his religious tarecate in 1515.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

This meant he needed to visit and supervise all eleven monasteries in his province. [31]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The beginning of the Protestant Reformation In 1516, Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar and papal commissioner for indulgences, was sent to Germany by the Roman Catholic Church to sell indulgences in order to raise money in order to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. [32]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Tetzel's experience as a preacher of indulgence, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht von Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, who needed to make a considerable contribution to the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome despite the utmost obligation to pay back the accumulated large benefits he has received.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The bishop received permission from Pope Leo X to hold the sale of a full indulgence (i.e. the complete abolition of the temporal punishment for sin) specifically, half of the proceeds obtained by Albrecht claimed to pay the costs of the benefit.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote a letter to his bishop, Albrecht von Brandenburg, protesting the sale of indulgences.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He attached in his letter one copy of Martin Luther's Debate on the Power and Effectiveness of Indulgences of his work, later known as 95 Theses.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Hans Hillerbrand wrote that Luther did not intend to oppose the Church, but viewed his debates as a scholarly objection to the practices of the Church, and therefore the tone of his writing was “seeking”, rather than dogmatic. [33]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Hillerbrand wrote that despite this there was an implication of challenge in a number of his theses, most notably in Thesis 86, which asked: “Why did the pope, whose wealth today outweigh the richest wealth of Crassus, built St. Peter's basilica with the money of believers the poor one and not with his own money?” [33]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther objected to one statement attributed to Johann Tetzel that “As soon as the coins in the cash chest tinkle, the soul from the purgatorium (also expressed as 'to heaven') comes out. “[34]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He insisted that, because forgiveness was bestowed from God solely, those who claimed that indulgence freed the purchasers from all punishment and bestowed them salvation were mistaken.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Christians, he argued, should not slack in following Christ because of such false assurances.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

After all, Tetzel's remarks were often seen as not representing Catholic teachings at that time about indulgence, but a reflection of Tetzel's capacity that exaggerated it.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

However, although Tetzel exaggerated it with regard to indulgences for those who have died, his teaching on indulgences for those who are still alive in the world is in line with the Catholic dogma that had prevailed in his day. [35]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

According to one report, Luther nailed 95 Theses of his work on the door of the Church of All Saints in Wittenberg on 31 October 1517.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Academics such as Walter Krämer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter, and Gerhard Prause have argued that the story of the building at the door has very little foundation of truth, although it has settled as one of the pillars of history. [36] [37] [38] The story was based on comments made Philipp Melanchthon, although it is thought that he himself was not in Wittenberg at the time. [39]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The aforementioned Latin-language thesis was printed at several locations in Germany in 1517.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

In January 1518, Luther's friends translated 95 Theses from Latin into German. [40]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

It was said that copies of 95 Theses had spread throughout Germany within two weeks and the spread had reached all of Europe within two months.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther's writings were widely circulated, even reaching France, England, and Italy by 1519.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The college students were rumored to crowd out Wittenberg to hear Luther speak.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He published a brief review of the Epistle to the Galatians and Works on his written Book of Psalms.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

This early part of Luther's career was one of the most creative and productive periods of his lifetime. [41]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Three of his best known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German State, On the Banishment of the Church to Babylon, and On the Freedom of a Christian.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Justification by faith alone From 1510 to 1520, Luther presented lectures on the Book of Psalms as well as the Epistle to the Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

When studying these parts of the Bible, he gained an understanding of the use of terms such as conciliation and truth (righteousness) by the Catholic Church in new ways.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He came to the belief that the Church was corrupt in its way and had lost sight of what he considered to be some of the central truths of Christianity.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Most important to Luther was the doctrine of justification— the act of God declaring true a sinner— by faith alone through God's grace or mercy.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift from God's mercy, which can be achieved through faith solely in Jesus as the Messiah. [42]”


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

This one and staunch rock, which we call the doctrine of justification”, he wrote, “is the central chapter of the whole Christian doctrine, which includes the understanding of all piety. “[43]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther came to the understanding that justification was the work of God entirely.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

These teachings of Luther were clearly expressed in his 1525 publication, De Servo Arbitrio (On the Absoreness of the Will), written in response to the De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (About free will: Discourse or Comparison) of the work of Desiderius Erasmus (1524).


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther based his position on the doctrine of predestination in Ephesians 2:8 —10 according to his understanding.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Opposing Catholic teachings that view believers' righteous actions carried out in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians fully accept such truths from outside themselves.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

According to him, such righteousness is not merely derived from Christ but is actually the righteousness of Christ, reckoned to Christians (not implanted into them) through faith. [44]”


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

That is why faith simply makes a person righteous and fulfills the [Torah] law,” he wrote.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

“Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the services of Christ. “[45]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

For Luther, faith was a gift or gift from God; the experience justified by faith was “as if I had been born again”.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His entry into Paradise was nothing but the discovery of the “righteousness of God"— a discovery that the “righteous” spoken of in the Bible (as in Romans 1:17) lived by faith. [46]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He explains his concept of “justification” in the Smalkald Chapters: The first and main chapter is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was resurrected again for our justification (Romans 3:24 —25).


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He himself was the Lamb of God who removed the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has inflicted upon him the evil of us all (Isaiah 53:6).


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

All have sinned and justified freely, without their own deeds and services, by His grace, through the redemption contained in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23 —25).


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

This needs to be believed.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

This cannot be obtained or achieved by any deed, law, or merit.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Wherefore it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us...


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Nothing from this chapter can be released or conquered, even if heaven and earth fall (Mark 13:31). [47]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther's rediscovery of “Christ and His salvation” was the first of two points that served as a cornerstone for the Protestant Reformation.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

His protest against selling indulgences was based on such. [48]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The schism with the papacy of Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, did not reply to Luther's letter containing 95 Theses.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He held an examination of the thesis to see the possibility of misdirection, and, in December 1517, forwarded it to Rome. [49]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

He was rumored to need income from indulgences to fulfill his obligations regarding a papal dispensation of his office covering more than one diocese.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther later wrote, “the pope was also involved, for half of it flowed to the construction of St Peter's Church in Rome”. [50]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Pope Leo X was accustomed to facing reformers and heretics, [51] and he responded “with great care as he should”. [52]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Over the following three years, he sent a series of representations and papal theologians in order to oppose Luther, which only further hardened the anti-pope theology that the reformist professed.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The first envoy, a Dominican theologian named Silvestro Mazzolini, contracted one case of heretics against Luther, whom the pope then summoned to Rome.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Friedrich III, Elector Sachsen, convinced the pope to have Luther examined in Augsburg, where the Imperial Session was held. [53]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

There, over a three-day period in October 1518, Luther made self-defense when faced with questions posed by the papal legatus, Cardinal Kayetanus.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The pope's right to proselytize indulgences is a staple of the debate between the two men. [54] [55] The circumstances in the hearings turned heated.


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Instead of simply writing his thesis, Luther's confrontation with the Church made him an enemy of the pope. [56]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

The initial instruction Kayetanus received was to restrain Luther if he would not retract his teaching, but the legatus did not. [57]


Question: What was the first book written by Martin Luther?

Martin Luther

Luther slipped away leaving the city at night, unbeknownst to Kayetanus. [58]