Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Next the scribe began to work with ink bullies and quill pens or kalam that had been tapered.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The typeface for transcribing the text is tailored to local customs and flavours.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The sturdy Roman letters of the early Middle Ages were gradually replaced by other typefaces, for example, unxial letters and half-unxial letters, especially in the British Islands, where typical typefaces such as insular mayuscular letters and minuscular letters were developed insular.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Dense, richly textured black letters first appeared around the 13th century and became very popular, in particular at the end of the Middle Ages.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Paleography is the study of historic handwritten letters, and codicology is the study of other physical aspects of script codexes.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

One of the most important elements in the creation of an illuminated script is the amount of time spent in the preproduction stage to prepare the script framework.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the period before the creation of the script was carefully planned, “a sheet of black-lettered pages, a common item in the Gothic period, would appear as a page of pages with letters written in a creamy and crammed way, in a format dominated by large letters ornate, which is derived from the form of unxial script or adapted to the whole illustration.” [7] To prevent the recurrence of the creation of such insufficiently fine manuscripts and illuminations, it is customary for writing to be affixed first, “and empty fields are set aside for decoration.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

It is very meticulously planned by the scribe, even before tearing the pen on the parchment.”


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

If the scribe and the illuminator are not one person in common, then preproduction planning allows providing adequate space for their respective works.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The process of creating JMPL illumination|A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the oldest known image of the Thomas Becket assassination event The stages below are the outlines of the entire series of activities in the creation of illumination-illumination on one page of the manuscript: Creating an image with silver gerip Gentling gold Affix the main colors Continue the first three stages as well as create the frame of the drawings of the page edge decoration Drawing rinceau (tendril decoration) as the page margin decoration Coloring the pictures of the page margin decoration [8] Illumination and decoration usually it has been planned by the time the script will begin to be worked on, as well as the blank fields that must be set aside to contain it.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Nonetheless, the writing of his usual text was worked out first before the script was given illumination.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the early Middle Ages, texts and illuminations were often worked at once by the same people, usually by monks.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

But at the height of the Middle Ages, the text and illumination were usually done separately, except for the initials and additional embellishments on repeated letters.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the 14th century, there were already kriya sanggars producing manuscripts, and in the early 15th century, most of the best manuscripts were produced in these sanggars to fulfill orders, even orders from monasteries.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

When the text writing has been completed, the illustrator begins to get ready for work.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The intricate drawings were pre-designed, most likely on wax-lined boards, sketchbooks of those days.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The draft drawings were further copied onto the surface of the velum (most likely by means of a needle or other scratch tool, as in the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospel Book).


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Many semi-finished manuscripts from various periods clearly reveal the methods once used in manuscript creation.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

At all periods, most of the resulting manuscripts did not contain images.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the early Middle Ages, manuscripts tended to be produced in two categories based on their purpose, namely to be used as display books loaded with illumination, or for teaching learning purposes only decorated with ornamental initials and ornamental embellishments addition to the letters.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the Roman period, many more manuscripts were embellished or initials, and manuscripts intended for teaching purposes often contained a number of images, although they were often not coloured.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

This trend intensified in the Gothic period, when most of the manuscripts produced at least had additional embellishments on letters in certain parts, and more manuscripts contained images.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Display books, especially those produced in the Gothic period, are decorated with ornamental frames or tendrils motifs, which are often inserted with small droleri-droleri.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

A single page sheet of Gothic manuscript can contain several types of decoration at once: a miniature in the frame, an initial berriwayat at the beginning of the text, and an ornamental frame inserted by droleri drawings.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Often different types of decoration are done by different artists too.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The use of colors in illuminated manuscripts If gold is one of the most stunning displays of illuminated manuscripts, then the bold color blend results in layers of dimension to the illumination.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

From a religious point of view, “the assortment of colors used in book illustrations, is no less worthy of representing the assortment of grace than heavenly wisdom. “[2]


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

If religious prophets consider themselves spewing some of the infinite glory of God in their works, then many illustrations can be connected with “the history of the texts that were about to be illustrated and the needs and taste of their readers. “[9]


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Color makes the images in the manuscript sheets look alive and amaze the reader's hearing.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Without color, the impact of the script drawing disappears completely.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Coloring The artists of the Middle Ages have a rich colour repertory; below is a partial list of the dyes used.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In addition, strange materials such as urine and earwax are also used in concocting dyes. [10]


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Gilding An illuminated script is considered to be solemnly illuminated if one or more illuminations in the manuscript are decorated with royal gold or shredded gold with upam technique.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

A golden cousin on an illumination implies a variety of meanings with respect to the text of the script.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

If the text is religious, then the healing of gold is a sign of majesty towards the text.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the early centuries of Christianity, “the Gospel manuscripts were sometimes written entirely in gold ink.” [11] In addition to making the text look stunning, the scribes of the time also considered the use of gold as an act of glorifying God.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

For example, “the painting of Christ's life history is made much more beautiful and set in gold amid many images of hunting scenes, races, and odd figures.” [12] In addition, gold is also used if the bookmaker wants to show off his wealth.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In the past manuscripts, “so that its value as a status marker through manuscripts was degenerated.” [13] During this period, the price of gold became so cheap that gold recuperation in illuminated manuscripts was only valued at a tenth of a tenth of manuscript creation costs. [14]


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

By adding luxury and depth to the script, the use of gold in illumination making has resulted in works of art that are still appreciated today.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The destruction of royal gold or gold shredded in an illumination is a very complicated process that only the most advanced illuminators are able to work on it.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The first thing that becomes the consideration of an illuminator when it will affix gold is whether royal gold or shard gold should be used.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

When the illuminator is about to use royal gold, it will be forged and flaked until it is “thinner than the thinnest paper.” [14] The use of this kind of royal gold allows various parts of the text to be framed with gold lines.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

There are a number of ways to weave gold to an illumination, one of the most popular ways is to mix gold with animal adhesive and then “pour it into the water and melt it with a finger.” [15] Once it becomes soft and clay in the water, the gold is ready for pasting on the script sheet.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Illuminators must be very careful when weaving royal gold on the script so as not to spoil the colors that have been previously affixed to the illumination.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Royal gold “is easy to attach to all kinds of dyes that have been previously affixed so that it can damage the entire design, besides the grinding is done with exertion so that it risks to scatter the paintings that have previously been made around it.”


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Inscrutable removal of gold can damage the illumination parts that have been previously done so that the entire sheet is forced to be replaced.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The patrons of the art of illumination of the monasteries produced manuscripts for their own use; illumination-abstracted manuscripts were originally likely to be made for worship purposes, while the manuscripts of the monastery library collection contained texts that seemed more unpretentious.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In earlier periods, manuscripts were often made at the order of the rulers to be used alone or used as diplomatic souvenirs.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Many ancient manuscripts were produced in this kind of manner, even until the onset of the Modern Age.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Since daily worship books became popular, rich people began to like to order illuminated daily worship books to serve as a means of status markers in the midst of society, so these kinds of books sometimes contain portraits or personal emblems of the booker: “In the painting depicts the story of the New Testament, the figure of Christ will be made larger than the figure of an apostle, and the figure of an apostle will be made larger than the figure of the figure, while the humble booker or the painter himself will be shown as a small figure in the corner of the painting. “[9] [16] [17] The dating in these daily worship books was made more personal, namely by highlighting the dates of commemoration of the local saints or the patron santo-santa of the members of the family of the booker.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

At the end of the Middle Ages, many manuscripts were created to be distributed through a network of agents.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

In these manuscripts there are passages that are deliberately emptied to later fill themselves by the buyer with the desired emblem painting.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Its mesmerizing detail and beauty suggest that the addition of illumination is never done without careful planning.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The addition of illumination has the dual benefit of adding value to a piece of writing and, much more importantly, presenting images—for the illiterate in society—that “make the reading feel more alive and perhaps more trusted.” [18] Gallery Letter P illuminated in the Malmesbury Bible.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The letters used in script writing are black letters which are also called Gothic letters.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Saint Bernardus of Clairvaux, from an illuminated manuscript of the Middle Ages.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The cellar keeper monks tasted wine tuak from a throne while filling a buyung, from Li Livres dou Santé by Aldobrandino of Siena, France, late 13th century.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Book of Dimma, Irish pocket gospel book, 8th century.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The Gospel Book of Adisyi from Georgia, 897.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Illuminated Haggadah manuscript, Jewish Passover prayer, 14th century.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Pentecost Day, from an illuminated Catholic liturgical manuscript, ca. 1310—1320.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The marriage of Girart and Bertha, of Roman de Girart de Roussillon, ca. 1450.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The letter P is illuminated in the Bible of Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England, 1407.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Jovhannes's annals, Armenian illuminated manuscript, 1053.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Aleksander the Great's third time victory over Darius, a Flandrian illumination from the 15th century.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The notebooks of the founders and sufferers of Tewkesbury Monastery, early 16th century.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Rochefoucauld Grail, circa 1315.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Battle of Ménfő, in the Chronicon Pictum of Hungary, 1360.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Illuminated manuscript made in Ethiopia, 18th century, Princeton University Art Museum.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Referral Further reading Bland, David.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

A History of Book Illustration: The Illuminated Manuscript and the Printed Book (London: Faber & Faber, 1958) Coleman, Joyce, Mark Cruse, and Kathryn A. Smith, eds.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The Social Life of Illumination: Manuscripts, Images, and Communities in the Late Middle Ages (Series: Medieval Texts and Cultures in Northern Europe, vols.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Turnhout: Brepols Publishing, 2013). xxiv + 552 pages De Hamel, Christopher.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

A History of Illuminated Manuscript (Phaidon, 1986) De Hamel, Christopher.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminations.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Lazaris, Stavros.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

“L'illustration des disciplines médicales dans l'Antiquité: hypothèses, enjeux, nouvelles interprétations”, in: La Collezione di testi chirurgici di Niceta (Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Plut. 74.7).


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Tradizione medica classica a Bisanzio, M. Bernabò (ed.), Rome, 2010, p.99-109.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Lazaris, Stavros.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

“L'image paradigmatique: des Schémas anatomiques d'Aristote au De materia medica de Dioscoride”, Pallas, 93 (2013), p. 131-164.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Lazaris, Stavros.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

“Art et science vétérinaire à Byzance: Formes et fonctions de l'image hippiatrique”.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Turnhout: Brepols, 2010 Morgan, Nigel J., Stella Panayotova, and Martine Meuwese.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Illuminated Manuscripts in Cambridge: A Catalogue of Western Book Illumination in the Fitzwilliam Museum and the Cambridge Colleges (London: Harvey Miller Publishers in collaboration with Modern Humanities Association. 1999-) Rudy, K.M. (Open Book Publishers, 2016) Wieck, Roger.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

“Folia Fugitiva: The Castle of the Illuminated Manuscript Leaf”.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Walters Journal Art Gallery, Vil. 54, 1996.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

External links of digitally illuminated manuscripts from the Royal Netherlands Library — color numbers linked to the best images from various collections; accelerates the search for images of specific subjects, in French manuscripts Digital illuminated from the University of Louisville Library Digital illuminated manuscripts from Kathrine Zipista of Digital Media Repository, Ball State University — A collection of Spanish illuminated manuscripts from the UBC Library's digital collections — A complete set of archival images High resolution of the entire manuscript of the Walters Art Museum collection - Digital facsimile of the Gospel Book of Saint Chad, 2010.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Includes the ability to overarrange photographed images with 13 different lighting, historic images (since 1887), multispectrum visualizations, sixteen interactive 3D renderings, and sixteen interactive RTI renderings to uncover drypoint posts.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

University of Oklahoma - A look at the aging process on illuminated manuscripts Source From Koninklijke Bibliotheek and Meermanno Museum in The Hague.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The manuscript is in French, but this demonstration is more visual.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Nancy Ross,.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

British Library, adapted from Michelle Brown's book, Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms (1994), ISBN0-89236-217-0 Herbert, J. A. (1911), online books.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

', Book by John W. Bradley, from the Gutenberg Project.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Thousands of digital images from the Medieval and Ages of Renewal manuscript collections belong to Morgan Library.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Diringer, David.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1982.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Print.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Greenia, George D.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

“The Politics of Piety: Manuscript Illumination and Narration in the Cantigas of De Santa Maria.”


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Hispanic Review 61.3 (1993): 325—44.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

JSTOR.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Web. April 17, 2010.<>.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

- Explanation of the creation of 3D models for the illuminated Gospel Book of Saint Chad from the 8th century.


Question: What is called marginalia?

Illuminated manuscript

Modern: an illuminated art illumination Bible making project Documentary Full Focus production about an illuminated Bible making project in the monastery of Saint John video works Getty Museum Category:Manuscripts Category:Types of manuscripts Category:Types of books


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

John Fitzgerald Kennedy (), known by the call “Jack” or initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States in office from January 1961 until his assassination in November 1963.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

After serving military service as commander of the PT-109 and PT-59 Motor Torpedo Boats during World War II in the South Pacific, Kennedy became a representative for Massachusetts's 11th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 from the Democratic Party.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Afterwards, he served in the United States Senate from 1953 to 1960.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy defeated Vice President and Republican candidate Richard Nixon in the 1960 U.S. presidential election.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At age 43, he became the youngest president ever to take office, [2] [lower-alpha 1] the second youngest president (after Theodore Roosevelt), and the first president born in the 20th century. [3]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

As of now, Kennedy, a Catholic, is the only non-Protestant president and the only Pulitzer Prize-winning president. [4]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Events that occurred during his reign were the Invasion of the Bay of Pigs, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Space Race—with the beginning of the Apollo Project (culminating in the landing on the Moon) the construction of the Berlin Wall, the African-American Civil Rights Movement, and the early stages of the Vietnam War.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At that time, Kennedy increased the number of military advisers, special operations forces, and helicopters to hinder the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. [5]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Kennedy administration adopted the Strategic Hamlet Program policy implemented by the South Vietnamese government.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This policy involved forced relocation, village confinement, and secession of rural South Vietnam from northern and southern communist militias. [6]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Lee Harvey Oswald was accused as the culprit and detained that night as well, but Jack Ruby shot him to death two days later, before Oswald's trial convened.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The FBI and the Warren Commission formally concluded Oswald as the lone assassin.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

However, the United States House Special Assassination Committee (HSCA) argued that the investigation was not entirely correct and Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of conspiracy. [7]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy's controversial program in the form of the Defense Department's TFX fighter bomber forced Congress into an investigation that lasted from 1963 to 1970. [8]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Since the 1960s, information surrounding Kennedy's personal life has slowly come to light.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The details of Kennedy's health problems are increasingly clear, especially since the 1990s. Although initially kept secret from the public, reports that Kennedy often played women have received a press spotlight. Kennedy ranks highly in public opinion assessments. [9]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The early life and education of John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street, Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917 [10] to the couple of businessman/politician Joseph Patrick “Joe” Kennedy, Sr. (1888—1969) and philanthropist Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald (1890—1995).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Joe is the eldest son of businessman/politician Patrick Joseph “P. J.” Kennedy (1858—1929) and Mary Augusta Hickey (1857—1923).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Rose was the eldest daughter of Boston Mayor John Francis “Honey Fitz” Fitzgerald (1863—1950) and Mary Josephine “Josie” Hannon (1865—1964).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

All four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. [1]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Jack's younger brothers were Robert Francis “Bobby” Kennedy (1925—1968) and Edward Moore “Ted” Kennedy (1932—2009).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Bobby and Ted will become famous Senators.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy remained in Brookline for ten years and attended Edward Devotion School, Noble and Greenough Lower School, and Dexter School, until 4th grade.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1927, his family moved to 5040 Independence Avenue in Riverdale, Bronx, New York City.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Two years later, they moved to 294 Pondfield Road in Bronxville, New York.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There Kennedy became a member of Scout Troop 2. [1]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy spent summers with his family at their home in Hyannisport, Massachusetts, and Christmas and Easter with his family at their winter home in Palm Beach, Florida.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy attended school from 5th through 7th grade at Riverdale Country School, a male private school.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

By September 1930, the 13-year-old Kennedy was finishing 8th grade at the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In late April 1931, he underwent an appendectomy, then dropped out of Canterbury and rested at home. [11]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In September 1931, Kennedy was sent to The Choate School in Wallingford, Connecticut to complete grades 9 through 12.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His older brother, Joseph Patrick “Joe” Kennedy, Jr. (1915—1944), had already attended school in Choate for two years and was a football star as well as the best student.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Jack spent his first years at Choate in the shadow of his older brother and had a fighting behavior that caught the attention of his friends.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Their most famous behavior was to blow up the toilet seat using large power fireworks.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In a chapel meeting that day, their disciplined headmaster, George St. John, brought the toilet seat and complained of certain “reliables” who were about to “spit in our seas”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The stubborn Jack Kennedy instead continued the act and named his group “The Muckers Club”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

One of the members was Kennedy's roommate, Kirk LeMoyne “Lem” Billings. [12]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At Choate, Kennedy suffered from health problems to the point that he was rushed to Yale — New Haven Hospital in 1934.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In June 1934, he was taken to the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, and diagnosed with colitis.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy graduated from Choate in June 1935.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy became manager of his school's yearbook business and was dubbed a “student very likely to succeed”. [12]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In September 1935, he first went abroad with his parents and sister, Kathleen to London with the aim of studying Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE) like his older brother Joe.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His deteriorating health forced Kennedy to return home to America October 1935.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He was late to list and spent six weeks at Princeton University.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He then underwent hospitalization at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He rested at Kennedy's winter home in PalmBeach, then spent the spring of 1936 (with his older brother, Joe) working as a rancher's maid on the 40,000-acre (160km2) “Jay Six” farm outside Benson, Arizona. [13]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Reportedly rancher Jack Speiden insisted the two worked “very hard”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In September 1936, Kennedy began his college at Harvard College.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There he produced that year's edition of “Freshman Smoker” which was hailed as an example of “complete entertainment involving luminaries of the radio, film, and sports industries”. [14]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He was part of the football, golf, and swimming teams, and managed to enter the varsity swim team. [15]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In July 1937, Kennedy sailed for France—while carrying his convertible car—and spent ten weeks traveling around Europe with Billings. [16]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In June 1938, Kennedy sailed abroad with his father and older brother, Joe, to work alongside his father who was then Franklin D. Roosevelt-era United States Ambassador to the Court of St. James's at the U.S. embassy in London. [17]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans, and the Middle East to prepare for his senior honors thesis at Harvard.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He then went to Czechoslovakia and Germany before returning home to London September 1, 1939, the day when the Germans overran Poland.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On 3 September 1939, his family was in the House of Commons to listen to a speech supporting Great Britain's declaration of war on Germany.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to devise a relief plan for SS Athenia survivors from the United States, then returned home to the U.S. from Foynes, Ireland, to Port Washington, New York.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

It was then he first felt a cross-Atlantic flight.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

As a senior student at Harvard, Kennedy began to get serious and developed his interest in political physhaphat.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In his junior years, he made it to Dean's List. [18]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, “Appeasement in Munich”, which discussed Great Britain's participation in the Munich Agreement.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His thesis was used as a book called Why England Slept and sold. [19]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He graduated from Harvard College with a Bachelor of Science cum laude in international affairs in 1940.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy enrolled and conducted a lecture audit at the Stanford Graduate School of Business in the fall of that year. [20]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In early 1941, he helped his father write a three-year memoir of his experiences as ambassador to the United States, then traveled around South America. [21]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Military service (1941—45) In September 1941, after being hit by a medical disqualification from the Army due to his chronic lower back illness, Kennedy joined the U.S. Navy at the assistance of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence, former AL attaché to Joseph Kennedy. [22]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy was an ensign working in the office of the Secretary of the Navy when the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He entered the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps and volunteered to enlist with the Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center in Melville, Rhode Island.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Afterwards, he was assigned to Panama and the Pacific theater.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In the Pacific, Kennedy received the rank of lieutenant and became commander of a torpedo patrol boat (PT). [23]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On 2 August 1943, Kennedy's ship, PT-109, along with PT-162 and PT-169, was on a night patrol near New Georgia in the Solomon Islands, [24] then PT-109 was rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri. [25]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy gathered his crew members who survived in the waters surrounding the wreck to choose “to fight or surrender”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy stated, “This kind of situation is not on the books.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Many of you have families and some of you have kids.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

What do you guys want to do?


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

I don't need to lose anything.”


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Refusing to give up, they all eventually swim to a small island. [26]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Although his back was re-injured in the collision, Kennedy pulled a crew member who suffered severe burns using a float rope moored to his teeth. [27]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He pulled the man to the islet, then to the second island where they were all rescued. [28]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

For his actions, Kennedy earned the Navy and Marine Corps Medal on the following grounds: For his highly heroic actions as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 post-collision and sinking of that ship in the Pacific Theater of War on 1—2 August 1943.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Without thinking about personal danger, Lieutenant (by then Lieutenant Junior) Kennedy unhesitatingly fought all hardships and threats of darkness to lead the rescue operation, swimming for hours to guarantee aid and food after he managed to bring his crew inland.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His exceptional courage, resilience, and leadership culminated in his congratulations of several and in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In October 1943, Kennedy was in command of a PT boat that was made a gun ship, PT-59.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The ship took part in the rescue of Marines off Choiseul Island in November 1943. [29]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy then left PT-59 and went home to the United States in early January 1944.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

After his back injury was treated, he was released from active duty in late 1944. [30]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy was released formally commissioned in early 1945, just before the surrender of Japan.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Other awards Kennedy received throughout World War II were the Purple Heart, American Defense Service Medal, American Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three bronze merit stars, and the World War II Victory Medal. [1]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

When questioned for the reason he became a war hero, Kennedy clattered: “It's easy.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

They split my PT ship in two. “[31]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In April 1945, Kennedy's father, William Randolph Hearst's best friend, placed Kennedy as a special correspondent for Hearst Newspapers.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The task kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and “introduced him to the world of journalism as a promising career. “[32]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He became a correspondent in May of that year and covered the Potsdam Conference and other events. [33]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Congressional career of the House of Representatives (1946—52) When Kennedy was in service, his older brother, Joe Jr., fell off while serving August 12, 1944 in Operation Aphrodite.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Because Joe Jr. was the benchmark of family politics, the task was eventually charged on Jack. [34]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1946, U.S. House Member James Michael Curley quit his post as a Democratic member in Massachusetts' 11th Congressional district—at the suggestion of Joe—to become Boston's mayor.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy ran for office and successfully defeated his Republican opponent by a large margin. [35]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He served as a congressman for six years.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Senate (1952—60) In the 1952 election, he defeated Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. to contest the U.S. Senate seat The following year he was married to Jacqueline. [36]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy underwent a series of spinal surgeries over the following two years.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Frequently absent from the Senate, he was often critically ill and admonished Catholic last rites.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

While resting in 1956, he wrote Profiles in Courage, the book about U.S. Senators who risk his career for his personal beliefs.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The book was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for the Biography category in 1957. [37]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Rumors that his work was also written by close adviser and speechwriter, Ted Sorensen, are justified in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography. [38]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At the 1956 Democratic National Convention, Kennedy was nominated as Vice President alongside presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson, but his vote count ranked at two below Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Since then Kennedy became nationally known.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His father considered it only natural that his son lost, due to political sentiments against his Catholic beliefs and the strong influence of Eisenhower. jmpl|Jack Paar interviewed Senator Kennedy on The Tonight Show (1959).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

One of the things that caught Kennedy's attention in the Senate was the Civil Rights Act of 1957 bill that President Eisenhower proposed. [39]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy gave procedural votes that a number of parties considered a form of affliction for Southern Democrats who rejected this bill. [39]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy approved Chapter III of that draft law whose contents gave the attorney general power of incorporation, but Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson agreed to allow the points to be overturned as a form of adjustment measure. [40]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy also approved Chapter IV entitled “Jury Trial Amendment”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Many civil rights advocates criticized the concurring vote because it might weaken his legislation. [41]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His final adjustment bill that Kennedy supported passed in September 1957. [42]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1958, Kennedy was elected again as a member of the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a large margin.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

During his nomination campaign, press secretary Robert E Thompson made a film called The U. S. Senator John F. Kennedy Story which told the Senator's life story and showed his family life along with his office activities.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This is the most complete film about Kennedy at that time. [43]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Senator Joseph McCarthy was a Kennedy family best friend; Joseph Kennedy, Sr. was a major supporter of McCarthy, Robert F. Kennedy worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated Patricia Kennedy.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1954, when the Senate agreed to hurl official censure to McCarthy, Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the official censure.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The speech was not delivered because he was in the hospital.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Although absent, he was able to participate procedurally by “equalizing” his vote against another senator, but he did not.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He never told the way he gave the vote, but his decision weakened support for Kennedy from liberalists, including Eleanor Roosevelt, in the 1956 and 1960 elections. [44]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

1960 presidential general election On January 2, 1960, Kennedy began his presidential campaign in the Democratic primaries.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He faced Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota and Senator Wayne Morse Of Oregon.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy defeated Humphrey in Wisconsin and West Virginia, Morse in Maryland and Oregon, as well as key opponents (usually write-in candidates) in New Hampshire, Indiana, and Nebraska.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy visited a coal mine in West Virginia.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Most miners and residents in the Protestant-dominated state of conservatism were somewhat alarmed by Kennedy's professed Roman Catholic beliefs.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His victory in West Virginia was proof that he was accepted to society.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At the Democratic Convention, he delivered his famous “New Frontier” speech: “For not all issues are resolved and not all battles are won—and today we stand on the threshold of the New Limit...


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

But the New Limits I mentioned are not a stack of promises—but rather a stack of challenges.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This is not my offer to the American people, but my demands of them. “[45]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

After getting rid of Humphrey and Morse, Kennedy's main opponent at the Los Angeles convention was Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy won this official challenge and several unofficial challenges from Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic nominee of 1952 and 1956, Stuart Symington, and a number of party favorite sons.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On July 13, the Democratic convention elevated Kennedy as its presidential nominee.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy chose Johnson as his nominee for Vice President, although he was opposed by many liberal delegates and Kennedy's personal staff, including his younger brother, Bobby. [46]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy needed Johnson's strength in the South to win the closest election since 1916.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Key issues raised include how to animate the economy, Kennedy's Roman Catholic beliefs, Cuba, and comparisons of developments in Soviet and United States space and missile programs.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

To dampen fears that his Catholic beliefs would influence his decision-making, on September 12, 1960 he said before the Greater Houston Ministerial Association that, “I am not a Catholic candidate for President.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

I am a Presidential candidate from the Democratic Party who happens to also be a Catholic.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

I don't mix religion with public affairs— and religion doesn't affect me. “[47]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy rhetorically questioned whether a quarter of United States citizens became second-class citizens simply because they were Catholic, and once stated that, “Nobody asked my religion [while serving in the Navy] in the South Pacific. “[48]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In September and October, Kennedy appeared with Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon, who was then the incumbent Vice President, in the broadcast of the first U.S. presidential debate in U.S. history Nixon, with injured legs and thin beard, sweating and looking tense and uncomfortable, while the self-averse Kennedy seemed relaxed so many television audiences were looking out for Kennedy as the winner.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Radio listeners thought Nixon won or the debate tipped the series. [49]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Since then the debate was considered an important benchmark in the political history of the United States and television began to play an important role in politicism. [37]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy's campaign came to fruition after the first debate and excelled over Nixon in a number of polling.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At the national level, Kennedy defeated Nixon by a two-by-ten difference of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while at the Electoral College level he won 303 votes and Nixon 219 votes (269 votes were needed to win). [50] 14 voters from Mississippi and Alabama declined in favor Kennedy because he supported the civil rights movement.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

They along with voters from Oklahoma elected Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia. [50]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy was the youngest person to be elected president, succeeding Eisenhower, the oldest president at the time.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Ronald Reagan defeated Eisenhower as the oldest president in 1981. [51]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The presidency of John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th President at noon January 20, 1961.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In his inauguration speech, he asked that all residents of the United States be active by stating, “Ask not what the country can give for you; ask what you can give for the country.”


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He called on the nations of the world to participate in fighting “the common enemies of mankind: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself”. [52]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He added: “Everything will not be completed in the first hundred days, nor in the first thousand days, nor in this reign, not even in our lifetime on this planet.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

But let us whimper it.”


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In closing, he expressed his desire to create greater internationalism: “Finally, whether you are American citizens or citizens of the world, give us the same high standard of strength and sacrifice as we ask you. “[52]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This speech reflected Kennedy's self-belief that his administration would print history in both domestic and foreign policy.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Differences between optimistic visions and the pressure of managing daily political realities at home and abroad will become one of the main tensions that continue to accompany the years of his reign. [54]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy structured a much different White House organization than the decision-making structure of former general Eisenhower, and he did not hesitate to discard Eisenhower's methods. [55]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy chose the organizational structure of the wheel, so all the spokespeople pursed on the president.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He is ready and willing to increase the number of quick decisions if needed.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He appointed experienced and inexperienced people as members of his cabinet.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

“We can learn our tasks together,” he said. [56]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There are some events when the president is too hasty to make a decision.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He once announced during a cabinet meeting without prior notice that Edward Lansdale would become Ambassador to South Vietnam, a decision that Kennedy later revoked after Foreign Minister Rusk responded. [57]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There was also an incident of Harris Wofford being summoned to the White House to take the oath without knowing what position he would hold. [58]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Being pressed by his economic advisers who requested that taxes be reduced, Kennedy immediately agreed to a balanced budget.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This decision was necessary in exchange for a vote to enlarge the membership of the House Rules Committee in order for the Democratic Party to obtain a majority vote in setting the legislative agenda. [59]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The president focused on upcoming and specific issues facing his administration.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He immediately expressed his impatience with pondering of deeper meanings.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Deputy national security adviser Walt Whitman Rostow once catapulted a harsh critique of the growth of communism, then cut Kennedy by asking, “What do you want from me today?” [60]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In May 1961, the press published the article that Interior Minister Stewart Udall had an oil executive embezzle a $100 donation from a fundraising event attended by oil and gas company bigwigs.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Udall demanded that his name used on the embezzlement file be removed. [61]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

One week earlier, Kennedy proposed that Congress tighten conflict-of-interest laws. [61]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In a news conference, Kenedy blamed campaign funding laws, not Udall. [61]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy claimed to have spoken to Udall and was content to hear his explanation. [61]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy stated that anyone who contributes to campaign funds should not expect to be rewarded. [62]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Udall denied wrongdoing and confirmed that the oil executive had misrepresented his intentions. [61]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The foreign policy of JMPL|350px|John F. Kennedy's foreign travel throughout his reign President Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by the United States' confrontation with the Soviet Union based on proxy rivalries in the early stages of the Cold War.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1961, Kennedy was eager to meet with Soviet Prime Minister Nikita Khrushchev.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The president also missteps by reacting aggressively to Khrushchev's routine speeches about Cold War confrontations in early 1961.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The speech was aimed at domestic listeners of the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His mistake instead added to the tension during the Vienna Meeting of June 1961. [63]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On his way to that high-level conference, Kennedy stopped in Paris to meet Charles de Gaulle.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

De Gaulle advised Kennedy against ignoring Khrushchev's abrasive style.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This French president is very nationalistic and suspects the influence of the United States in Europe.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Nevertheless, de Gaulle was appreciably amazed by the young president and his family.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy raised the impression of de Gaulle in his speech in Paris by saying he would be remembered as “the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris. “[64]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On June 4, 1961, the president met Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meeting in a state of anger and disappointment that he let Khrushchev play him, despite having been warned.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Khrushchev was personally fascinated with the president's intelligence, but considered him weak.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy did manage to convey the quintessence of the most sensitive issue for both, namely the treaty plan between Moscow and East Berlin.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He explained that any treaty that violated U.S. access rights to West Berlin would be considered an act of war. [65]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Shortly after the president came home.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Soviet Union announced its desire to sign a treaty with East Berlin that automatically violated the occupation rights of any third party in all sectors of the city.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Depressed and angry, Kennedy also predicted the only option for him was to prepare the United States for nuclear war.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He personally considered the likelihood of nuclear war breaking out was one to five. [66]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

A few weeks after the Vienna meeting, more than 20,000 people were displaced from East Berlin to the western sector in reaction to the Soviet Union's statement.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy began a series of intensive meetings on the subject of Berlin.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Dean Acheson recommended military deployments alongside NATO allies. [67]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his desire to add $3.25billion to the defence budget and 200,000 additional troops.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He also stated that an attack on West Berlin would be considered as much as an attack on the United States.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The speech received 85% of the people's approval. [68]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The following month, the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking all roads from East Berlin to West Berlin and building barbed wire fences throughout the city, then reinforced into the Berlin Wall.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy's initial response was to ignore it as long as free access from West Berlin to the East was allowed.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The plan changed after it became known that the citizens of West Berlin were not entrusting any more of their defense to the United States.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy dispatched Vice President Johnson and a number of military personnel to convoy across West Germany, including through Soviet checkpoints, to demonstrate that the U.S. commitment in West Berlin was continuing. [69]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy delivered a speech at Saint Anselm College on May 5, 1960 about the United States' stance in the Cold War.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The speech detailed how U.S. foreign policy is supposed to be applied to African countries.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He signaled support for modern African nationalism by saying, “We also used to set up a new nation by rebelling against the colonial government. “[70]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Cuba and the previous Eisenhower administration's Bay of Pigs Invasion created plans to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime in Cuba.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) led plan with U.S. military assistance was a raid into Cuba by counter-revolutionary forces made up of self-exiled, US-trained anti-Castro Cubans. [71] [72] These forces were led by CIA paramilitary officials.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The goal was to invade Cuba and heckle an uprising among the Cuban people in hopes of toppling Castro from his power. [73]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On April 17, 1961, Kennedy ordered an attack that would later be named the “Bay of Pigs Invasion”: “Brigade 2506" consisting of 1,500 U.S.-held Cubans landed on the island of Cuba.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There is no air aid from the United States.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Allen Dulles, director of the CIA, later stated that they thought the president would allow any action necessary for the success of the mission once the troops landed. [74]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On April 19, 1961, the Cuban government had captured or killed these alienated invaders, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate the release of 1,189 soldiers who survived.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

After 20 months, Cuba released them in exchange for $53million worth of food and medicine. [75]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This incident alarmed Castro with the U.S. and made him confident that sometime such an invasion would happen again. [76]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

According to biographer Richard Reeves, Kennedy focused more on the political impact of this plan than on its military considerations.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

If the mission fails, he believes this plan was made to defame him. [77]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Even so, he was willing to take responsibility by saying, “... our legs were kicked hard and we deserved it.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Yet we probably got a lesson from those failures. “[78]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In late 1961, the White House formed the “Special Group (Augmented)”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Group was led by Robert Kennedy and involved Edward Lansdale, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, and others.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The group's goal was to overthrow Castro through espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics, but it was never implemented. [79]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Cuban Missile Crisis On October 14, 1962, the CIA's U-2 spy plane took photos of medium-range ballistic missile sites built in Cuba by the Soviets.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The photos were shown to Kennedy dated October 16.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Consensus was reached that the missile was offensive and had a nuclear threat. [80]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the US attacked the premises, the aftermath would be nuclear war with the Soviet Union, but if the US did nothing, the result would be the increased threat of close-range nuclear weapons.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The US will also look less committed to defence in the western hemisphere.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Privately, Kennedy felt the need to find a solution with Khruschev, particularly after the Vienna meeting. [81]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

More than one-third of the members of the National Security Council (NSC) proposed a sudden airstrike against the missile site, but some members felt this would build an image of “the opposite of Pearl Harbor”. [82]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There was also a reaction from the international community (which was questioned in secret) that the attack plan was excessive because the US had already placed its missiles in Turkey during the Eisenhower administration.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There is no guarantee that this attack is 100% effective. [83]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Approving a majority vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided to launch a marine quarantine.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On October 22, he sent a message to Khrushchev and announced the decision on TV. [84]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off the coast of Cuba accounting for 24 October.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Organization of American States is in full support of the disarmament of the missile.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The president exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev without any repercussions. [85]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

United Nations Secretary-General U Thant requested that the two parties revoke their decision and exercise restraint.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Khrushchev agreed, but Kennedy disagreed. [86]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

One Soviet-flagged ship was stopped and boarded.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On 28 October, Khrushchev agreed to vacate the missile site according to UN inspection. [87]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The U.S. publicly promised not to invade Cuba and secretly agreed to revoke its missiles in Turkey which were then out of date and were replaced with UGM-27 Polaris missile-charged submarines. [88]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This crisis is the closest point the world has to nuclear war.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In the end, the “humanitarian side” of these two leaders prevailed. [89]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Cuban missile crisis improved the United States' image of resolve and its presidential credibility.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy's immediate positive assessment rose from 66% to 77%. [90]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Latin America and communism By arguing that “whoever makes peaceful revolution impossible will make hard revolution impossible," [91] Kennedy sought to reduce the perception of the threat of communism in Latin America by founding the Alliance for Progress.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The agency sent aid to several countries and demanded higher human rights standards in the region. [92]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He worked closely with Puerto Rico Governor Luis Muñoz Marín in the development of the Alliance of Progress, then began planning for the autonomy of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

When the president took office, the Eisenhower administration through the CIA was already drawing up plans for the assassination of Castro in Cuba and Rafael Trujillo in the Dominican Republic.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy personally instructed the CIA that such a plan should include a plausible rebuttal by the U.S. The plan risked its image in society. [93]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In June 1961, the leader of the Dominican Republic was assassinated.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

A few days after that event, Deputy Secretary of State Chester Bowles made the U.S. population respond cautiously to this murder.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called Bowles “a cowardly reliability” directly before him. [94]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

However, a number of historians criticize Kennedy for holding double standards around human rights and political freedoms.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

For example, Noam Chomsky found evidence that the coup in Guatemala of 1963 that derailed general elections was aided all-out by the Kennedy administration.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Chomsky argued Kennedy supported this coup because the main policy proposal carried by Jacobo Arbenz, a frontrunner in the election, was a heavily populist land reform law and unfriendly to the interests of the U.S.-owned United Fruit Company. [95]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Other experts argue that Kennedy and his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, supported a military regime that carried out a brutal counter-insurgent campaign in the 1960s and killed tens of thousands of civilians. [96]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Peace Corps One of Kennedy's first decisions as president was to have Congress form a Peace Corps.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His half-brother, Sargent Shriver, became its first director. [97]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Through this program, United States citizens voluntarily help countries retreat in education, agriculture, health, and development.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the following year. [98]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Since 1961, more than 200,000 U.S. citizens have joined the Peace Corps and worked in 139 countries. [99] [100] Southeast Asia When delivering the taklimate to Kennedy, Eisenhower asserted that the communist threat in Southeast Asia needed to take precedence.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Eisenhower considered Laos a “bottle cap” of regional threats.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In March 1961, Kennedy proposed a policy change from supporting a “free” Laos to a “neutral” Laos, personally signaling that Vietnam, not Laos, should be considered the noose rope of the United States to hinder the spread of communism in the region. [101]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In May 1961, he sent Lyndon Johnson to meet South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Johnson guaranteed Diem that his country would receive much help to reinforce forces against the communists. [102]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy announced a change in policy from support to cooperation with Diem to defeat communism in South Vietnam. [103]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy initially followed in Eisenhower's footsteps, namely by using limited military action to combat communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh. [104]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He continued the policy of providing political, economic, and military assistance to the South Vietnamese government. [104]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In late 1961, the Viet Cong began to strengthen its existence, beginning by seizing the provincial capital of Phuoc Vinh. [105]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy added to the number of helicopters, military advisers, and unofficial U.S. Special Forces in the area, but he reluctantly ordered a massive army deployment. [106] [107] In late 1961, President Kennedy sent Roger Hilsman, director of the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research, to assess the state of affairs in Vietnam.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

There Hilsman met Sir Robert Thompson, head of the British Advisory Mission for South Vietnam, and the concept of the Strategic Hamlet Programme was formed.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The program was approved by Kennedy and South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The program was enacted in early 1962 and involved forced relocation, village confinement, and the breakdown of rural South Vietnam into new villages whose peasants isolated from the influence of Communist insurgents.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

It is hoped that these new villages protect farmers and strengthen the relationship of citizens and the central government.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

However, in November 1963 the program was weakened and officially terminated in 1964. [6]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Early 1962, Kennedy officially authorized increased involvement through the ratification of the “National Security Action Memorandum— Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)”. [108]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Secretary of State Dean Rusk strongly supports U.S. involvement. [109]”


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Operation Ranch Hand”, a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began in all South Vietnamese road suburbs. [110] [lower-alpha 2] In April 1963, Kennedy assessed the situation in Vietnam: “We have no intention of settling in Vietnam.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His society hates us.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

They will dump our people at any time.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

But I do not want to give up the area to the communists and force the people of the United States to vote for me again”. [111]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy faced a crisis in Vietnam in July.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Although U.S. aid was augmented, the South Vietnamese military was only marginally effective in resistance to pro-communist Viet Cong forces. On August 21, just after new U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. arrived, Diem and his younger brother Ngo Dinh Nhu ordered CIA-funded and CIA-trained South Vietnamese troops dampen Buddhist demonstrations.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This action added to suspicions of a coup plot to topple Diem and (or by) his younger brother, Nhu. [112]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Lodge was instructed to have Diem and Nhu step down and leave the country.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Diem was unwilling to follow Lodge's advice. [113]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Cable 243 (DEPTEL 243), dated August 24, came out whose contents stated that Washington could allow no more of Nhu's actions, and Lodge was told to pressure Diem to fire Nhu.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

If Diem refuses, the United States will seek an alternative leader. [114]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Lodge said the only possible option was to let South Vietnamese generals overthrow Diem and Nhu as originally planned. [115]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Later that week, Kennedy learned from Lodge that the Diem administration, as Nhu assisted France, might be secretly cooperating with the communists—and had United States citizens leave the country.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Warrants were spread to Saigon and Washington to “annihilate all coup wire”. [116]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At the same time, the first official Vietnam anti-war sentiment was raised by the U.S. chaplain of the Ministers' Vietnam Committee. [117]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The September White House meeting was filled with assorted assessment results.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The president gets the new assessment report after a personal examination on the ground by the Department of Defense (Gen. Victor Krulak) and the State Department (Joseph Mendenhall).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Krulak said that the military battle against the communists was ongoing and won, while Mendenhall stated that U.S. influence was waning in South Vietnam.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy responded by asking, “Did you guys visit the same country?”


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The president did not know that the two were at odds to the point that they did not talk to each other on the flight home. [118]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In October 1963, the president appointed Defense Secretary McNamara and General Maxwell D. Taylor to conduct a mission to Vietnam for the sake of harmonizing information and drafting policy.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

McNamara Taylor's mission assignment was to “emphasize the importance of seeking the basis for differences in U.S. representative reports in Vietnam”. [119]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In a meeting with McNamara, Taylor, and Lodge, Diem again refused to agree to the rules the U.S. wanted, resulting in McNamara losing his optimism for Diem. [120]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Taylor and McNamara also informed the Vice President of Vietnam, Nguyen Ngoc Tho (a potential Diem replacement candidate in the event of a coup), that Taylor's information surrounding military successes in the countryside was incorrect. [121]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

As Kennedy insisted, his mission report included recommendations of an army withdrawal timetable: 1,000 men by the end of the year and the full withdrawal of 1965, something considered a strategic fantasy by the NSC. [122]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The final report stated that the military was making progress, that Diem's increasingly unpopular administration was vulnerable to a coup, and that the assassination of Diem or Nhu was possible. [123]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In late October, the intelligence wire again reported that a coup against Diem's government was imminent.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The source, Vietnamese General Duong Van Minh (nicknamed the “Big Minh”), wanted to know the U.S. position Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer coup assistance in secret, excluding assassinations, and guaranteeing a rebuttal from the U.S. [124]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

That same month, as the coup approached, Kennedy ordered all wire diverted to his office.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

A policy of “control and disconnection” was put in place to guarantee the president control of all U.S. response and disconnect it from his file footprint. [125]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On November 1, 1963, several South Vietnamese generals led “Big Minh” overthrew Diem's government, capturing and killing Diem and Nhu.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy was shocked by the deaths of the two men.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He later learned that Minh had requested CIA field officials grant safe access out of Vietnam for Diem and Nhu, but was told that a new plane could be brought in within 24 hours.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Minh responds that he was unable to protect them for that long. [126]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

News of the coup initially raised belief—in both America and South Vietnam—that the war could be won. [127]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

McGeorge Bundy designed the National Security Action Memo to be presented to Kennedy his cousin from Dallas.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The memo reemphasized the solution of the pounding of communism in Vietnam through military and economic assistance and the expansion of operations up to Laos and Cambodia.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Before leaving for Dallas, Kennedy informed Michael Forrestal that “after the beginning of the year... [it wants] in-depth research into all possible options, including how to get out of there... to review this in its entirety from the ground up”.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

When asked about the president's intent, Forrestal replied, “it's a devil-worshiping affair. “[128]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Historians have yet to agree on whether Vietnam would have heated had Kennedy survived and been elected again in 1964. [129]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The statement that Defense Secretary McNamara made in the film “The Fog of War” that Kennedy considered strongly withdrawing soldiers from Vietnam after the 1964 election enlivened this debate. [130]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The film also contains footage of Lyndon Johnson's statement that Kennedy planned to withdraw troops, actions that Johnson disapproved of. [131]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy signed National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 263 on October 11 ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of that year. [132] [133] This kind of action requires rescinding the policy, but Kennedy did not move in a hurry after making a speech about world peace at American University dated June 10, 1963. [134]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

When Robert Kennedy was questioned in 1964 about what his older brother would do if South Vietnam was on the brink of defeat, he replied, “We will deal with it when we experience it. “[135]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decisions had been made regarding Vietnam. [136]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

U.S. involvement in the region increased until Lyndon Johnson, his successor, directly deployed regular U.S. military forces to fight in the Vietnam War. [137] [138] After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson authorized NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This document overturned Kennedy's decision to withdraw 1,000 troops and reaffirmed aid policy for South Vietnam. [139] [140] American University speech On June 10, 1963, Kennedy delivered a graduation speech at American University, Washington, D.C., “to discuss a topic too often ignored and its truth rarely seen—but it is the most important topic on the face of the earth: world peace...


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

I take the theme of peace because war has a new form... in a time when a single nuclear weapon had an explosive force ten times greater than all the strength of the allied forces in the Second World War... a time when the deadly toxins produced by nuclear reactions would spread by wind and air and land and seed to the furthest ends of the world and generations of unborn humans... because of that, I take the theme of peace as the last rational solution that rational humans have... world peace, like the peace of society, does not necessitate Everyone loves their neighbors—they just need to coexist with mutual tolerance... all of our problems are man-made—therefore the resolution also comes from humans.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

And man can be as big as anything he wants. “[141]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The president also made two announcements—that the Soviets wanted to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty and the U.S. was delaying plans for atmospheric tests. [142]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

West Berlin speech In 1963, Germany experienced vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east, French nationalism de Gaulle to the west, and the retirement of West German Chancellor Adenauer. [143]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On June 26, Kennedy made a speech in West Berlin which reaffirmed the commitment of the United States to Germany and criticized communism.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His speech received an overwhelming response from the attendees. [144]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failure of communism: “Freedom has many obstacles, and democracy is not perfect.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

But we don't need to build walls to guarantee the loyalty of our people, prevent them from leaving us.”


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The speech became known for the phrase “Ich bin ein Berliner” (“I am a citizen of Berlin”).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

A million people listened directly to Kennedy's speech on the streets at the time. [144]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He then quoted Ted Sorensen: “We will never have a day like this in our lifetime. “[145]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Israel In 1960, Kennedy said: “Israel will survive and succeed.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This country is a manifestation of hope and the home of the brave.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This country cannot be broken by setbacks and humbled by successes.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This country carries the shield of democracy and respects the sword of freedom”. [146]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Not long after becoming president, Kennedy began fostering security relations with Israel and he became the founder of the United States-Israel military alliance continued by subsequent presidents.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy ended the arms embargo imposed by the Eisenhower and Truman administrations.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Calling Israel's protection a moral and national commitment, he became the first to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' (he told Golda Meir) between the U.S. and Israel. [147]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy extended his first unofficial security guarantee to Israel in 1962.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Since 1963, he was the first U.S. president to authorize U.S. sales of advanced weapons to Israel (MIM-23 Hawk) as well as provide diplomatic assistance to Israeli policies opposed by its neighboring Arab states, such as the waterworks project on the Jordan River. [148]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

As a result of the formation of this security alliance, Kennedy created tensions with the Israeli government around the production of nuclear material at Dimona which he believed could give rise to a nuclear arms race in the Middle East.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

After the existence of the nuclear plant was disproved by the Israeli government, David Ben-Gurion stated in his speech at the Israeli Knesset of November 21, 1960 that the purpose of the nuclear plant at Beersheba was “research into the flora and fauna of the arid region and desert”. [149]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

When Gurion met Kennedy in New York, he claimed that Dimona was developed to provide nuclear power for desalinization and peaceful purposes “temporarily”. [149]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

After Kennedy wrote that he was skeptical and stated in his letter to Ben-Gurion of May 1963 that United States aid to Israel could be compromised if trusted information about Israel's nuclear program did not exist, Ben-Gurion again guaranteed that Dimona be developed for peaceful purposes.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Israeli government is resisting United States pressure to open its nuclear facilities to be inspected by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In 1962, the U.S. and Israeli governments agreed to annual inspections.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The science and technology attaché at the U.S. embassy in Tel Aviv said that part of the Dimona facility was temporarily closed to mislead United States scientists when they visited there. [150]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

According to Seymour Hersh, Israel built a fake control room to show to United States envoys.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The Israeli lobbyist, Abe Feinberg, said that, “It was my job to keep it secret from the [inspections] that Kennedy demanded. “[150]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Hersh asserted that the inspections were conducted in such a way that it “warrants the whole procedure more than a cover-up for the truth as the President and his senior advisers must understand: the United States inspection team needs to schedule his visit in advance and inevitably must be accepted by Israel.”. [151]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Marc Trachtenberg argues: “Despite knowing a lot about Israeli activity, Kennedy chose to take it as satisfactory evidence that Israel is compliant with the non-proliferation policy of the United States. “[152]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The United States leading the inspection team said that the primary purpose of the inspection was to find “unending ways in taking action against Israel's nuclear weapons program”. [153]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

By March 1965, Rodger Davies, director of the Office of Near Eastern Affairs at the State Department, reported that Israel was developing nuclear weapons.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He said that Israel's target for achieving its nuclear capability was 1968—69. [154]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On May 1, 1968, Deputy Secretary of State Nicholas Katzenbach informed President Johnson that Dimona was producing plutonium in sufficient quantities to produce two bombs annually.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The State Department argues if Israel wants weapons, the country should accept international oversight of its nuclear program. [150]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Dimona was never placed under IAEA supervision.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Any efforts that forced Israel to comply with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in the US arms supply contract continued until 1968. [155]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Iraq In 1963, the Kennedy administration assisted in a coup against the Iraqi government led by Abdul Karim Qasim.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Five years earlier, Qasim overthrew an Iraqi kingdom allied with the West. [156]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Dated February 8, 1963, Kennedy received a memo containing: “We will make an unofficial friendly sign once we know who to talk to, and immediately acknowledge shortly after we are assured that they will continue to accompany us.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The CIA has a full report on this plan, yet I doubt their or Great Britain's claim of contribution. “[157]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The CIA once planned to take down Qasim, but it was not accomplished. [158]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

This new government led by President Abdul Salam Arif and dominated by the Ba'ath Party (alongside a coalition of Nasserists and Iraqi nationalists) used a list—which the CIA likely provided—contained predictably communist and left-wing parties to obliterate many of Iraq's educated elites on systematically. [159] [160] After fighting for power with Prime Minister Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr who was Ba'athist, Arif ejected the Ba'ath Party from government. [161]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Former CIA official James Chritchfield cast doubt on his charge that the CIA offered “active assistance” for the perpetrators of the coup.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He confessed that although the CIA was “fully informed” about the first coup, the agency was “shocked” to see the power struggle that occurred thereafter. [162]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Ireland On his four-day visit to his ancestral hometown of Ireland in June 1963, [163] Kennedy received a prize of badge of honour from the Chief Herald of Ireland and honorary doctorates from the National University of Ireland and Trinity College, Dublin. [164]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He visited the cabin at Dunganstown, near New Ross, County Wexford, where his ancestors lived before moving to America. [165]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

He also became the first foreign leader to make a speech in the Oireachtas (Irish parliament). [166]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

On 22 December 2006, the Irish Department of Justice released police documents indicating an increase in security after Kennedy was made the target of three assassination threats on his visit to Ireland. [167]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Complicated by the long-term danger of radioactive contamination and proliferation of nuclear weapons, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty originally proposed during Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. [168]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In the Vienna meeting of June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy made informal approval against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing its nuclear weapons that September as well.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The United States responded to it by conducting testing five days later. [169]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Not long after that, new U.S. satellites began sending photos confirming that the Soviet Union was behind the U.S. in the arms race. [170]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Even so, the larger U.S. nuclear force was worth little if the Soviet Union still considered itself to be equal. [171]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

In July 1963, Kennedy sent Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets. [172]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

His opening trial involved Khrushchev who later sent Andrei Gromkyo as a Soviet representative.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

It was increasingly clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be enforced, largely due to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections that could prove compliance. [173]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Eventually, the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union became early signatories to this limited treaty.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The treaty prohibits atomic testing on land, air, or undersea, except underground.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

The U.S. Senate ratified it and Kennedy authorized it in October 1963.


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

France immediately declared its country free to continue the development and testing of its nuclear defenses. [174]


Question: what year was Mary Celeste made?

John F. Kennedy

Kennedy's domestic policy called his domestic program “New Frontier” (New Frontier).