Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Language of the Roman Empire was Latin.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

According to Virgil, Latin was the source of unity and tradition of the Romans. [40]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Until the reign of Aleksander Severus (222—235), birth certificates and wills of Roman citizens had to be written in Latin. [41]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Latin was the official language of courts and militaries throughout the Empire, [42] but its use was not officially imposed upon peoples under Roman rule. [43]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This policy contradicted that carried out by Aleksander the Great, who aimed to make Greek the official language throughout his empire. [44]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

As a consequence of Aleksander's conquers, Koine Greek has become the language of promiscuity in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor. [45]”


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Linguistic border” divides Latin West and Greek East through the Balkan peninsula. [46] jmpl|upright=1.4|left|A papyrus from the 5th century bearing the text of Cicero's speech, written in Latin and Greek. [47]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Romans who attended elite education studied Greek as a literary language, and most of the upper class men were able to speak Greek. [48]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The emperors of the Julio-Klaudianus dynasty encouraged the correct and high-standard use of Latin (Latinity), a linguistic movement that in the modern world is known as Classical Latin, and preferred the use of Latin in official affairs. [49]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Klaudius attempted to limit the use of Greek, and even revoked the citizenship of those who did not master Latin.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Nonetheless, Klaudius, who mastered both languages, still spoke Greek when addressing Greek representatives in the Senate. [49]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Suetonius dubbed the Emperor “our bilingualist”. [50]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the Eastern Empire, official and court documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin. [51]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Side-by-side use of this language can be found in bilingual inscriptions, which are sometimes written back and forth between Greek and Latin. [52]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

After all the independent inhabitants of the Empire were given the right to choose the language they were about to speak in 212 AD, most Roman citizens did not master Latin, although they were still obliged to know at least punctuation, and Latin remained only a marker” apologetic”. [53]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Other reforms were made during the reign of emperor Diokletianus (284—305), who attempted to again make Latin the “language of power. “[54]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the early 6th century, the emperor Justinianus attempted to reaffirm the status of Latin as a legal language, although by then Latin no longer had a foothold as a language of promiscuity in the East. [55]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The regional language and linguistic heritage of JMPL|upright=1.5|Latin-Punisian bilingual inscriptions in the Leptis Magna theatre, Roman Africa (present-day Libya).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Studies show the existence of ongoing use of regional languages in addition to Greek and Latin, especially in Egypt, which is predominantly Coptic, and in military territories along the Rhine and Danube rivers.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman magistrates also showed concern for regional languages such as Punisian, Gallic, and Aramaic to ensure legal understanding and correct pronunciation of oaths. [56]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the province of Africa, Punisia was used as a coin legend during the reign of Tiberius (1st century AD), and Punian-language inscriptions appeared in public buildings in the 2nd century AD, some of which were bilingual with Latin. [57]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In Syria, Tadmur's army even used Aramaic dialects as inscriptions, contrary to rules establishing Latin as a military language. [58]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The papyrus of the Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of the application of multilingualism in the Roman Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This papyrus, named after a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dates back to 93-132 AD, mostly uses Aramaic (the local language) and is written in Greek script with Semitic and Latin influences. [59]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The dominance of Latin among the learned elite also hindered the continuity of the oral language, as almost all cultures within the Roman Empire were oral. [60]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the West, Latin, or its oral form referred to as Vulgar Latin, gradually replaced the Keltic and Italic languages that used to be rooted from the Indo-European language family.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The existence of syntax and vocabulary equation also makes it easier to adopt Latin. [61]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Basque language, which was not a branch of the Indo-European languages, managed to survive Latin domination in the Pyrenees region. [62]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

After the decentralization of political power in late antiquity, Latin evolved into a number of language clumps such as the Roman language, which includes Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, and Romanian.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

As an international language of education and literature, Latin has remained an active medium for expression in the field of diplomacy and intellectual development since Renaissance Humanism up to the 17th century, and within the field of law and among the Roman Catholic Church until recently. [63]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, the linguistic spread of this language in Eastern Romance was more complex.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The majority of the population of Greek-speakers lives in the islands and peninsulas of Greece, in western Anatolia, large cities, and in a small part of the coastal region. [64]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Like Greek and Latin, the Trakian language has its roots from Indo-European languages, as well as several languages in Anatolia that are currently extinct, attested through inscriptions dating back to the Imperial era. [65]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The diverse languages of Afro-Asia—especially Coptic in Egypt and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia—were irreplaceable by Greek.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In addition, the international use of Greek was one of the factors that played a role in the spread of Christianity, such as the use of Greek in the Epistles of Paul. [66]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The society of the Roman Empire was a highly multicultural empire, with an “admirable cohesive capacity” to create a sense of shared identity that encompassed diverse peoples within its political system for long periods of time. [67]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman efforts in building public monuments and communal spaces reserved for all citizens—such as forums, amphitheatres, race tracks and public baths—helped foster a sense of “romanness” (Romanness). [68]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman society had diverse and overlapping social hierarchies, which could not be accurately explained by the concept of “class” in modern times. [69]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The civil war that lasted for two decades before Augustus rose to power resulted in the people of Rome being in a situation of confusion and upheaval, [70] but did not directly impact the redistribution of wealth and social power.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

From the perspective of lower-class society, the crest is solely added to the social pyramid. [71]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Personalized relationships—patronation, friendship (amicitia), family, marriage—still influence the workings of politics and government, just as they did during the Republic. [72]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Nonetheless, during Nero's reign, it was unusual to find a former slave richer than an independent citizen, or a horseman more powerful than a senator. [73]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The blurring or diffusion of more rigid hierarchies in Republican times led to increased social mobility in Imperial times, [74] both upward and downward mobility, to levels that surpassed the well-documented social lives of other ancient peoples. [75]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Women, independent citizens, and slaves had the opportunity to leverage and exercise influence through means previously unavailable to them. [76]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Social life in the Roman Empire, especially for those with limited personal resources, was further helped by the proliferation of voluntary societies and fraternities (collegium and Sodales), which were formed for various purposes: professional and merchant guilds, veterans' groups, religious fraternities, drinking and dining clubs, [77] performing arts troupes, [78] and funeral organizers. [79]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Legal status According to jurist Gaius, the main difference in the Roman “individual law” was the classification of man into two statuses, namely independence (liberi) and slave (servi). [80]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The legal status of independent citizens can be further defined through their citizenship.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

At the beginning of the empire, only certain men were entitled to receive Roman citizenship status, allowing them to vote, run for government posts, and become the priesthood.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Most citizens have limited rights (ius Latinum, “Latin rights”), but are still entitled to legal protections and other rights that cannot be enjoyed by a stateless person.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Independent people who were not considered citizens but lived in Roman territory bear the status of peregrini, or non-Roman. [81]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In 212 AD, with the enactment of the decree Constitutio Antoniniana, Emperor Caracalla granted citizenship status to the entire independent population in the territory of the Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This legal egalitarianism requires revision from existing laws to distinguish between citizens and non-citizens. [82]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Women as legal entities Independent born Roman women were considered citizens, both in the Republic and in the Empire, but did not have suffrage, were not allowed to hold political office, or serve in the military.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The citizenship status of a mother determines the citizenship status of her children, as indicated in the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos (“children born to two Roman citizens”). [83]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman women remained using her surname (nomen) for life.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Children most often go by their father's name, but sometimes also take part of their mother's name, or even fully use the mother's name rather than the father's name. [84]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The arkais form of manus marriage when the woman was subject to her husband's orders had generally been abandoned by the Imperial era, and the married woman remained in possession of the entire estate she brought into her husband's house.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Technically, a woman remains under the legal authority of her father, even though she has moved into her husband's house, and when her father dies, then she is legally a free woman. [85]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This policy was one of the factors that made Roman women enjoy much better freedom when compared to other ancient cultures and even into modern times: [86] although she was legally responsible to her father, she was free from direct supervision in daily life, [87] and her husband had no legal force over her. [88]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the Romans, it became a pride for a woman who married only once in her life (univira); there was little social stigma attached to divorce, or re-marriage after a divorce or left dead husband. [89]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Daughters have the same inheritance rights as sons if their father dies without leaving a will. [90]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A mother in the Romans was also entitled to own personal wealth and sell it if she thought it was unsuitable, entitled to write her own will, and exert great influence to her children even when they were adults. [91]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

As part of the Augustan program to restore moral values and social order, moral legislation seeks to regulate women's behavior in order to promote"family values”.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Adultery, which became a private affair of the family during the time of the Republic, had been criminalized in Imperial times, [92] and was widely interpreted as “an illicit sex activity (stuprum) occurring between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a woman who is married to a man who is not her husband”. [93]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The ability to give birth was encouraged by the government: a woman who had given birth to three children was bestowed a symbolic award and granted greater legal freedom (ius trium liberorum).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Because of her legal status as citizens and the size of the level of emancipation, women in the Roman Empire could own their own property, perform labor contracts, and engage in business, [94] including shipping, manufacturing, and money-lending businesses.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Inscriptions found throughout the Empire inscribe the veneration of women as benefactors who funded public works, indicating that Roman women could amass and spend their own wealth; as an example, the construction of the Arch of the Sergii was funded by Salvia Postuma , a woman member of a noble family, and the largest building in the forum in Pompeii was funded by Eumachia, a female priest of Venus. [95]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slaves and laws By the time Augustus came to power, as many as 35 percent of Italy's citizens were slaves, [96] thus making Rome one of the five historic “slave cities”, of which slaves amounted to at least one-fifth of the total population and played an important role in the economy. [97 ]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributed to economic utility. [98]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In urban areas, slaves may be just as professional as a teacher, doctor, chef, and accountant, in addition to most untrained and skilled slaves working in households or factories.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied heavily on the exploitation of slaves.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Outside Italy, the number of slaves was estimated at 10 to 20 percent of the population, less common in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some areas of Greece.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The expansion of agricultural and industrial land by the Empire influenced slavery practices already in Roman provinces. [99]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although the institutions of slavery were thought to have already faded in the 3rd and 4th centuries, slavery remained an integral part of Roman society well into the 5th century.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slavery ceased gradually in the 6th and 7th centuries along with the decline of urban centers in the West and the disintegration of the Empire's economy leading to reduced demand for slave labor. [100]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The laws governing slavery in the Roman Empire were “very complicated”. [101]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no individual law.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

They could be subject to unusual corporal punishment imposed on citizens, sexual exploitation, torture, and lightning executions.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A slave legally could not be raped, as rape could only be committed against independent persons; a slave rapist could be prosecuted by the owner for having damaged his “property”, in accordance with the Law of Aquilia. [102]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slaves did not have the right to legally marry (conubium), but the relationship between a pair of slaves was sometimes recognized, and if both slaves were freed, then they could legally marry. [103]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

After the Slave Wars in Republican times, laws during the reign of Augustus and his successors further suppressed and limited the number of slave unions, and orders to hunt down fugitive slaves. [104]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Technically, slaves were not allowed to own property, [105] but a slave working on business had access to one's property or funds (peculium) whose profits he could use as if his own property.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

These terms of “possessions” varied, depending on the level of trust and cooperation between the owner and the slave: a slave who had business prowess could more easily make a profit, and might be allowed to have a peculium that he could use to pay other slaves. [106]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slaves also have hierarchies at home or at work, which is when a slave also acts as master for other slaves. [107]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Over time, the legal protections that slaves acquired were increasing, including the right to file complaints against their masters.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the memorandum of purchase, there is a clause explaining that slaves should not be employed as prostitutes, since most prostitutes in ancient Roman were slaves. [108]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The flourishing of the eunuch slave trade in the late 1st century led to the issuance of laws prohibiting the castration of slaves if it was against his wishes. “[109]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slavery in the Romans was not based on “race” in the modern sense. [110]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

When slavery was being widespread during the time of the Republic, prisoners of war were the main source of being made slaves.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Among the prisoners of war who were made slaves, the Greek conquers had brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves to Rome.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slaves were also trafficked in markets, and sometimes sold by Sicilian pirates.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The abandonment of infants and selling oneself as slaves were common among poor citizens were other sources of slavery. [111]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Vernae, by contrast, were “native Roman” slaves born to female slaves in urban households, in plantations, or agricultural regions.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although they have no special legal status, owners who persecute or fail to keep these vernae will receive a social sneer, since the vernae are already considered part of the familia, family household, or in some cases may in fact be children of independent men within the family. [112]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Slaves who were gifted and possessed of business prowess were probably able to accumulate a peculium large enough to free themselves from slavery (manumission).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This manumission was frequent enough that in the 2nd century BC, a law (Lex Fufia Caninia) was passed to limit the number of slaves that the owner may emancipate at his own will. [113]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Rome's former slaves differed from Greek city-states in allowing slaves who had been freed to become citizens.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Once freed, a slave once owned by a Roman citizen not only enjoyed passive freedom from his owner, but also gained active political freedoms (libertas), including the right to vote. [114]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The slave who had acquired libertas was called a libertus (“free man,” for woman: liberta), whereas the former master would be a patron (patronus, protector): both parties still remained customary and legal obligations to each other.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In social classes, slaves who had been free were referred to as libertini, although in later times writers preferred to use the terms libertus and libertinus. [115]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A libertinus was not entitled to hold public office or the highest priesthood of the state, but he could play a priestly role in the cult of the emperor.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A libertinus may also not marry a woman from a senator-ranking family, or attain the rank of senator legitimately, but during the early Empire, many former slaves held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so Emperor Hadrianus limited their participation legally. [116]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Children born to former slaves would be in independent status with full citizenship rights.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The success of the former slaves—both in terms of political influence or in terms of wealth—was characteristic of early Imperial society.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The prosperity of high-achieving groups derived from former slaves is mentioned in inscriptions throughout the Empire, and through the ownership of a number of mansions in Pompeii, for example the House of the Vettii.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The existence of the former slave nouveau riche is narrated through the character Trimalchio in the Satyricon by Petronius, written during the reign of Nero.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Social class The Latin word order (plural: ordines) refers to social differences that can be translated in a variety of words such as “class”, “order”, and “rank”, although none of them really come close to their true meaning.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

One of the purposes of the Roman census was to determine into which order a person should be classed.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The two highest ordines in Rome were the order of senators and horsemen.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Outside Rome, decurions, also known as curiales (Greek: bouleutai), were the highest order in each city. jmpl|left|sarcophagus fragments depicting Gordianus III and the senate (3rd century) “Senators” was not an elected office in ancient Roman; one obtained permission to enter the Senate after he was appointed and served for one period as executive magistrate.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A senator must also qualify for ownership of property worth 1 million sestertii, which is determined through the census. [117]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Emperor Nero gifted large sums of money to several would-be senators from ancient families who were too poor to qualify for appointment as senators.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Not all qualified men of the order of senatorius could be elected to fill Senate seats, which also entailed the law of domicile in the territory of Rome.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Emperors often filled the vacancies of positions of 600 members of the Senate through certain agreements. [118]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The senator's son automatically enters the senatorial order, but he must also have the ability and fulfill the requirements to be elected as the Senate.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A senator could be impeached for violating moral standards; for example, he was forbidden to marry a former slave or fight in an arena. [119]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In Nero's time, most senators came from Rome and other Italian regions, with a small part of the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to join the Senate during the reign of Vespasianus. [120]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The first senator of the Easternmost province, Cappadocia, was appointed by Emperor Marcus Aurelius. [121]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

At the time of the Severanus dynasty (193—235), about half the members of the Senate were Italian. [122]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

By the 3rd century AD, the requirement of having to be domiciled in Rome was no longer considered practical, and the inscriptions found prove that the senators who were active in politics represented their respective homelands (patria). [119]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Senators have an aura of prestige and are a traditional governing class that achieved glory through the cursus honorum, or political career ladder.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Nonetheless, horsemen in the Empire often had greater wealth and political power when compared to senators.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Membership in the equestrian order is based on the amount of possessions held; in Rome, at first equites or knights were classed according to their ability in serving the Empire as equestrian warriors, although cavalry service was a separate function within the Empire. [123]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

If census results show a person has a wealth of more than 400,000 sesterces and three generations born as independent citizens, then that person is considered eligible to be a horseman. [124]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A census in 28 BC found a large number of eligible men, and in the census of 14 AD, about a thousand horsemen were registered in the regions of Cadiz and Padua. [125]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Horsemen achieved glory through the military career (tres militiae) to become prefects and procurators of high standing in the Imperial government. [126]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The entry of people from the provinces into equestrian orders and senators was an aspect of social mobility in the first three centuries of Imperial rule. [127]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman aristocracy was based on rivalry.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Unlike later European nobility, the Roman family could not bequeath its status hereditarily or through a title. [128]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Being a member of the higher ordines does bring differences and privileges, but on the other hand it also brings great responsibility.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In ancient times, the development of a city depended on its trusted citizens funding public works, events, and services (munera), instead of depending on tax revenue that was generally utilized to support the military.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

To maintain his status, one must expend considerable personal property. [129]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The decurion (city council) was instrumental in carrying out municipal functions in the Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

If the city council position suffered a vacancy, the people in power in the Senate would be dismissed by the central government, give up their seats and return to their respective cities to become city councillors.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This effort aims to sustain civilian life. [130]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Later in the Empire, the title of dignitas (“worthy, distinguished”) pinned on senators and horsemen was smoothed again with titles such as vir illustris, “luminary man”. [131]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The designation clarissimus (Greek: lamprotatos) is used to refer to the dignitas of a particular senator and his family members, including the women. [132]”


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The ranks” for horsemen are numerous.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Persons serving the Empire were given rank by pay (sexagenarius, 60,000 sesterces per year; centenarius, 100,000; ducenarius, 200,000).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The title of eminentissimus, “most superior” (Greek: exochôtatos) was conferred on horsemen who had become Praetorian prefects.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The highest rank of horseman is perfectissimi, “most eminent” (Greek: diasêmotatoi), while the lowest is egregii, “extraordinary” (Greek: kratistos). [133]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Injustice After the legal principles of citizen equality during the Republic faded, the social and symbolic rights of Roman society were unofficially divided into two groups, namely those with greater respect (honestiores) and the common people (humiliores).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In general, honestiores are members of the three highest “orders”, including certain military officer posts. [134]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The granting of universal citizenship rights in 212 is thought to have increased the urge to compete among the upper classes, generally to demonstrate their superiority over other citizens, especially in the judicial system. [135]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The awarding of the sentence depends on the court of the official who assesses the “eligibility” (dignitas) of the defendant: a honestior could pay a fine if convicted of being guilty of a crime, whereas a humilior would receive a lash. [136]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The death penalty, which was rarely handed down to independent men in Republican times, [137] could take place quickly and painlessly on citizens of the Empire deemed “more honorable”, whereas ordinary citizens considered lesser might first be persecuted and imposed torture previously only enforced on slaves, for example crucifixion and being treated like animals before spectators in the arena. [138]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

At the beginning of the Empire, people who converted to Christianity could lose positions as honestiores, especially if they refused to fulfill responsibilities as citizens due to religious aspects, and also became the subject of punishments that created the conditions of martyrdom. [139]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

JMPL|upright=1.2|Forum Gerasa (now Jerash, Jordan), with columns marking a covered walkway (stoa) for vendor stalls, and a semicircular space for public speaking The three main elements in the Roman Empire were central government, military, and provincial government. [140]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The military controlled a region during the war, but after the city or its people became part of the Romans, this military duty passed to the police force, whose function was to protect Roman citizens (after 212 AD all free inhabitants in the Empire), protecting the agricultural lands that gave them meals, and places of worship. [141]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Without modern instruments such as communication and mass extermination, Roman citizens would not have sufficient power or resources to impose their dominion with power alone.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Cooperation with local ruling elites is necessary to maintain order, gather information, and reap revenue.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman citizens often took advantage of political divisions by supporting one faction rather than the other: in Plutarch's view, “it was a dispute between factions in cities that led to the retraction of self-governing”. [142]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Societies that showed loyalty to the Romans could enforce their own laws, entitled to collect taxes in a state, and even exempt from Roman taxes.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Legal rights and independence were incentives obtained if it could maintain good relations with Rome. [143]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman rule was limited, but efficient in managing available resources. [144]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Central rule The emperor's domination was based on the consolidation of certain powers of a number of Republican officials, including the inviolable tribune of the people and the censor authority to manipulate the hierarchies of Roman society. [145]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The emperor also crowned himself a central religious authority such as Pontifex Maximus, and had a centralized right to declare war, certify treaties, and confer with foreign leaders. [146]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although this function was very clearly defended during the Principatus period, the emperor's power over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, giving birth to the era of Dominatus. [147]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The emperor had supreme authority in drafting policy and making decisions, but at the beginning of Principatus, he could still relate to people from all walks of life, and handled personally official affairs and petitions.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The bureaucracy that existed around the emperor was formed gradually. [148]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The emperors of the Julio-Klaudian dynasty relied on an official advisory body of not only senators and riders, but also trusted slaves and former slaves. [149]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

After Nero's reign, the unofficial influence of slaves and former slaves was considered suspicious, and a council of emperors (consilium) was formally formed in favor of a more transparent government. [150]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although the senate played a role as policy-maker until the end of the Antonine dynasty, horsemen or knights played an increasingly important role in the consilium. [151]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The women of the emperor's family often intervened directly in the emperor's decision-making.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Plotina had influence in the decision-making of both her husband, Trajanus and her successor, Hadrianus.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This influence was shown through his officially published letters, as a sign that the emperor's authority was influenced and listened to by his people. [152]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The people could meet the emperor in daily events such as receptions (salutatio), traditional events of tribute performed by former slaves to his patrons; public banquets held in palaces; and religious ceremonies.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Ordinary folk who did not have this opportunity could channel their respect or dissatisfaction with the emperor in groups in the events held in large arenas. [153]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the 4th century, after urban centers had decreased, Christian emperors became the main figures issuing general rules, and no longer responded to individual petitions. [154]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although the senate could carry out assassinations and open rebellion to defy the emperor's will, this never happened in the time of the Augustusan restoration and even in the tumultuous times known as the Year of the Four Emperors, and thus retains political centrality symbolic at the time of Principatus. [155]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The senate was tasked with legislating the emperor's rule, and the emperor required an experienced senate as legate (legatus) to fill the positions of general, diplomat, and administrator. [156]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The success of a person's career is determined by his competence as an administrator, and the rest is determined by the emperor. [157]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The practical source of the emperor's power was the military.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The legionaries were salaried by the Imperial treasurer, and swore annually to be loyal to the emperor (sacramentum). [158]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The death of an emperor often creates uncertainty and crisis.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Most emperors self-appointed their replacements, usually members of the next of kin or adopted an heir.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The new emperor must be able to obtain recognition quickly related to his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

No emperor expected to live, let alone be able to rule, without the support and loyalty of the Praetoria Guard and legions.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

To gain their loyalty, some emperors even paid donativum, which is a gift in the form of money.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In theory, the Senate was entitled to elect a new emperor, but this right was limited by the acclamation of the soldiers and the Praetoria Guard. [159]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Military Soldiers of the army of the Roman Empire were professional men who actively served voluntarily for 20 years and five years as reserve servicemen.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The transition to being a professional military officer had begun at the end of the Republican term, and was one of many that underwent a shift in republicanism, for which servicemen who had undergone conscription had to carry out their responsibilities as citizens to defend the homeland in warfare against certain threats.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the Roman Empire, the military itself was a full-time career. [160]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main mission of the Roman military at the beginning of the empire was to maintain the sustainability of Pax Romana. [161]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The three main divisions of the Imperial military were: the Garrison in Rome, which included the Praetoria Guard and vigiles serving as police and firemen; the provincial army, composed of Roman legions and auxiliary troops provided by the provinces (auxilia); the navy.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The spread of military garrisons throughout the Empire was a major influence in the process of cultural change and assimilation known as “Romanization,” especially in the political, economic, and religious spheres. [162]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Knowledge of the Roman military was obtained from sources such as Greek and Roman literary texts, coins with military themes, papyri containing military writings, monuments such as the Column of Trajanus and the gate of the triumphal arch, all of which feature artistic images of men in combat or military equipment, archeology of military cemeteries, battlegrounds, encampments, and inscriptions, including military diplomas, epitaphs, and dedications. [163]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Through his military reforms, which included melting or disbanding military units whose loyalty was in question, Augustus transformed and reregulated legions, including setting a pattern of shoe spikes on the soles of soldiers' shoes. [164]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

One legion was divided into ten cohorts, each consisting of six centuria, with one centuria divided into ten squads (contubernia).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The exact number of Imperial legions measured based on logistics is estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280 legions. [165]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the 9th century, Germanic tribes managed to sweep away three full legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This adverse event reduced the number of legions to 25.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The overall number of legions then increased again and over the following 300 years, the number was always above or below 30. [166]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The army had about 300,000 warriors in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd century, “significantly smaller” when compared to the combined forces from the territories they conquered.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In reality, no more than 2% of adult men in the Empire served in the Roman army. [167]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Augustus also formed the Guard of Praetoria: nine cohorts whose task was to maintain the general peace and were stationed in Italy.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

With a greater salary than the members of the legion, the Praetoria Guard only served for sixteen years. [168]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Auxilia (auxiliary troops) were recruited from among non-citizens.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Placed in units smaller than cohort units, these auxilia warriors were salaried fewer than legionaries, and after serving for 25 years, the soldiers were granted Roman citizenship status, which could be passed down to their sons.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

According to Tacitus, [169] the number of auxilia was roughly equal to the number of legions.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

If counted as a whole, these Auxilia numbered about 125,000, which were divided into 250 auxilia regiments. [170]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman cavalry during the early Empire was generally stationed in the territories of Keltic, Germanic, or Roman Spain.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Some training equipment and weaponry, such as the four-horn-saddle, are of Keltic origin, as recorded by Arrian and demonstrated through archaeological evidence. [171]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman navy (Latin: classis, “fleet”) not only helped supply and transport the legions, but also helped protect the borders along the Rhine and Danube rivers.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Another task was to protect important maritime trade routes from pirate threats.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The navy patrolled the Central Seas, parts of the North Atlantic coast, and the Black Sea.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Nonetheless, the army remains considered a more senior and prestigious branch. [172]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Provincial administration Conquered territories can be a province through three stages, namely creating a list of cities, conducting population censuses, and urveying land. [173]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Further record-keeping included the recording of births and deaths, housing, transactions, taxes, and juridical proceedings. [174]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the central government sent about 160 officials annually outside Italy. [175]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Among these officials included “Roman governors”, or also referred to as the elected magistrates in Rome who ruled the senatorial provinces on behalf of the Roman people; or governors, usually from among horsemen, who ruled their imperium on behalf of the emperor in the province whose was outside the control of senators, especially Roman Egypt. [176]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A governor must have access to the people he commands, although he can lavish various duties. [177]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In addition, the governor's staff has minimal duties: official officers (apparitors), including lictors, heralds, messengers, scriba, bodyguards, legatus, both from civilian and military circles (usually horsemen), as well as friends of the governor, who come from diverse ages and accompanying experiences governor unofficially. [177]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Other officials were appointed as government financial supervisors. [175]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Separating fiscal responsibility from legal and administrative responsibilities was a reform undertaken during the time of the Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Under the Republic, provincial governors and tax collectors could more freely tap the local population to dredge up personal gain. [178]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The procurator, whose authority was originally in the form of “extra-constitutional and extra-judicial”, also co-administered the property of the state and personal property of the emperor (res privata). [177]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Since the number of officials of the Roman administration was few, provinces requiring assistance on matters of legal disputes or criminal cases could seek assistance from Roman citizens deemed to have official capacities, for example procurators or police officers, as well as lowly senturion officials and military police. [179]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman law The Roman Court held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire, but there were also some judicial functionaries who imposed Roman law uniformly on the provinces.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Most regions of the Eastern empire have had well-composed legal codes and judicial procedures. [180]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In general, it had been Roman policy to respect the mos regionis (“regional tradition” or “customary law”) and to regard local law as a source of legal precedent and social stability. [181]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The existence of compatibility between Roman law and local law is thought to reflect ius gentium, the “law of nations” or international law comparable to the mix of common law and customary law in various world societies. [182]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

If the decision of provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom, the Roman court would make an appeal, and the emperor held the authority to take the final decision. [183]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the Western Empire, law was administered on a religious or tribal basis, and the right of private ownership may have been a novelty in the Roman era, especially among the Keltics.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman law facilitated the collection of private wealth by pro-Roman elites who had privileged as citizens. [184]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The granting of universal citizenship status on all independent residents throughout the Empire in 212 led to the uniform implementation of Roman law, replacing the customary law code previously enacted upon non-citizens.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Emperor Diocletianus' efforts to stabilize the Empire after the Crisis of the Third Century include by issuing two major legal compilations within four years, namely the Gregorianus Codex and the Hermogenianus Kodex, aimed at guiding provincial officials in setting legal standards which is consistent. [185]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The application of Roman law throughout Western Europe engendered an enormous influence on the Western legal tradition, which is reflected in the use of Latin legal terminology in modern law.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Taxation Taxation at the time of the Roman Empire was worth 5 percent of gross product. [31]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The tax rate paid by a person generally ranges from 2 to 5 percent. [186]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman tax code was “confusing and complicated” when viewed from the direct and indirect tax system; some people paid taxes with money and partly with goods.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Taxes for provinces are more specific, or for business types such as fisheries and salt evaporation ponds; taxes for these undertakings may be enforced for a limited time. [187]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain a wartime force, [188] and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if soldiers earned surplus from war booty. [189]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Taxes in the form of goods (natura) were enforced in money-producing territories, especially for people supplying food or goods to army encampments. [190]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main source of direct tax revenue is individuals, who pay levy taxes and taxes on land ownership. [186]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Certain eligible persons could obtain tax breaks, for example Egyptian farmers could register land owned by them as vacant land, depending on the flood pattern of the Nile. [191]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Taxpayers are determined through a census, which counts the number of family members and the number of possessions held by a household, including ownership of farmland and dwellings. [191]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main source of indirect tax revenue is portoria, levies and duties imposed on export and import activities, including in the provinces. [186]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Special taxes were imposed on slave trading activities.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Towards the end of his reign, Augustus established a slave trade tax worth 4 percent, [192] which Nero later diverted his collectors from buyers to slave suppliers, who responded to it by raising slave prices. [193]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The owner who freed his slaves was also required to pay an “exemption tax”, whose value was 5 percent of the slave's price. [194]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

An inheritance tax that amounted to 5 percent of net worth was enacted when a Roman citizen bequeathed his estate to another person who was not a member of his immediate family.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The revenue from the luxury housing tax and from the sales tax of the size of one percent is used to pay the money of retired veterans (aerarium militare). [186]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Low taxes helped the Roman nobility increase their wealth, the amount of which equaled or even exceeded the sum of the revenues of the central government.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

An emperor sometimes filled the coffers of his personal possessions by confiscating mansions belonging to “super-rich” citizens.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In later periods, the resistance of wealthy citizens who refused to pay taxes became one of the factors contributing to the Empire's collapse. [33]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Economist Moses Finley was a major proponent of the primitive view which held that the Roman economy was “undeveloped and undeveloped”, characterised by subsistence agriculture; urban centers that were more consuming than producing in terms of industry and commerce; low-status craftsmen; sluggish technological development; and “lack of economic rationality”. [195]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Whereas the current views regarding the condition of the Roman economy are more complex.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Conquering the territory triggered a large-scale reorganization of land use, resulting in surpluses and agricultural specialization, especially in North Africa. [196]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Few cities are known for industrial or mercantile activities, and the scale of buildings in urban areas indicates the presence of significant industrial construction. [196]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Papyri from the Roman period contain complex accounting methods reflecting elements of economic rationalism [197] and a very revenue-oriented Empire. [198]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although means of communication and transportation were limited in ancient times, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries developed rapidly, and trade routes interconnected the economies between regions. [199]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The bidding contracts for servicemen, which spread across the Empire, were utilized by local suppliers around military bases (castrums) throughout the provinces and along borders. [200]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was considered advanced in terms of the regional economic network, which was based on a form of “political capitalism”, with the state supervising and regulating trade activities to rake in revenue. [201]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Economic growth, though not comparable to the modern economy, was more advanced than most of the rest of society before industrialization. [197]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Socially, economic dynamism paved the way for social mobility in the Roman Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Social status does not depend on birth, patronation, luck, or even extraordinary skills.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although the value of aristocracy is inherent among traditional elite societies, a strong tendency towards plutocracy can be seen in the form of wealth requirements when conducting a census.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Prestige could be gained through the investment of wealth in the form of large estates, housing, luxury items such as jewelry and silver, public entertainment, memorial monuments for family members or co-workers, and places of adoration such as altars.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Trade unions (collegia) and corporations (corpora) provide support for individual success through networking, teaching sound business practices, and willingness to work. [202]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Currency and banking Currency denominations 27 BC—212 M: 1 gold aureus (1/40lb. gold, down to 1/50lb. in 212) = 25 silver denarii = 100 bronze sestertii = 400 copper asses 294—312:1 gold aureus solidus (1/60lb. gold) = 10 silver argentei = 40 bronze folles = 1,000 metals debas denarii 312 and above: 1 gold solidus (1/72lb. ) = 24 silver siliquae = 180 bronze folles The Empire in the early days was very productive to make money to near universal levels, in the sense that the use of money in terms of price and debt. [203]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Sestertius (plural: sestertii, denoted by HS) was the basic unit for calculating prices in the 4th century, [204] while the silver denarius, which is equivalent to four sestertii, began to be used in accounting during the reign of the Severanus dynasty. [205]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The smallest coins circulating in Roman times were bronze aces (plural: asses), or the equivalent of a quarter sestertius. [206]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Bullion and ingots do not count as pecunia, “money,” and are used only within the limits of business transactions or land purchases.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman citizens in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted the number of coins, instead of weighing—which suggests that a coin was worth because of its shape, not because of its metal content.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The trend towards the use of fiat money among Roman citizens led to a decline in the value of Roman currency which impacted the economy of the Empire later on. [207]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Money standardization across the Empire promoted trade and market integration. [208]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The high number of metal currencies in circulation increases the supply of money to spend and save. [209]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Rome does not have a central bank, and the regulation of the banking system is minimal.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Banks in classical times typically held less reserve money than the total amount of customer deposits.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Banks typically have limited capital, and often have only one principal capital, although there are also banks that hold six to fifteen principal capital.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Seneca stated that anyone engaged in trading activities needed credit assistance. [210]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A professional banker (argentarius, coactor argentarius, or nummularius) receives and holds deposits for a specified or indefinite period, and lends money to third parties. [212]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The senators' elite also engaged in banking activities, either as creditors or debtors, who lent their personal property on the basis of social relations. [213]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Debt holders can use borrowed money as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without any cash changing hands.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although in ancient Rome it was rare for documentary or “paper” transactions, banking systems throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of large amounts of money in the absence of physical transfers of coins, generally to avoid the risk of displacement of large amounts of cash, especially by sea.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The only serious credit righteousness known to have ever occurred at the beginning of the Empire was the credit crunch in 33 AD, which resulted in a number of senators being in risky conditions; the central government saved the market by borrowing money as much as 100 million HS to various banks (mensae ), conducted by the emperor Tiberius. [214]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In general, the available capital exceeds the amount required by the borrower. [215]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The central government itself does not borrow money, and has no state debt to fund the deficit from its cash reserves. [216]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Emperors of the Antonine dynasty and Severanus as a whole had lowered the value of currencies, especially the denarius, due to pressure to pay off military salaries. [217]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The sudden inflation that occurred during Commodus' reign endangered credit markets. [215]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

By the middle of the 2nd century, the money supply of coins increased sharply. [218]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Various conditions during the Third Century Crisis—such as declining long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the transfer of gold coins out of the empire by enemies invading Roman territories—reduced the amount of money in circulation and weakened the banking sector by the year 300 M. [219] Although long ago Roman currency took the form of fiat money or fiduciary currency, economic malaise began to take fore during the reign of Aurelianus, and bankers lost confidence in the official coin money issued by the central government.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Diokletianus introduced the gold solidus and made monetary reforms, but the Empire's credit markets never fully recovered. [215]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Mining and metallurgy The main mining regions in the Roman Empire were Spain (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gauls (gold, silver, iron); Britain (iron, lead, tin); the Province of Danubia (gold, iron); Macedonia and Thrace (gold, silver); as well as Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin ).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Mining on a large scale—from alluvial deposits and through open pit mining and underground mining—was carried out during the reign of Augustus to the 3rd century AD, before the instability of the Empire disrupted mining production.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The gold mines of Dacia for example, which the Romans could no longer exploit after the province revolted in 271.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Mining re-intensified to some extent in the 4th century A.D. [220] Hydraulic mining, dubbed by Pliny with ruina montium (“mountain ruins”), caused base metals and precious metals to be extracted on an industrial-proto-scale. [221]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Total iron production per year is 82,500tons. [222]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Copper produced as much as 15,000 tons per year, [223] and lead 80,000tons, [224] the largest amount of production unmatched until the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. [225]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Spain alone contributes about 40 percent of its share of world tin production. [226]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

High lead production is a by-product of silver mining whose production reaches 200tons per year. [227]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

At its peak in the middle of the 2nd century AD, Roman silver supplies were estimated at 10,000 tons, or five to nine times greater than the combined production of silver in medieval Europe and the time of the Caliphate in 800 AD. [228] As a sign of the development of the Roman metal industry, Lead pollution in the Greenland ice sheet during the Empire was fourfold more severe when compared to prehistoric times, and declined again after the collapse of the Empire. [229]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The transport and communications of the Roman Empire controlled the territories around the perimeter of the Middle Sea, which they referred to as “our sea” (mare nostrum). [231]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman sailing ships waded across the Middle Sea and major rivers throughout the Empire, including the Guadalquivir, Ebro, Thames, Rhône, Rhine, Tiber and Nile. [232]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Water transport is preferred because transporting merchandise by land is more difficult. [233]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The existence of means of transport such as horse-drawn carriages, wheels, and sailing ships indicates the presence of a large number of skilled carpenters. [234]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Land transport made use of the advanced Roman road system.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Taxes paid by the community, among others, are used for the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the cursus publicus, state-owned transportation and postal services established by Emperor Augustus. [190]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Relay stations were established along the road every seven to twelve miles, and later developed into villages or trading posts. [235]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Mansio (plural: mansiones) is a franchise of privately owned service stations set up by the imperial bureaucracy to assist with the tasks of the cursus publicus.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Support staff employed at the mansio include mule owners, secretaries, blacksmiths, wagon makers, veterinarians, and a small number of military police and couriers.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The distance between mansiones is determined by how far a cart can travel in a day. [235]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Mules are the animals most often used to pull carts, capable of traveling up to 4 miles per hour. [236]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

As an example of the rapid communication process, a message conveyer takes at least nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even for urgent matters. [237]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In addition to mansiones, some taverns also offer lodging services as well as food and beverages; one of the records at the inn indicates a fee for ordering wine, bread, mule feed, and prostitute services. [238]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Trade and commodities In addition to inter-provinces, trade in the Roman Empire also extended beyond the borders to regions such as China and India. [239]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main commodity traded is wheat. [240]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Trade with China was generally done by land along the Silk Road; trade with India was also conducted by sea from Egyptian ports on the Red Sea.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Other goods traded were olive oil, various foodstuffs, garum (fish sauce), slaves, ores and processed metal objects, fibers and textiles, wood, pottery, glassware, ceramics, papyrus, spices and materia medica, ivory, pearls, and gemstones. [241]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although most provinces are able to produce wine, regional varietal is preferred and wine is the main item traded.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Shortages of vin ordinaire supplies are rare. [242]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main wine suppliers for the city of Rome are the west coast of Italy, the southern Gauls, the Tarrakonensis region of Spain, and Crete.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Aleksandria, the second largest city, imports wine from Laodikea in Syria and the Aegean. [243]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

At the retail level, drinking houses or specialty wine shops (vinaria) sell wine in jugs that can be drunk directly on the premises, at prices according to quality. [244]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Labor and work Inscriptions-inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii. [245]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Professional associations or trade unions (collegia) were formed for diverse professions and occupations, including fishermen (piscatores), salt merchants (salinatores), olive oil retailers (olivarii), entertainers (scaenici), cattle sellers (pecuarii), goldsmiths (aurifices), transporter labourers (asinarii or muliones), and stone cutters (lapidarii). [246]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Some collegium exists that are specially formed for certain occupations, for example one collegium in Rome is restricted only to craftsmen of ivory and citrun wood. [247]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The work that slaves performed was divided into five general categories, namely domestic work, there were at least 55 different household occupations recorded by epitaphs; public or imperial servants; servants and craftsmen in urban; agriculture; and mining. [248]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Inmates were utilized as laborers in mining or quarrying, with notoriously brutal employment conditions. [249]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In practice, there was little occupational separation between slaves and former slaves, [250] and most workers were illiterate or lacked special skills. [251]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

A large number of laborers work in the agricultural sector; in the Italian agricultural industry system (latifundia), most of the workers are slaves, but in other regions of the Empire, the peasantry that comes from among slaves is not so important when compared with skilled labor that is technically not enslaved. [250]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Textile and clothing production is one of the main sources of employment.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Textiles and finished clothing were traded among the people throughout the Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Textile products are often named after specific entrepreneurs or cities, unlike fashion “labels”. [252]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Ready-made clothes of better quality are exported by businessmen (negotiatores or mercatores) who are generally townspeople in production centers. [253]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Finished clothing is channeled by sales agents to potential customers, or by vestiarii, clothing dealers who are mostly former slaves; or may also be peddled by itinerant merchants. [253]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In Egypt, textile manufacturers could open small businesses by hiring apprentices, free wage-paying workers, and slaves. [254]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Labourers who dye (coloratores) and clean clothes (fullones) have their own union. [255]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Centonarii is a trade union specifically reserved for the production of textiles and recycling old clothes into patchwork. [256]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

GDP and income distribution Economic historians give diverse calculations of Roman gross domestic product (GDP) in the time of Principatus. [257]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Using samples of years 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of the Roman Empire's GDP per capita range from 166 to 380 HS.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated to be 40 [258] to 66 percent [259] higher than the GDP of other regions in the Empire due to tax transfers from the provinces and the size of income of elite citizens in the capital.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Based on the Scheidel—Friesen economic model, the total annual revenue collected by the Empire reached 20 billion HS, with about 5 percent generated by central and local governments.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Elite households, which amount to 1.5 percent of the entire population, contribute about 20 percent of state income. The remaining 20 percent is generated by 10 percent of the population classified as a non-elite middle-class group.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Of the remainder, the “vast majority” of the population contributes more than half the total income of the state, although it is subsistence. [260]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Architecture and engineering JMPL|Ka|350px|Amphitheatre of the Roman Empire.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Romanesque's main contributions in the field of architecture were the arch gates, aisles, and domes.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Even after 2,000 years had passed, some Roman structures still stood staunchly due to sophisticated methods of making cement and concrete. [261] [262] The Roman road was considered the most advanced type of road up to the 19th century.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The road system helps facilitate military policing, communications, and commerce.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The streets are resistant to flooding and other environmental disturbances.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Even after the collapse of the central government, some roads were still in use for over a thousand years.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman bridge was one of the first bridges built with a large and durable structure, which was made of stone with an arch gate as the basic structure.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Most bridges also use concrete.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The largest Roman bridge was the Trajanus Bridge on the Danube river, which was built by Apollodorus of Damascus and became the longest bridge ever built for more than a millennium. [263]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Romans built many dams and reservoirs to contain water, for example the Subiako Dam, which became the source of water for the Anio Novus, one of Rome's largest aqueducts. [264]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Romans built 72 dams on the Iberian Peninsula, and many more throughout the Empire, some of which are still in use today.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Several notable embankment dams were built in Roman Britain, including at Longovisium (Lanchester).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Romans built a number of aqueducts (aqueducts).


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the treatise written by Frontinus, a curator aquarum (water commissioner) during the reign of Nerva, it is mentioned regarding the importance of administration in maintaining the water supply.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Stone pipes drain water from distant springs and reservoirs by simply utilizing gravity.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

After passing through the aqueduct, water is accommodated in tanks and flowed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial places. [265]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main aqueducts in the city of Rome are Aqua Claudia and Aqua Marcia. [266]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The complex system built to supply water to Constantinpel has a 336km long aqueduct. [267]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Roman aqueduct was built with excellent tolerances, and with technological standards unmatched up to modern times. [268]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Romans also used the Aqueur in mining operations throughout the empire, for example at Las Medulas and Dolaucothi in South Wales. [269]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Glass insulators (or “double glazing”) are used in the construction of public baths.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Houses of elite residents in cold weather times are equipped with a hypocaust, a type of central heating.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman society was the first society to assemble all the essential components of the steam engine, which had begun since Hero built the aeolipile. [270]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Everyday life City and country In the ancient world, a city was seen as a place where civilizations were “properly designed, composed and decorated”. [271]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Augustus initiated a massive building program in Rome, building exhibitions of artworks showcasing imperial ideology, and reorganizing the city into neighborhoods (vici) staffed at a local level by police and fire officers. [272]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The focus of monumental architecture in the time of Augustus was Campus Martius, an open space outside the city centre originally reserved for equestrian sports and physical training for young people.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The altar of Augustusan Peace (Ara Pacis Augustae) is located there, as well as an obelisk brought in from Egypt that serves as a directional pointer (gnomon) of the horologium.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

With an open garden, Campus is one of the most attractive places to visit in Rome. [273]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Urban planning and urban lifestyle were influenced by Greece from the earliest period, [274] and in the Eastern Empire, Roman power increased and shaped regional development in cities that had had a strong Hellenistic character.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Cities such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus and Gerasa changed some architectural aspects of urban planning to fit imperial ideas.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In addition, the cities also demonstrate the identity and prominence of their respective regions. [275]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In areas of the Western Empire inhabited by Keltic-speaking inhabitants, Romans promoted the construction of urban centers by building stone temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheaters, generally built within or near walled settlements named oppida that had existed previous. [276]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Urbanization in Roman Africa extended to cities along the Greek and Punic coasts. [235]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates, or in Greek called poleis) was a major cohesive force in the time of Pax Romana. [277]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, imperial propaganda forced the Romans to “instill customs in times of peace”. [278]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Classical history expert Clifford Ando states: Most notable cultural paraphernalia has to do with imperial culture—public adoration and civic games and banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of most public buildings and art exhibition venues— is financed by private individuals, whose funding aims to help justify their economic and legal power. “[279]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The Christian apologerat Tertulianus states that the world in the 2nd century was more orderly and well preserved than previous times: “Everywhere there are houses, everywhere there are people, everywhere there are res publica, commonwealth, everywhere there is life”. [280]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The decline of cities and community life in the 4th century, which was when upper-class citizens were unable or refused to fund public works, was one of the factors that contributed to the collapse of the Empire. [281] JMPL|Public toilets (latrinae) of Ostia Antica.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

In the city of Rome, most residents live in multi-storey apartment buildings (insulae) that are generally rundown and flammable.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Public facilities—such as baths (thermae), toilets equipped with running water (latrinae), fountains (nymphea) derived from fresh water, [282] and large entertainment venues such as chariot racing and gladiatorial combatants—were built especially once for the general people living in insulae. [ 283]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Similar facilities were also built in cities throughout the Empire, and some of Roman's finest structures still stand staunchly in Spain, southern France, and northern Africa.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Public baths have hygienic, social, and cultural functions. [284]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Bathing was the main form of socialization in the daily life of Roman citizens conducted in the afternoon before dinner. [285]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman baths are characterized by a series of three-temperature rooms equipped with a variety of amenities, including exercise and weight lifting rooms, saunas, exfoliating spas, ball courts, or outdoor swimming pools. [286]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The bathhouse has a hypokaus heater: the floor is hung over a hot air duct that provides warmth. [287]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Nude and mixed bathing between men and women was commonplace in the early days of the Empire, although some baths had provided separate amenities or bathing hours for men and women.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Public baths were part of urban culture throughout the province, but by the end of the 4th century, private bathrooms began to replace public baths. [288]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Christian teachings advocate going to the baths for health and hygiene, rather than for the sake of purely pleasure, [289] Christians also forbid various matches (ludi), which are part of religious festivals they consider “pagan”.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Tertullianus said that Christians not only withdrew from bathing activities together, but also withdrew from community and trade activities. [290] JMPL|left|reconstruction of the house garden based on the House of the Vettii.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Wealthy families from Rome usually owned two or more houses, a resting place (domus, plural: domūs) and at least one mansions (villa) outside the city.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Domus is a privately owned family home, and usually comes with a private bathroom (balneum), [291] but is not a place to exile yourself from public life. [292]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Although some neighborhoods in Rome have many mansions, wealthy residents do not live in separate complexes.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The homes of wealthy citizens were meant to be viewable and easily accessible.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The atrium serves as a reception room where paterfamilias (heads of households) meet their guests every morning, ranging from rich families to poor families receiving charity assistance. [293]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The private house also serves as a place of family worship, having a shrine decorated with paintings of family ancestors. [294]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Houses located along busy public roads and overlooking the highway are often rented out as shops (tabernae). [295] [296] In contrast, villas are places to escape the bustle of the city, and in literature are described as a balancing lifestyle intellectual civilization and artistic interest (otium) with an appreciation of nature and the agricultural cycle. [298]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Ideally, a villa is located in locations with great views, framed by luxurious architectural design. [299]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Villas are generally located in workers' housing complexes, or in beach-side “resort towns” such as Pompeii and Herculaneum.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The urban renewal program during the reign of Augustus, and the growth of Rome's population to reach one million inhabitants, has been expressed in many works of art.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Many poems extolled the ideal life of peasants and pastoralists.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Home interiors are often decorated with paintings of gardens, fountains, scenery, ornaments of plants, [299] and animals, especially birds and sea animals, which are painted quite accurately. [300]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The poet Augustusan Horace wrote satirical works on the dichotomy of rural and urban values through his fabel The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse, often retold as a children's fairy tale. [301]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

On a more practical level, the central government plays an active role in supporting agriculture. [302]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Producing food is a top priority in land utilization. [303]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Large-scale agriculture (latifundia) achieves economies of scale capable of sustaining urban life and absorbing labor. [302]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Small farmers raked in profits from the development of local markets and trading centers.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding were disseminated throughout the Empire, and new crops were introduced from province to province, for example peas and cabbage introduced to Britain. [304]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Maintaining the food supply for the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late days of the Republic, when the state began giving alms of grain (annona) to citizens registered to receive it. [302]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

About 200,000—250,000 adult men in Rome receive alms of grain, or about 33kg per month and a total of 100,000 tons per year, mainly in Sicily, North Africa, and Egypt. [305]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

This grain alms cost at least 15 percent of the total state receipts, [302] but it was able to improve the living conditions of lower-class families, [306] and subsidize wealthy citizens by allowing workers to spend more of their income to buy wine and olive oil produced on plantations belonging to landlords. [302]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The alms of grain also had symbolic value, affirming regarding the emperor's position as a universal benefactor and the right for all citizens to acquire “fruits of the fruits of conquest”. [302]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Annona, public facilities, and spectacular entertainment worsened the living conditions of Roman lower class society and sparked social unrest.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The satirical writer Juvenal views the term “bread and circus” (panem et circenses) as symbolic of the loss of political freedom in the time of the Republic: [307] The society has long since discarded its sense of concern: people who were once given orders, consuls, legionaries and all others, now no longer interfere and crave only two things: bread and circuses (food and entertainment). [308]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Food and drink Most apartments in Rome do not have kitchens, although some have charcoal stoves that can be used for cooking. [309]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Ready meals are sold in pubs and bars, inns, and food stalls (tabernae, cauponae, popinae, thermopolia). [310]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Restaurant food is available to the lower classes; high-flavored dining can only be encountered at dinner parties held in mansions that have cooks (archimagirus) and trained kitchen staff, [311] or at banquets organized by social clubs (collegia). [312]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Most Roma consume at least 70 percent of their daily calories in the form of cereals and legumes. [313]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Puls (pottage, condensed food) is considered a native Roman food. [314]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Oat pottage can be mixed with chopped vegetables, cutlets, cheeses, or herbs resulting in a dish similar to polenta or risotto. [315]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Urban and military residents prefer to consume wheat in the form of bread. [317]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Milling and oven are usually combined in one bread-making complex. [318]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

During the reign of Aurelianus, the state began distributing annona (food alms) as daily rations in the form of bread produced in the factories of the country, and also added olive oil, wine, and pork as alms food. [319]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The importance of a good diet for health was recognized by Roman medical writers such as Galen (2nd century AD), who spelled out in the treatise On Barley Soup.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Views towards nutrition are influenced by streams of thought such as humoral theory. [320]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Roman literature generally tells about the custom of dinner among the upper classes, [321] who consider dinner (cena) to have a social function. [322]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Guests in dinner events are entertained in a beautifully ornate dining room (triclinium), often furnished with views of the peristal garden.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

Guests sit casually on the sofa, leaning on the left elbow.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

At the end of the Republican period, women ate, lay down, and drank wine with the men. [323]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The most famous depiction of Roman food is probably the Trimalchio dinner party in Satyricon, a fictional extravaganza that bears little resemblance to the lives of wealthy class citizens. [324]


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The poet Martial describes regarding more detailed dinner dishes, starting with gustatio (“tasting” or “appetizing plant”), consisting of a salad of mallow leaves, lettuce, chopped chives, mint, arugula, mackerel mixed with rue, egg slices, and marinated pork breast.


Question: Berao vast dominion of the Roman Empire?

Roman Empire

The main course consists of mutton cutlets, beans, vegetables, chicken, and ham, followed by a dessert in the form of fresh fruits and grapes. [325]