Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The development of new sciences such as bioinformatics also helped a lot in forecasting and modeling the structure of giant molecules.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Today, biochemical discoveries are used in many fields, from genetics to molecular biology and from agriculture to medicine.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The first application of biochemistry is perhaps in the manufacture of bread using khamir, about 5000 years ago.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Another important discovery in the field of biochemistry is the discovery of genes and their role in transferring information within cells. This part of biochemistry is sometimes also referred to as molecular biology.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins discovered how DNA structures and tried to search for its connection to the transfer of genetic information.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum succeeded in winning the Nobel Prize as a result of their research on fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person proven to commit a criminal act through DNA evidence.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Not long ago, Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello won the Nobel Prize in 2006 for their discovery of functions from RNA interference (RNAi).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Biomolecules There are four main molecular classes in biochemistry namely: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Many molecules of biology constitute “polymers”: in this case, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that merge into one to form macromolecules, which are then referred to as “polymers”.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

When many monomers combine to synthesize a biological polymer, they go through a process called dehydration synthesis.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are composed of monomers referred to as monosaccharides.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Examples of monosaccharides are glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), and deoxyribose (C5H10O4).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

When two monosaccharides go through the synthesis process of dehydration, then water will form, since two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom telepass from two monosaccharide hydroxyl groups.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Lipid Lipids are usually formed from one glycerol molecule joining another molecule.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In triglycerides, there is one mole of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In this case, fatty acids are monomers.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in some medicinal products, for example, as solvent materials (e.g. in parenteral infusions) or as drug-carrying components (e.g. in liposomes or transfersomes).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Protein is a very large molecule or macrobiopolymer- composed of monomers called amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

There are 20 standard amino acids, each of which consists of a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a side chain (referred to as an “R” group).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This group “R” makes each amino acid different, and the features of this side chain will have an overall effect on a protein.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

When amino acids merge, they form special bonds called peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis, and become Polypeptides, or proteins.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Nucleic acids Nucleic acids are the molecules that make up DNA, a very important substance used by all cellular organisms to store genetic information.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The most common types of nucleic acids are nucleic deoxyribose acid and ribonucleic acid.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Its monomers are called nucleotides.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The most common nucleotides include Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine, and Uracil.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Adenine pairs with thymine and uracil, thymine only pairs with adenine; cytosine and guanine can only pair with each other.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Carbohydrates The function of carbohydrates is as a builder and energy source


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Sugar is carbohydrate, but not all carbohydrates are sugar.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The amount of carbohydrates on earth is more than the number of any biomolecules.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Monosaccharides The simplest type of carbohydrate is the monosaccharide, which usually consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (formula is generally CnH2<i data-parsoid='{"dsr":[7367,7372,2,2]}'>nN, where the smallest n is 3).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Glucose, one of the most important carbohydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Also included with fructose, a sugar usually found in the sweetness of fruits. [1] [a] Some carbohydrates (especially after condensation into oligo- and polysaccharides) have a relatively lower amount of carbon than H and O. Monosaccharides can be grouped into aldosa (having an aldehyde group at the end of the chain, for example, glucose) and ketose (has a ketone group in the chain, for example fructose).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Disaccharides Two monosaccharides can merge into one through dehydration synthesis.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Then, one hydrogen atom and one hydroxyl group (OH-) will release.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Hydrogen and hydroxyl atoms will combine and form a water molecule (H-OH or H2O), hence from it is called “dehydration”.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This new molecule is called a “disaccharide”.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The reaction can also reverse direction (breakdown reaction), by using one molecule of water to break down one disaccharide molecule, it will break the glycosidic bond in the disaccharide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

It is this reaction that is called hydrolysis.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The best known type of disaccharide is sucrose or what we are usually familiar with cane sugar.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

One molecule of sucrose consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Another disaccharide is lactose, consisting of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In the body, it is known for the presence of the enzyme lactase that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Usually, in elderly people, the production of lactase is less and less and as a result is the disease of lactose intolerance.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides When several (about 3-6) monosaccharides merge into one, they will be referred to as oligosaccharides (oligo- meaning “few”).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

If many monosaccharides merge into one, it will be referred to as a polysaccharide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Monosaccharides can be joined to form one long chain, or may be branched. The 2 best known types of polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both of which are composed of glucose monomers.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Cellulose is made by plants and is an important component that makes up the cell wall. Humans cannot make or digest cellulose.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Glycogen, or its other name is muscle sugar, used by humans and animals as an energy source.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The use of carbohydates as an energy source Glucose is the main source of energy for living things.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

For example, polysaccharides will be broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylases will remove glucose residues from glycogen).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

A disaccharide such as lactose or sucrose will be broken down into its 2 monosaccharide components.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Glycolysis (anaerobic) Glucose will be digested in the body in a respiration reaction.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The first stage in the respiration reaction is glycolysis.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The glycolysis stage starts from one molecule of glucose until the final stage will be produced 2 molecules of pyruvate.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This stage will also produce 2 ATP and give two electrons and one hydrogen at NAD+ thus becoming NADH.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This stage does not require oxygen.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

If the oxygen supply in the body is not enough, then NADH will be used to convert pyruvate into lactic acid (in the human body]] or into ethanol and carbon dioxide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Aerobes In aerobic respiration, cells that receive enough oxygen, pyruvate produced from the glycolysis stage will be re-digested and converted into Acetyl Ko-A. Pyruvate will dispose of one of its carbon atoms (becoming carbon dioxide) and will give its electronics again on NAD+ thus becoming NADH. 2 molecules of Acetyl Ko-A will enter the Krebs cycle stage, and will produce another 2 ATP, 6 molecules of NADH, and 2 ubiquinons (FADH2), as well as carbon dioxide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The energy in NADH and FADH2 will later be used in electron transport.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This energy is used by means of release of electrons and H+ from NADH and FADH2 gradually in the electron transport system.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The electron transport system will pump H+ out of the mitochondrial inner membrane.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The concentration of H+ outside the mitochondrial inner membrane will cause a proton gradient, so H+ will re-enter the mitochondrial inner membrane via ATP synthase.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Oxygen served as the final electron receiver, so the process of ATP formation continued.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Oxygen joining H+ will form water.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

NAD+ and FAD will be reused in the respiration system, as previously described.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This is what causes why we breathe oxygen and release carbon dioxide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In 1 molecule of glucose will be generated a total of 36 ATP, and one ATP can release 7.3 kilocalories.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Gluconeogenesis In the vertebrate body, striated muscles that are forced to work hard (for example, while lifting weights or running), will not get enough oxygen that they will perform anaerobic metabolism, then it will convert glucose into lactic acid.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Liver organs will re-produce that glucose, through a process called gluconeogenesis.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The process of gluconeogenesis actually requires 3 times more energy than is produced in the glycolysis process (there are 6 ATPs created, whereas glycolysis produces only 2 ATP).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Proteins Like carbohydrates, some proteins also have vital functions in the body.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

For example, the movement of actin and myosin proteins plays a role for striated muscle contraction.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

One feature of most proteins is that they can only bind specifically, only one specific molecule or one group of molecules, so they are highly selective.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

An antibody is a single example of a protein that can bind only one type of molecule.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

One of the most important types of proteins is enzymes.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Enzyme molecules can recognize only one type of reactant molecule only, these reactants are referred to as substrates.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The enzyme will catalyze the reaction, so the activation energy will decrease, and the speed of the reaction can take place faster until the 1011th time.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

A reaction would probably take 3,000 years to actually complete, but with the enzyme it might be less than a second.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The enzyme itself is not used in its reaction process, so it will directly catalyze other substrates.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Basically, proteins consist of chains of amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

An amino acid consists of one carbon atom that binds to 4 groups.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The first group is the amino group, —NH2, the second group is the carboxylic acid, —COOH (although it exists as —NH3+ and —COO− under physiological conditions).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The third group is hydrogen atoms.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The fourth group is usually abbreviated as “—R”, and it is this group that distinguishes between amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

There are 20 kinds of standard amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Some of them have their own functions, for example, the function of glutamate is as a neurotransmitter.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Amino acids can join via peptide bonds.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule will be released and a peptide bond will link the nitrogen atom of that one amino acid with the carbon atom of another carboxyl acid group.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Then, the result is a dipeptide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The series of several amino acids (usually smaller than 30) is called a polypeptide.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

For longer circuits, it is usually referred to as a protein.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

For example, the albumin protein in the blood plasma consists of 585 amino acid residues.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The structure of the protein can be explained through four levels.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The primary structure of the protein consists of a linear series of amino acids, e.g., “alanin-glycine-tryptophane-serin-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-...”.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The secondary structure is more to the local morphology.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Some combinations of amino acids will tend to form coils called α-helix or become sheets called β-sheets.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The tertiary structure is the 3-dimensional shape of the protein as a whole.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This form will be determined by the amino acid sequence.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

If there is one change only then it will change the whole structure.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The alpha chain of hemoglobin consists of 146 amino acid residues, if the glutamate residue in the 6th position is replaced with valine, it will change the properties of the hemoglobin, and result in sickle cell anemia disease.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Quaternary structures focus more on structure than proteins with multiple peptide subunits.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

For example, hemoglobin with its four subunits.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Not all proteins have more than one subunit.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Proteins that enter the body will be broken down into amino acids or dipeptides inside the small intestine, only then they can be absorbed by the body.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Later, these amino acids can recombine to form new proteins.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Intermediate products from glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to form all twenty kinds of amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Humans and other mammals can only synthesize half of those 20 kinds of amino.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The human body cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This amino acid is an essential amino acid, as it is important for the body.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Mammals can synthesize non essential amino acids, namely alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Arginine and histidine can also be synthesized mammals, but can only be produced in limited quantities, so they are sometimes also referred to as essential amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

If an amino group is released from an amino acid, it leaves keto-α acid.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The transaminase enzyme will readily move this loose amino group to other keto-α acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as in many pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways will be converted into keto-α acids, and then an amino group is added by transamination.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

So, amino acids can be combined to form proteins.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

A similar process is used to break down proteins.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

First of all, the protein will be hydrolyzed into its components, namely amino acids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Free ammonia (NH3), being in the form of ammonium ions (NH4+) in the blood, will be harmful to the body, it must be removed.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Unicellular organisms just remain to release this ammonia out of the body.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In the body of mammals, ammonia will be converted into urea, passing through the urea cycle.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Lipids The word lipid refers to a diverse group of molecules, including groups of molecules that are difficult to dissolve in water (e.g. night, fatty acids, and fatty acid derivatives such as phospholipids, sphincolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, but some have a ring structure.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Some are also aromatic molecules, and some are also soft.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Some lipids have polar properties although most of them are nonpolar/hydrophobic (“fear of water”).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

But some parts of the structure are hydrophilic (“suka-water”), thus making these molecules amphiphilic (have hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In the case of cholesterol, its polar group is only -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

In the case of phospholipids, the polar group is larger so it is considered polar.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Lipids are one of the important elements of the body.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Most oil products and dairy products that we use to cook and eat such as butter, cheese, and samine oil consist of fat.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Foods containing fat, if digested in the body it will be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Nucleic acids Nucleic acids are complex biochemical macromolecules, consisting of nucleotide chains that store genetic information.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

The most common types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Nucleic acids are found in all kinds of cells of living things and viruses.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Besides being a store of genetic information, nucleic acids also play a role in the delivery of the second message, as well as the basic molecule forming for adenosine triphosphate.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Monomers of nucleic acids are called nucleotides, and each nucleotide consists of 3 components: nitrogen bases (purines and pyrimidines), pentose sugar/carbon-5 sugar compounds, and phosphate groups.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Differences in nucleic acid types can be found in the type of sugar on the chain (for example, DNA consists of 2 deoxyriboses).


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Also, the types of nitrogen bases that may be present in nucleic acids can also be different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine can exist in RNA and DNA, thymine only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

See also List of biochemistry topics Molecular biology List of biomolecules Chemical ecology Biophysics Metabolomics Metabolomics Molecular Medicines Plant biochemistry Structural biology Stoichiometry Small molecules Veterinary Medicine Links out Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

Full text of Garrett and Grisham.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

(Narrated Flash animations.)


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

— Lists of Biochemistry departments, websites, journals, books and reviews, employment opportunities and events.


Question: including to what faculty is biochemical science?

Biochemistry

References


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Chinese history is one of the oldest cultural histories in the world.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

From archaeological and anthropological discoveries, areas of China have been inhabited by ancient humans since 1.7 million years ago.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River valley in Neolithic times.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Chinese written history dates back to the Shang Dynasty (k. 1750—1045 BC). [1]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Turtle shells with ancient Chinese script dating from the Shang Dynasty have radiocarbon dating to 1500 BC. [2]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Chinese culture, literature, and philosophy flourished during the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC) which continued the Shang Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This dynasty was the longest-ruling dynasty and it was during this dynasty that modern Chinese scripts began to develop.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Zhou dynasty split into several city-states, which created the War States Period.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang unified these various kingdoms and established China's first empire.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The turn of dynasties in Chinese history has developed a bureaucratic system that allowed Chinese Emperors to have direct control of large areas.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The conventional view of Chinese history is that China was a country that experienced an alternation between periods of unity and political divisions sometimes controlled by foreign (non-Han) tribes, most of whom were asimiliated into the population of the Han tribe.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Cultural and political influences from different regions of Asia, brought about by alternating waves of immigration, expansion, and assimilation, coalesced to form modern Chinese culture.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Paleolithic prehistoric Homo erectus has inhabited the area now known as China since Paleolithic times, over a million years ago [3].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The review showed that the stone utensils found at the Xiaochangliang site were 1.36 million years old [4].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Xihoudu archaeological site in Shanxi province shows the earliest record of fire use by Homo erectus, which is 1.27 million years ago [3].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Excavations at Yuanmou and Lantian indicate more bygone settlements.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The most famous Homo erectus specimen found in China is the Peking Man discovered in 1965.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Three pottery shards dating to 16500 and 19000 BC were found in Liyuzui Cave in Liuzhou, Guangxi province [5].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Neolithic Age in China can be traced to 10,000 BC [6].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The earliest evidence of milet agriculture has radiocarbon dating around 7000 BC [7].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Peiligang Culture in Xinzheng, Henan was successfully excavated in 1977 [8].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

With the development of agriculture, there came an increase in population, the ability to store and distribute crops, as well as craftsmen and managers [9].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In late Neolithic, the Yellow River valley began to develop into a cultural center with archaeologically significant discoveries found in Banpo, Xi'an [10].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Yellow River is so named due to the occurrence of sedimentary dust (loess) that accumulates on the banks of the river and the surrounding land, which then after immersion in the river creates a yellowish color on the river water. [11]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The early history of China is made complicated by the lack of writing in this period and documents of the afterward period that mix fact and fiction of the age.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In 7000 BC, the Chinese population grew milet, cultivating Jiahu culture.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cave paintings were found dating from 6000-5000 BC similar to early characters confirmed as Chinese script [12] [13].


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Yangshao culture that emerged later continued with Longshan culture in about 2500 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The antiquity of the Xia Dynasty (2100 BC—1600 BC) The Xia Dynasty was the first dynasty told in historical records such as the Great Historical Record and the History of Bamboo. [1] [14] The dynasty was founded by Yu the Great.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Most archaeologists now connect the Xia Dynasty to the results of excavations in Erlitou, Henan province, [15] in the form of melted bronze finds from around 2000 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Various signs found in pottery and shells found in this period are thought to be precursor forms of modern Chinese script. [16]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

According to the traditional chronogy based on Liu Xin's calculations, this dynasty was in power between 2205-1766 BC, whereas according to the History of Bamboo, the reign of this dynasty was between 1989-1558 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

According to the Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project (PK XSZ) organized by the government of the People's Republic of China in 1996, the dynasty was in power between 2070-1600 BC. [17] [18] Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) Shang Dynasty according to traditional sources is the first dynasty of China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

According to a chronology based on Liu Xin's calculations, this dynasty was in power between 1766-1122 BC, while according to the History of Bamboo was between 1556-1046 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Results from the Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project in 1996 concluded that this dynasty ruled between 1600—1046 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Direct information about this dynasty comes from inscriptions on bronze artifacts and oracle bones, [19] as well as from the Great Historical Record (Shiji) of Sima Qian's work.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Archaeological finds provide evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty circa 1600—1046 BC, which was divided into two periods.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Evidence for the existence of the early period Shang Dynasty (k. 1600—1300 BC) comes from discoveries in Erlitou, Zhengzhou and Shangcheng. [19]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

While evidence for the existence of the second period Shang Dynasty (k. 1300—1046 BC) or Yin period (), comes from a large collection of writings on oracle bones.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Archaeologists confirm that the city of Anyang in Henan province was the last capital of the Shang Dynasty, [19] of the other nine capitals.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Shang dynasty ruled 31 monarchs, since King Tang until King Zhou as the last king.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Chinese society today believed many gods, including the gods of weather and sky, as well as the supreme god named Shang-Ti. [20]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

They also believed that their ancestors, including their parents and grandparents, having died would be like gods anyway and worthy of worship. [21]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Around 1500 BC, the Chinese began using oracular bones to predict the future.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Western scholars tend to be hesitant to link various settlements contemporaneous to the Anyang settlements as part of the Shang dynasty. [22]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The strongest hypothesis is that there was co-existence between Anyang ruled by the Shang Dynasty, and other cultured settlements in the region now known as “actual China” (China proper).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC—256 BC) Zhou dynasty was the longest-ruling dynasty in Chinese history which according to the Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project was in power between 1046-256 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The dynasty began to grow from the Yellow River valley, to the west of Shang.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The ruler of Zhou, Wu Wang, managed to defeat Shang at the Battle of Muye.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

At the time of the Zhou Dynasty began to be known the concept of “Celestial Mandate” as the legitimacy of the turn of power, [23] and this concept so on had an effect on almost every turn of dynasty in China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The capital of Zhou was originally in the western region, that is, near the present-day city of Xi'an, but then there was a series of expansions in the direction of the Yangtze River valley.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In Chinese history, this was the beginning of the subsequent migrations of the population from north to south.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC-476 BC) In about the 8th century BC, there was a decentralization of power in the Spring and Autumn Period, which was named after the literary work of Chun Qiu (Spring and Autumn).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In this epoch, the local military leadership that Zhou used began to show its power and vying to acquire hegemony.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Invasions from the northwest, for example by Qin, forced Zhou to move its capital to the east, namely to Luoyang.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This marked the second phase of the Zhou Dynasty: Eastern Zhou.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Hundreds of countries sprang up, some of them only as large as a single village, with local rulers holding full political power and sometimes using honorary titles for him.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

One hundred Streams of Thought from Chinese philosophy flourished in this age, following also some influential intellectual movements such as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Mohism. [24]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Warring States Period (476 BC-221 BC) After various political consolidations, seven prominent states survived by the end of the 5th century BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Although there was still a king from the Zhou Dynasty until 256 BC, but he was only a nominal leader who had no real power.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In those days, neighboring regions of the warring states were also conquered and became new territories, among others, Sichuan and Liaoning; which were then governed under a new local administrative system in the form of commandery and prefectures (/).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Qin state succeeded in unifying all seven existing states, as well as expanding into the territories of Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, and Guangxi in 214 BC. [25]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The period when the countries fought each other until the unification of all China by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, is known as the “Warring States Period”, which is a naming taken from the name of Zhan Guo Ce's historical work (Warring States Strategy).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The imperial period of the Qin Dynasty (221 BC—206 BC) The Qin Dynasty managed to unite China which was split into several kingdoms in the Warring States Period through a series of conquests against other kingdoms, with the last conquest being against the kingdom of Qi in about 221 BC. [25]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Qin Shi Huang was crowned the first emperor of unified China in that year.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This dynasty famously began the construction of the Great Wall of China which was later completed by the Ming Dynasty as well as Terracotta relics in Qin Shi Huang's tomb.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Some of the major contributions of the Qin Dynasty, among include the formation of the concept of centralized government, the unification of legal statutes, the implementation of written language, units of measurement, and the common currency of all China, after the passage of the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn Age.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Even basic things such as the length of the axles for mercantile wagons, were subjected to diversity in order to ensure the development of a good trading system throughout the empire. [26]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Han Dynasty (206 BC—220) of the Han Dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, a peasant who led a people's revolt and razed the previous dynasty, the Qin Dynasty, in 206 BC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The age of power of the Han Dynasty was divided into two periods namely the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-9 AD) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (23-220 AD) which were separated by the short period of the Xin Dynasty (9—23 AD).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Emperor Wu (Han Wudi) successfully hardened the union and expanded the Chinese empire by urging the Xiongnu nation (often equated with the Huns) toward the steppes of Inner Mongolia, thereby seizing the territories of Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This led to the opening for the first time of trade between China and Europe, via the Silk Road.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

General Ban Chao of the Han Dynasty even expanded his conquests across the Pamir sampi mountains to the Caspian Sea. [27]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The first embassy from the Roman Empire is recorded in Chinese sources first opened (by sea lanes) in 166, and the second in 284.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Three States Age (220—280) Three States Age (Wei, Wu, and Shu) was a period of Chinese schism that took place after the de facto loss of power of the Han Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In general, this period is considered to last from the founding of Wei (220) to the conquest of Wu by the Jin Dynasty (280), although many Chinese historians consider that this period lasted since the Yellow Serban Rebellion (184).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This era is one of the most famous eras in Chinese history, due to the popularity of historical romances Acts of the Three Countries (Samkok) which have been adapted in various formats by various countries.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Jin Dynasty and Sixteen States (280-420) of China were successfully united for a time in 280 by the Jin Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Nonetheless, ethnic groups outside the Han tribe (Wu Hu) still controlled most of the territory as early as the 4th century and led to a massive migration of Han tribes south of the Yangtze River.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The northern part of China was split into small states forming a turbulent era known as the Sixteen States Age (304 - 469).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Northern and Southern Dynasties (420—589) Following the collapse of the Eastern Jin Dynasty in 420, China entered the era of Northern and Southern Dynasties.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This age was a time of civil war and political divisions, although it was also a period of development of art and culture, technological progress, and the spread of Buddhism and Taoism.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Sui Dynasty (589—618) After nearly four centuries of schism, the Sui Dynasty succeeded in reunifying China in 589 with Yang Jian, the founder of the Sui Dynasty, of the Chen Dynasty in the south.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This period of dynastic power was, among others, marked by the construction of the Great Canal of China and the establishment of many governing institutions that would later be adopted by the Tang Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Tang Dynasty (618—907) On June 18, 618, Li Yuan ascended the throne and began the era of the Tang Dynasty which replaced the Sui Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This age is a time of prosperity and development of Chinese art and technology.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Buddhism became the main religion professed by the royal family as well as the people mostly.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Since around 860, the Tang Dynasty began to decline due to the rise of rebellions.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Five Dynasties and Ten States (907—960) Between 907 to 960, from the collapse of the Tang Dynasty to the power of the Song Dynasty, there was a period of political schism known as the Age of Five Dynasties and Ten States.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In this fairly brief period, five dynasties (Liang, Tang, Jin, Han, and Zhou) alternately controlled the heart of the old kingdom's territory north of China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

At the same time, ten other minor states (Wu, Wuyue, Min, Nanping, Chu, Southern Tang, Southern Han, Northern Han, Early Shu, and Late Shu) came to power in the south and west of China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960-1279) Between the years 960 to 1279, China was controlled by several dynasties.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In 960, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) whose capital city in Kaifeng controlled much of China and began a period of economic well-being.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The territory of Manchuria (now known as Mongolia) was controlled by the Liao Dynasty (907-1125) which was further succeeded by the Jin Dynasty (1115—1234).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Meanwhile, the northwestern regions of China now known as the provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia were overrun by the Western Xia Dynasty between 1032 to 1227.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Yuan Dynasty (1279—1368) Between the years 1279 to the year 1368, China was controlled by the Yuan Dynasty which originated in Mongolia and was founded by Kublai Khan.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The dynasty took control of China after successfully razing the Jin Dynasty in the north before moving south and ending Song Dynasty rule.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This dynasty was the first dynasty to rule all of China from the capital city of Beijing.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Before the invasion of the Mongols, reports from Chinese dynasties estimated that there were about 120 million inhabitants; but after the conquest was completed thoroughly in 1279, the census of 1300 mentioned that there were 60 million inhabitants. [28]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Similarly, during the reign of the Yuan Dynasty there was an epidemic of the 14th century in the form of petic disease (Black Death), and is estimated to have killed 30% of China's population at that time. [29] [30] The Ming Dynasty (1368—1644) Throughout the Yuan Dynasty's reign, there was quite strong opposition to these foreign powers among the populace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

These sentiments, plus the frequent onset of natural disasters since the 1340s, eventually gave rise to peasant revolts that subverted the power of the Yuan Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Zhu Yuanzhang of the Han tribe founded the Ming Dynasty after successfully expelling the Yuan Dynasty in 1368.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In 1449, Esen Tayisi of the Oirat Mongols made an assault on northern China, and even succeeded in captivating the Zhengtong Emperor in Tumu.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In 1542, Altan Khan led the Mongols constantly encroaching on China's northern border, and in 1550 he successfully invaded all the way to the outskirts of Beijing.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Ming Dynasty empire also faced attacks by Japanese pirates along the southeastern coastline of China; [31] General Qi Jiguang's role was crucial in defeating the pirate attack.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

One of the world's most recent earthquakes, the Shaanxi earthquake of 1556, is estimated to have killed about 830,000 inhabitants, which occurred during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

During the Ming Dynasty, the last construction of the Great Wall of China was completed, as a protection effort for China for invasions from foreign nations.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Although the construction has begun in the previous time, most of the walls seen today are those that have been built or repaired by the Ming Dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The brick and granite building has been expanded, the watchtower redesigned, as well as cannons placed along its sides.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Qing Dynasty (1644—1911) Qing Dynasty (清, 1644—1911) was founded following the defeat of the Ming Dynasty, the last dynasty of Han China, by the Manchu tribe () from northeastern China in 1644.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

This dynasty was the last feudal dynasty to rule China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

It is estimated that about 25 million inhabitants perished in the period of the Manchu conquest of the Ming Dynasty (1616—1644). [32]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Manchu nation then adopted the values of Confucianism in their government, as was the tradition implemented by the previous Han dynastic administrations.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In the Taiping Rebellion (1851—1864), one third of China briefly fell to the rule of Taiping Tianguo, a quasi-Christian religious movement led by Hong Xiuquan who called himself the “King of the Sky”.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

After fourteen years, only was the rebellion successfully quelled, the Taiping army was crushed in the Third Nanking War of 1864.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The deaths that occurred during the 15 years of the uprising were estimated at 20 million inhabitants. [33]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Several rebellions that consumed greater casualties and possessions then occurred, namely the Punti-Hakka Tribal War, the Nien Rebellion, the Hui Minority Rebellion, the Panthay Rebellion, and the Boxer Rebellion. [34]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In many ways, those rebellions and the unjust treaties successfully imposed by foreign imperialist powers against the Qing Dynasty, were signs of the Qing Dynasty's incompetence in dealing with new challenges that emerged in the 19th century.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Modern day Republic of China The frustration of the Qing Dynasty's refusal to reform as well as China's weakness towards other countries, led to the onset of a revolution inspired by Sun Yat-sen's ideas to abolish the royal system and implement a republican system in China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

On February 12, 1912, the Qing's last emperor, Emperor Xuantong abdicated the throne, following the Xinhai Revolution.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

A month after, on 12 March 1912, the Republic of China was established with Sun Yat-sen as its first president.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Slavery in China was abolished in 1910. [35]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

In 1928, after a prolonged conflict between warlords that occurred between 1916—1928, most of China was united under the Kuomintang (KMT) by Chiang Kai-shek.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Meanwhile, the communist Communist Party of China (CCP) began to also stamp its influence and became the main competitor to the Kuomintang which instigated the Chinese Civil War.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The two Chinese parties were nominally united in the face of the Japanese occupation that began in 1937, which was during the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) which was part of World War II.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Following Japan's 1945 defeat, KMT and CCP hostilities resumed after reconciliation efforts and negotiations failed to reach agreement.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

(See: Chinese Civil War).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

At the end of World War II in 1945 as part of Japan's surrender of power, Japanese forces in Taiwan surrendered to Republic of China forces under Chiang Kai-shek who held control of Taiwan. [36]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The conflict between Chinese parties that began since 1927 ended unofficially with the Kuomintang's resignation to Taiwan in 1949 and made the Communist Party of China the sole ruler in Mainland China.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Today, the government that rules Taiwan still uses the official name “Republic of China” although it is commonly known as “Taiwan”. [37]


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

People's Republic of China On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (RRT) in Tiananmen Square, after the near-certain victory of the Chinese Communist Party of the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The historical period of the RRT is generally divided into four periods: socialist transformation (1949-1976) under Mao Zedong, economic reform (1976-1989) under Deng Xiaoping, economic growth (1989-2002) under Jiang Zemin, and last is the period under the fourth generation of government, between 2002 to present.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Abramson's follow-up reading, Marc S. (2008).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Ethnic Identity in Tang China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

ISBN 978-0-8122-4052-8.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Ankerl, G. C. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

INU PRESS Geneva, 2000.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

ISBN 2-88155-004-5.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Creel, Herrlee Glessner.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Birth of China. 1936.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Fairbank, John King, China: a new history, Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

ISBN 0-674-11670-4 Feis, Herbert, The China Tangle: The American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission, Princeton University Press, 1953.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Hammond, Kenneth J.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Teaching Company, 2004.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

(A lecture on DVD.)


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Giles, Herbert Allen.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

A general history, originally published around 1911.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Giles, Herbert Allen.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Covers the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, published shortly after the fall of the dynasty, around 1912.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Moscow: URSS, 2006.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

ISBN 5-484-00559-0 [6] (Chapter 2: Historical Population Dynamics in China).


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Laufer, Berthold. 1912.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Terrill, Ross, 800,000,000: The Chinese estate, Boston, Little, Brown, 1972 Wilkinson, Endymion Porter,.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, Asia Center (for the Harvard-Yenching Institute), 2000, 1181 p., ISBN 0-674-00247-4; ISBN 0-674-00249-0 Footnotes Outside link Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Maps to combine and compare Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

- Chaos Group, at the University of Maryland by Academia Sinica by Academia Sinica Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

- Discussion of Chinese history in the Transclusion error section: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

- Mechanized Artillery and Ancient Siege Weapons - Illustrated History, brought to you by Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

A search of the historical content of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty and its role in Chinese heritage and cultural history.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead., is a journal devoted to academic scientific dealing with the period around the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Tang dynasty.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead. a 100-minute lecture on Chinese history, given by renowned scientist/author Yu Ying-shih, Professor Emeritus of East Asian Studies and History, Princeton University.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Reading sources for pupils of grades 5-9 - approximately 250 links.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead.Wolfram Eberhard, (online), February 7, 2006 [eBook #17695], ISO-8859-1 Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Use {{lang-en}} or {{en icon}} instead. - PBS documentary 2006.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

KQED Public Television and Granada Television, for PBS, Granada International, and BBC.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

The Genuine Soul of Ancient Chinese People Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

Texts and translations of historical Chinese works.


Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China


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History of China

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Question: What is the name of China's longest-ruling dynasty?

History of China

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History of China

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Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The European Union Emissions Trading System (abbreviated EU SPE) (English: European Union Emissions Trading System or European Union Emissions Trading Scheme) is the largest multinational greenhouse gas emissions trading system in the world. [2] [3] The system is one of the key policy instruments of the Union Europe regulates limits on permissible emissions, in accordance with those established by the Kyoto Protocol. [4]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The EU SPE was launched in 2005 in its efforts to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases, such as dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) and perfluorocarbons (PFC) at the lowest cost. [5] [6] [7] EU SPE covers about 10,600 installations in Europe, particularly the production sector combustion, iron and steel, pulp and paper, refineries, and cement, as well as other installations with an excess net heat threshold of 20 MW. [8]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

EU SPE projects are divided into four phases of implementation period, namely phase I (2005-2007), phase II (2008-2012), phase III (2013-2020), and phase IV (2021- 2030). [9]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

At each of the implementation stages, several sectors and gas are covered under the EU SPE, one of which is the aviation sector. [9] [10] [11] Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway joined the EU SPE in phase II (2008-2012), [9] [12] [13] and Croatia in phase III (2013-2020). [9]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Phase I is a trial phase, and the EU SPE must function effectively in order to meet the targets of the Kyoto Protocol. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In phase I, the EU SPE was only able to cover carbon dioxide emissions from power generators and industries with intensive energy use, where almost all allowances were given to those companies free of charge. [11] [14] Non-adjustment fines reached about 40 EUR ( IDR 664 thousand) per ton. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

While in phase II that coincides with the first commitment of the Kyoto Protocol; 6.5% cap on emissions on allowance—which is lower than the previous period, [11] is expected to result in emissions reductions of about 2.4% in 2010. [4]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

However, the 2008 economic crisis led to emissions reductions, and led to excess on carbon allowances and credits, thereby affecting carbon prices in that period. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In phase III, the European Commission undertook two main initiatives to address excess allowances, namely the existence of Market Stability Reserves (MSRs) for the long term, and backloading processes for the short term. [9]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Then, in phase IV, the EU SPE has a minimum target of 40% domestic reduction in greenhouse gases by 2030, which is part of the contribution to the Paris Agreement. [15]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

One of the main components of the policy at stage IV is to ensure a decrease in the number of free allowances, so that they are distributed effectively and efficiently. [16]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Overview the Emissions Trading System is one of the most cost-effective tools in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In contrast to traditional 'command and control' regulation, this trade leverages market power, thus finding the cheapest way of reducing emissions. [6]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The EU emissions Trading System works on the principle of 'limit and trade' (cap and trade); where the overall volume of greenhouse gases that power plants, factories and other companies covered by that system can emit, is subject to the level of emissions that allowed by the EU.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

With these emissions limits, companies receive or purchase emission allowances that they can trade. [6]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

For example, if a system has a cap or permissible emission level of 50 million tons of emissions in a given year, then the country must issue 50 million allowances in that year.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

These allowances can be bought and sold on the carbon market.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

A company covered by a system must receive allowances corresponding to the emissions they produce. [18]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In other words, the emission allowance is the currency in the EU SPE and is the limit of the total amount, which gives a value.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Each allowance grants permits issuing one ton of CO2 gas, the main greenhouse gas, or an amount equivalent to two other types of powerful greenhouse gases. [6]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

With the currency of these allowances, companies can use credits generated by certain types of emissions storage projects around the world that cover a portion of the emissions they emit. [6]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

By pricing carbon, which thus puts a financial value for every tonne of emissions saved, the system puts climate change on the agenda of corporate boards across Europe.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Carbon credits are awarded after emissions reductions for these emission storage projects. [6]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

EU SPE projects are under the mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol as carriers of genuine additional emissions reductions. [6]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The Kyoto Protocol defines three flexible mechanisms that Annex I parties can use in adjusting their emission limitation commitments. [19]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Such flexible mechanisms consist of International Emissions Trading (PEI), Clean Development Mechanism (MPB), and Joint Implementation (IB). [3] [20] These mechanisms are intended to lower overall costs so as to achieve emission targets.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

This mechanism enables the parties involved to achieve a cost effective reduction in emissions or removal of carbon from the atmosphere in other countries. [21]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

While the cost of limiting emissions varies from region to region. [21]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

International Emissions Trading (PEI) allows Anex I parties to trade their emissions in credit with 'Determined Amount Units' (English: Assigned Amount Units, AAUs) or short-term allowances. [20] [lower-alpha 1] Clean Development Mechanism (MPB) and Joint Implementation (IB) or also called “project-based mechanism” enables Annex I countries to fulfill their commitments on reducing greenhouse gas emissions by acquiring carbon credit reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

These credits are obtained from Annex I country financing projects that reduce emissions in non-Annex I countries or other Annex I countries, or by purchasing carbon credits from Annex I countries that have excess credits. [3] [22] The economic basis in the provision of the mechanism Flexible is that the marginal cost of emission reduction varies between countries and countries. [22] [23] The fundamental difference between International Emissions Trading (PEI) and the two project-based mechanisms, namely PEI is based on setting emission limitations on quantitative, whereas project-based mechanisms are based on the idea of emission “production” reduction. [22] [24] The Clean Development Mechanism (MPB) project produces 'Emissions Reduction Certificates' (English: Certified Emissions Reductions, CERs), and Joint Implementation (IB) projects produce ' Emission Reduction Units' (English: Emission Reduction Units, ERUs), each of which is equivalent to a unit of AAUs.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

EU SPE uses 'EU Allowance Units, EUAs) units equivalent to Kyoto AAUs. [25]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Directive 2004/101/EC establishes a direct link between EU SPE, ERUs units and CERs, by setting out the following limits: [3] National limits on the number of IB or MPB project units can be traded under EU SPE and shall be defined by national authorities on a case-by-case basis case; Compliance with additional criteria, namely IB and MPB projects must be supplemental to domestic actions; Prohibition on the implementation of IB and/or MPB projects on nuclear power, as well as projects involving land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF); Implementation limitations IB and/or MPB projects in the hydro-electricity sector; Ban on double counting of emission reductions; The baseline of IB projects in ten member states (UE-10) is based on the Acquis communautaire of the European Union. [lower-alpha 2] Mechanism Main Features Directive 2003/87/EC sets out key features of EU SPE consisting of: [3] System of 'limitation and trade' (cap and trade); Focus on CO2 emissions in the first stage and six types of greenhouse gases in the second phase; Focus on industrial-emitted emissions large; Periodic review of the rules of the system; Procedures for unilateral inclusion over gas and other sectors, entered after Commission approval; Temporary exclusion of certain installations, after Commission approval; National Allocation Plan (RAN) for the distribution of EUAs, with voluntary auctions for two commitment periods, which do not exceed 5% and 10%, on each of the total allocation, while the remaining allowances are distributed through the process of grandfathering; Compliance system based on sanctions, namely 40 EUR (approximately Rp646 thousand) TCO2-EQ. for each allowance that does not submit on first stage and 100 EUR (approximately IDR 1,61 million) TCO2-EQ. In the second phase; Pooling system, i.e. installation rights to be grouped together, and receive the total amount of EUAs distributed internally.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The sector coverage Directive 2003/87/EC also defines the coverage of the EU SPE sector, which includes approximately 10,600 installations in Europe, particularly the combustion, iron and steel, pulp and paper, refinery, and cement production sectors. [26]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Installations in these sectors qualify emissions trading, when energy consumption is higher than the 20MW overheat threshold.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The threshold is decided by the European Commission on those industries with the most intensive energy consumption, during the implementation period of the first phase.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

To improve environmental performance over this system, the debate is now centred on expanding the scope of the EU SPE sector, such as the aviation sector in 2013. [8]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The EU SPE covers about 50% of the EU's CO2 emissions and 45% of the EU's total greenhouse gas emissions. [27]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In addition to carbon dioxide (CO2), EU SPE includes dinitrogen moknoside (N2O) since 2013, as well as perfluorocarbons (PFC) in certain cases. [5]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The Target allocation of CO2 emission reduction in each member state was changed to the National Allocation Plan (RAN). [28]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

RAN is designed according to 'objective and transparent criteria, including those listed in Annex III, taking into account public comment. '


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The RAN is assessed and evaluated by the European Commission, which can approve these documents or propose amendments. [3]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Each government is in charge of deciding the number of quotas available for trade, after negotiating with industry, and after being validated by the European Commission. [28]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The Directorate General for the Environment has an important role in this system, in aligning the RAN among member states, and recommending stricter validation criteria.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

An RAN submission may be rejected by the European Commission, and sent back to a member state for revision before a final decision. [28]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The amount of RAN determines the number of quotas distributed to installations in the EU SPE.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The allocation methodology consists of a free distribution of quotas in the proportion of current emissions, also known as the grandfathering process. [28]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The distribution of allowances based on the National Allocation Plan (RAN) is submitted to the Commission within the agreed timeframe. [3]


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Deadlines At each stage of the implementation period, the delivery of allowances is carried out annually, following the following deadlines: [28] 28 February year N, that is, European operators receive their allocation for the commitment year N. 31 March year N, that is, the deadline submission of reports of verification results during the N−1 year, of each installation to the European Commission. April 30 of N year, that is, the final limit of the restoration of quotas used by operators during the year N−1. May 15 of N year, which corresponds to the deadline for the official publication of the European Commission on verified emissions for all installations covered by the EU SPE during the N−1 year.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The annual frequency of verified emissions imposed by the European Commission, according to the main event, which is to compile the diffusion of reliable information at the level of aggregation in the European carbon market.


Question: does Brexit belong to any of the forms of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Transactions In the EU SPE implementation effort, the European Commission adopts Commission Regulation (EC) No 994/2008 which establishes a standardized and guaranteed registration system at the EU level (Registration Regulation), [29] each installation covered within the scope of the EU SPE shall put 'account-holder operators' in the national registration system (registry), so as to issue and track EU allowances.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In addition, Directive 2003/87/EC sets out the possibility for any individual or organisation to participate in the EU SPE. [3] [30] Account holders in the EU registration system may transfer allowances between account holders within a registry or between registry systems.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The transfer can only be made to or from a non-EU registry, and must comply with the Commission's provisions on 'reciprocal recognition'. [3]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Trade in allowances is recorded electronically by a national registry.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The information contained in the registry is centered on the European registry, called Community Independent Transaction Log (CITL). [3] [31] CITL checks the regularity of allowance transfer between registrants, accounts and verified emissions, which is open to consultation by operators and the public. [3]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

CITL also contains complete information about CO2 emissions for all installations covered in EU SPE, which is used to account for each company's compliance position. [28]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The information contained in CITL is available at the installation level.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

As a first step, data compilation seems necessary to reconstruct ownership structures among subsidiaries and parent companies, resulting in a more precise analysis for the evaluation of such systems. [28] [32] In order to meet each company's emission targets, installations can redeem quotas, either through counter tools, or brokers and markets. [28]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Phase I (2005-2007) EU SPE Directive was adopted in 2003, then the system was only launched in 2005. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The system was trialled in the United Kingdom and Denmark in January 2015, then all fifteen member states (EU-15) participated. [33] [lower-alpha 3] Then, emission limits on allowances were set at the National Allocation Decretion (RAN) level. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Phase I is a trial phase, in which the EU SPE must function effectively so that the EU can meet the targets of the Kyoto Protocol.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In phase I, EU SPE can only cover CO2 emissions from power generators and energy-intensive industries, and almost all allowances are given to companies free of charge. [11] [14] However, non-adjustment fines amount to around 40 EUR (IDR 664 thousand) per ton. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The implementation of EU SPE in phase I was successful in setting carbon pricing; free trade on emission allowances across the EU; and infrastructure needs to monitor, report and verify emissions from companies covered by the system. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Due to the absence of reliable data, emission limits in phase I are set with a basic estimate; that is, the total amount of allowances issued on excess emissions with supply exceeding demand.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In 2007, the price of allowances fell to zero, where allowances in stage I could not be accommodated for use in phase II. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Estimated emission reductions achieved in phase I were 50-100 mtCO2-Eq. per year, or 2.5%-5%. [34]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Excess allocation In phase I too many emission permits on the European market, so the government encourages the right to propose the allocation of the number of permits to national industries in each country, and then overestimate emissions to justify excess allocation.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Then the results, European Commission figures showed that in phase I of the EU SPE (2005-2007), only three member states had emissions limits lower than the initial emission level in 2005. [35]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

This led to an abundance in the allowances market, making permit prices drop to a low point, which was 0.03 EUR (about Rp463) per tonne in December 2007. [35]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In addition, almost 100% of the allocations are free through the grandfathering process; some member states do the undertaking, and some others perform interdictions. [16]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Verified emissions Verified emissions showed a net increase during the first phase implementation period.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

For countries for which data is available, emissions increased by 1.9% between 2005 and 2007 (that is, 27 member states, except Bulgaria, Romania and Malta). [36]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Phase II (2008-2012) In phase II EU SPE countries have concrete targets that must be met.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Phase II implementation coincides with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Since verified data on annual emissions in phase I is not available, the permissible emission level is reduced in phase II; which is based on actual emissions, which is 6.5% cap on emissions at lower allowances compared to 2005. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Such emissions limits are expected to result in emissions reductions of about 2.4% in 2010, versus uncapped or 'business as usual' emissions expenditures. [4]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The tightening of rules in phase II includes: the establishment of dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) emissions over the production of nitric acid in a number of countries; the start of the inclusion of the aviation sector; and the permissibility of companies to purchase international credits totaling around 1.4 million tons of CO2-EQ. [ 11] However, the 2008 economic crisis led to higher emissions reductions compared to expected.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

This led to an excess on allowances and carbon credits that affected carbon prices in this period. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Based on a European Commission publication, in January 2008, Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein joined the European Union's Emissions Trading System (EU SPE). [37]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The Norwegian Ministry of Environment released its draft National Allocation Planning (RAN) which provides a carbon cap of 15 million metric tons of CO2 (MtCO2-eq.), of which 8 million are set to be auctioned. [38]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

EU SPE Rule emission permit allowance allows unused CO2 emission permits to be set aside ('stored') during phase II (2008-2012), which will then be used in phase III trading period (2012-2020).


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Excess allocation is very high in phase II, and Sandbag (campaign and research organisation) estimates there is sufficient reserve of permits, allowing emissions in the EU industrial and energy sectors to grow uncontrollably through 2016. [35] [39] Trading volumes Based on Market Reports World Bank Annual Carbon; in phase I, trade volume increased from 321 million allowances in 2005 to 1.1 billion in 2006 and 2.1 million in 2007.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

EU SPE remains the main driver of the international carbon market during phase II.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In 2010, EU allowances accounted for 84% of the total value of the global carbon market.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Trade volume jumped from 3.1 billion in 2008 to 6.3 billion in 2009.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In 2012, 7.9 billion allowances were traded (worth 56 billion EUR or about Rp932 trillion). [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Data compiled by Bloomberg New Energy Finance and the London Energy Brokers Association show that daily trading volume exceeded 70 million allowances in mid-2011. [11]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The Economist magazine states that, “Under a system of 'limits and trade', a reduction in the cost of cutting carbon emissions can depress the price of allowances by itself, that is, by reducing investor returns”. [40]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Similarly, energy efficiency investments were higher than expected, for example in efforts to drive down industrial production costs with cuts in energy use and CO2 emissions, but this reduced demand for allowances.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Therefore, the 'good' on cutting CO2 emissions can be 'bad' for the price of benefits, which reduces further green investment incentives. [35]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Aviation emissions Although aviation accounts for only 3% of the EU's greenhouse gas emissions, the sector has increased 87% of CO2 emissions since 1990; particularly after cheapening air travel costs. [41]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

A person taking a flight from London to New York for example, will produce the same amount of CO2 as the average person heating their home for one year. [41]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The 2008 EU SPE directive states that all aviation emissions to, from and within the EU began to be covered by January 2012. [42]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

These provisions were amended in 2013 to facilitate international negotiations on aviation within the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a 191-nation body operating under the auspices of the United Nations.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The European Union specifically imposed a “stop the deadline” provision that delayed the deadline for the airline industry to hand over 2012 emissions allowances for one year, in April 2013. [42]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In October 2013, ICAO officially approved the development of a global market-based mechanism in 2016 and limit the emissions of the international aviation sector starting in 2020. [42]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Then, in April 2014, while awaiting the possible adoption of international rules, European member states and the European Parliament amended the EU SPE Directive for the period 2013-2016. [43]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Coverage of the aviation sector is currently limited to aviation emissions in the European Economic Area (28 EU member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway) for the period 2013-2016. [44]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Phase III (2013-2020) The main changes implemented as part of phase III are: [45] The EU wide emission limits (wide-cap) replace the previous national emissions limitation system (RAN).


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The auction will increasingly become a process of allocating allowances.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

For allowances still given for free, aligned allocation rules will apply based on ambitious EU emissions performance.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Some sectors and gas began to be included.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

Change in substance At the onset of phase III (January 2013), the excess allowance on the EU SPE stands at 2.1 million allowances, [46] of which 57% of allowances will be auctioned, while the remaining allowances are available for free allocation. [16]


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

In the aviation sector 15% of allowances will be auctioned, and 82% are freely allocated under the interdiction process.


Question: does Brexit belong to one form of economic crisis?

EU Emissions Trading System

The remaining 3% is a dedicated reserve for new entries and fast-growing airlines.